Name: Bierneza, David John D.

Date: 10/22/2021
Professor: Prof. Andrea Azuelo

Running Water: Stream flow, Base level, Stream Valleys and Dynamic
External Forces

A stream is a body of water that flows on Earth’s surface. The word stream is often used
interchangeably with river, though rivers usually describe larger streams.

Streams provide many benefits to humans. Besides providing drinking water and irrigation for
crops, streams wash away waste and can provide electricity through hydropower. People often
use streams recreationally for activities such as swimming, fishing, and boating. Streams also
provide important habitat for wildlife.

Streams need two things to exist: gravity and water. When precipitation falls onto the ground,
some water trickles into groundwater, but much of it flows downhill across the surface
as runoff and collects into streams.

The topographic long profile or grade of an average stream is concave-upwards . At

their headwaters, the grade of a stream is usually steep. As streams get closer to sea-level, the
angle of the grade becomes more gently sloping. Near the mouth of the stream, the grade
becomes almost flat. The grade of a stream develops over thousands and sometimes millions of
years. It is an equilibrium process that attempts to reduce topographic bumps in the long profile
through erosion and deposition. This process is without end as crustal uplift, due to plate
tectonics, is always modifying the topographic nature of the Earth's landscape.
Upper course - this is where the river starts and is usually an upland area. Slopes are steep - this
can increase the velocity of the river after heavy rainfall, when discharge is high. The river
channel is narrow and shallow here. The river's load is large in the upper course, as it hasn't been
broken down by erosion yet. When discharge is high vertical erosion erodes the river bed and
larger sediments are transported by traction.

Mid-course - here the gradient becomes less steep. The river channel gets deeper and wider as
the bed and banks are eroded. The sediment load of the river gets smaller in size.
Small meanders and a small floodplain can be found in this part of the river.

Lower course - the final course of the river is where the land is a lot flatter. The river's load is
fine sediment, as erosion has broken down the rocks. The river channel is at its widest and
deepest as it flows towards its mouth. Deposition is the main process in this part of the river,
which creates large floodplains and deltas.

STREAM FLOW
Water within streams can come from many different locations, including the ground below the
stream, melting snow or rainfall. These different sources can influence how the water flows
within the stream, especially the speed of the water. Streamflow can also be influenced by what
is physically found within the stream. Objects in the stream can influence the speed and direction
of the flowing water.
Streamflow is often characterized by the water velocity, which is the speed at which something
moves, and the direction of the flow. Based on these characteristics, water in steams can be
classified as laminar, turbulent, helical or overbank flow.

● Laminar flow - water flow in the stream is not altered in its direction. Water flows as
parallel molecular streams.
● Turbulent flow - water flows as discrete eddies and vortices. Caused by channel
topography and friction.
● Helical flow - spiral flow in a stream. Caused by channel shape. Meandering channels
cause this type of flow. Helical flow has an important role in sediment transport
and deposition, and in the creation of point bars.

Finally, flow is not always contained within the stream channel. During periods of high stream
discharge overbank flow may occur. Overbank flow or flooding involves the spilling of water
over the stream's banks and onto the floodplain.
BASE LEVEL
A stream of water stops flowing when it reaches the lowest level is called base level. In
hydrology and geomorphology, the term base level is the limit below which flow of water cannot
erode. In other words, the stream of water cannot cut deeper than its base level; therefore, its
energy goes into cutting its banks sideways. As a result, the stream meanders, gradually
widening its valley. For example- If river drained its water to the sea, then its base level is sea
level. If lake enters a river, then the river level acts as a temporary base level for all the parts of
the lake.

STREAM VALLEY
Next time you see a stream or river, take a minute and observe the water. Look at how fast the
water is moving, the direction of the water, and how it has shaped the landscape around the
waterway. Running water is very powerful and has the ability to drastically change the landscape
around it. Most changes to the land are due to erosion, which is the movement of broken-down
rock or soil from one place to another. The running water of a stream helps move particles from
their original location to new areas.
Valleys are depressed areas of land–scoured and washed out by the conspiring forces of gravity,
water, and ice. Some hang; others are hollow. They all take the form of a "U" or "V."

Rivers and streams make most primary valley cuts, carving steep-walled sides and a narrow floor
that from afar looks like the letter "V." The gradient of the river—how quickly it drops—helps
define the steepness of the sides and the width of the floor. Mountain valleys, for example, tend
to have near-vertical walls and a narrow channel, but out on the plains, the slopes are shallow
and the channel is wide.

