The United Nations World Water Development Report 2023

Partnerships and
cooperation for water
Facts, Figures and Action Examples
 The state of the world’s freshwater The global urban population facing water scarcity is
projected to increase from 933 million (one third of global
resources urban population) in 2016 to 1.7–2.4 billion people (one third
Globally, water use has been increasing by roughly 1% per year to nearly half of global urban population) in 2050, with India
over the last 40 years (Aquastat, n.d.). The bulk of this increase projected to be the most severely affected (He et al., 2021).
is concentrated in middle- and lower-income countries,
particularly in emerging economies (Ritchie and Roser, 2017). Twenty years ago, an estimated 1.6 billion people
lived under conditions of economic water scarcity
A combination of population growth, socio-economic (Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in
development and changing consumption patterns has driven Agriculture, 2007), and it remains unclear whether this
this trend in use. Regions with the largest water withdrawals number has gone up or down. Currently, about 25% of the
per capita have been Northern America and Central Asia global croplands are under agricultural economic water
(FAO, 2022). scarcity, where the lack of irrigation is due to limited
institutional and economic capacity instead of hydrologic
Groundwater provides half of the volume of water withdrawn
constraints (Rosa et al., 2020).
for domestic uses globally and around 25% of all water
withdrawn for irrigation. Hotspots of groundwater depletion According to World Bank (2016), water scarcity, exacerbated
are found around the world, most often in areas with intensive by climate change, could cost some regions up to 6%
groundwater withdrawals for irrigation or to supply large cities of their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by 2050 due to
(United Nations, 2022). water-related impacts on agriculture, health and incomes,
potentially spurring migration and even conflict.
Future trends in demand are difficult to predict accurately.
Burek et al. (2016) estimated that overall global demand for
water will continue to increase at an annual rate of about 1%,
resulting in an increase of between 20 to 30% by 2050, with a
margin of error of more than 50%.
Water quality and ecosystems
The evolution of water demand is highly location-specific, Water quality data remain sparse, especially at the
reflecting shifting use patterns across the three major water global level, due in large part to weak monitoring and
use sectors – municipalities, industries and agriculture. reporting capacity. This is especially true in many
Real growth in water demand will be highly dependent upon of the least developed countries in Asia and Africa
whether (or not) measures to improve water use efficiency are (United Nations, 2021).
implemented across these different sectors.
Low-, middle- and high-income countries all show signs of
Water availability per person varies significantly by region