The erosion and transport of rock and sediment by a stream defines the shape and extent of
its valley. V‐shaped valleys and wide valleys with flat floors are the most common varieties.
Downcutting. A valley is the result of downcutting, whereby a stream's channel erodes directly
downward. As downcutting continues, erosion and mass wasting begin to work on the exposed,
vertical sides of the channel, eroding them into slopes and widening the valley
Dynamic External Forces

Water resources face a host of serious threats, all caused primarily by human activity. They
include pollution, climate change, urban growth, and landscape changes such as deforestation.
Each of them has its own specific impact, usually directly on ecosystems and in turn on water
resources.

Damming – Obstructing the flow of a river or stream for energy production Dams can obstruct
the path of migratory fish and disrupt the life cycle of many different aquatic organisms. , to
create a lake, or to control the levels of the water. Damming can be a great renewable resource
for power, but it may destroy river ecosystems downstream. Damming can also be an effective
flood control measure to ensure towns and neighborhoods are safe.
Channelizing – Modifying a stream or river into a pattern other than what may be its natural
meandering. This can have a major effect on floodplains.
River channelization involves modification, usually by engineering methods, for the purposes of
flood control, drainage, navigation, and prevention of erosion.
the river channel is deepened and widened by dredging, which destroys benthic habitat. In the
latter, the streambed is sometimes straightened and “paved” to increase the capacity of the
stream to transport water downstream. These processes change the flow regime of the stream,
favoring species that tolerate faster, turbulent currents, and excluding others.

Dumping – Discarding materials into a river. Any chemical, such as car oil or antifreeze, poured
down a storm drain will flow directly into the river.
illegal waste has hazardous substances and chemicals that could cause damage to the soil, the air,
and the surrounding groundwater. This water can be carried to water sources that is used for
drinking. Improper disposal of materials can pollute natural habitats and cause death to life in a
wide area.

PARTS OF A RIVER
Headwaters- All rivers have a starting point where water begins its flow. This source is
called a headwater. The headwater can come from rainfall or snowmelt in mountains, but
it can also come from groundwater or form at the edge of a lake or large pond.
A waterfall is a river or other body of water's steep fall over a rocky ledge into a plunge
pool below. Waterfalls are also called cascades. . A stream's velocity increases as it nears
a waterfall, increasing the amount of erosion taking place. The movement of water at the
top of a waterfall can erode rocks to be very flat and smooth. Rushing water and sediment
topple over the waterfall, eroding the plunge pool at the base.The process of erosion, the
wearing away of earth, plays an important part in the formation of waterfalls. Waterfalls
themselves also contribute to erosion because of the hydraulic action or the force of the
water as it goes down.

A tributary is a freshwater stream that feeds into a larger stream or river. The larger, or
parent, river is called the mainstem. The point where a tributary meets the mainstem is
called the confluence. Tributaries, also called affluents, do not flow directly into the
ocean.
Most large rivers are formed from many tributaries. Each tributary drains a different
watershed, carrying runoff from that area. Each tributary's watershed makes up the larger
watershed of the mainstem. A great example is the pulangi river joining rio grande
Mindanao or Mindanao river.

The opposite of a tributary is a distributary. A distributary is a stream that branches off

and flows apart from the mainstem of a stream or river. The process is called river
bifurcation. 

A marsh is a type of wetland, an area of land where water covers ground for long periods
of time. Unlike swamps, which are dominated by trees, marshes are usually treeless and
dominated by grasses and other herbaceous plants. Marsh grasses and other herbaceous
plants grow in the waterlogged but rich soil deposited by rivers. The plants roots bind to
the muddy soil and slow the water flow, encouraging the spread of the marsh. These
watery pastures are rich in biodiversity. Marshes are also common in deltas, where rivers
empty into a larger body of water. Although all are waterlogged and dominated by
herbaceous plants, they each have unique ecosystems.

An oxbow lake starts out as a curve, or meander, in a river. A lake forms as the river

finds a different, shorter, course. The meander becomes an oxbow lake along the side of
the river.
Oxbow lakes usually form in flat, low-lying plains close to where the river empties into
another body of water. On these plains, rivers often have wide meanders.
Meanders that form oxbow lakes have two sets of curves: one curving away from the
straight path of the river and one curving back. Erosion and deposition eventually cause a
new channel to be cut through the small piece of land at the narrow end of the meander.
The river makes a shortcut. Oxbow lakes are the remains of the bend in the river.
There is no stream or spring feeding the lake, and it doesnt have a natural outlet. Oxbow
lakes often become swamps or bogs, and they often dry up as their water evaporates.
Oxbow lakes can be rich wildlife habitats
 Meander is the curve of the river. The formation of a meander. As the river erodes
laterally, to the right side then the left side, it forms large bends, and then horseshoe-like
loops called meanders . The formation of meanders is due to
both deposition and erosion and meanders gradually migrate downstream.
A floodplain (or floodplain) is a generally flat area of land next to a river or stream. It
stretches from the banks of the river to the outer edges of the valley.
A floodplain consists of two parts. The first is the main channel of the river itself, called
the floodway. Floodways can sometimes be seasonal, meaning the channel is dry for part
of the year. Beyond the floodway is the flood fringe. The flood fringe extends from the
outer banks of the floodway to the bluff lines of a river valley. Bluff lines, also called
valley walls, mark the area where the valley floor begins to rise into bluffs
There are two major processes involved in the natural development of floodplains:
erosion and aggradation. The erosion of a floodplain describes the process in which
earth is worn away by the movement of a floodway. Aggradation (or alluviation) of a
floodplain describes the process in which earthen material increases as the floodway
deposits sediment. A river erodes a floodplain as it meanders, or curves from side to side.

Deltas are wetlands that form as rivers empty their water and sediment into another body
of water, such as an ocean, lake, or another river. Although very uncommon, deltas can
also empty into land. A river moves more slowly as it nears its mouth, or end. This causes
sediment, solid material carried downstream by currents, to fall to the river bottom. As
silt builds up, new land is formed. This is the delta. A delta extends a river's mouth into
the body of water into which it is emptying. Like most wetlands, deltas are
incredibly diverse and ecologically important ecosystems. Deltas absorb runoff from
both floods (from rivers) and storms (from lakes or the ocean). Deltas also filter water as
it slowly makes its way through the delta's distributary network. This can reduce the
impact of pollution flowing from upstream. 
Deltas are also important wetland habitats. Plants such as lilies and hibiscus grow in
deltas, as well as herbs such as wort, which are used in traditional medicines. Many
animals are indigenous to the shallow, shifting waters of a delta. Fish, crustaceans such as
oysters, birds, insects, and even apex predators such as tigers and bears can be part of a
delta's ecosystem. Not all rivers form deltas. For a delta to form, the flow of a river must
be slow and steady enough for silt to be deposited and build up.
An estuary is an area where a freshwater river or stream meets the ocean. When
freshwater and seawater combine, the water becomes brackish, or slightly salty. An
estuary may also be called a bay, lagoon, sound, or slough.
Water continually circulates into and out of an estuary. Tides create the largest flow of
saltwater, while river mouths create the largest flow of freshwater.
When dense, salty seawater flows into an estuary, it has an estuarine current. High tides
can create estuarine currents. Saltwater is heavier than freshwater, so estuarine currents
sink and move near the bottom of the estuary. These are also habitats that include oyster
reefs, coral reefs, rocky shores, submerged aquatic vegetation, marshes, and mangroves.
There are also different animals that live in each of these different habitats. Fish,
shellfish, and migratory birds are just a few of the animals that can live in an estuary.

Mouth is the place where a river enters a lake, larger river, or the ocean. The mouth of a
river is often a good place for fishing. Along with the alluvium, a river flushes many
different species into the lake or sea. Many major port cities have been built at river
mouths. The abundant wildlife and natural transportation often create dynamic harbors
and ports
A long profile is a line representing the river from its source (where it starts) to
its mouth (where it meets the sea). A river changes with increasing distance downstream
from its source towards its mouth. It moves through its upper course, to its mid-
course and finally into its lower course.

RIVER PROCESSES

Hydraulic action - This is the sheer power of the water as it smashes against the river
banks. Air becomes trapped in the cracks in the rock of the river bank and bed, and
causes the rock to break apart.
Abrasion - When pebbles grind along the river bank and bed in a sand-papering effect.
Attrition - When rocks that the river is carrying knock against each other. They break
apart to become smaller and more rounded.
Solution - When the water dissolves certain types of rocks, eg limestone.
References:

Lutgens, F. K., Tarbuck, E. J., & Tasa, D. G. (2016). Foundations of earth science (8th

ed.). Pearson.
Plummer, Charles C., McGeary, David, Carlson, Diane H. (2005). Physical Geology.
McGraw Hill Co., Inc.
Angelier, E. (2019). Ecology of streams and rivers. CRC Press.
Giller, S. and B. Malmqvist. 1998. The Biology of Streams and Rivers. Oxford
University Press, Oxford. Pp. 296.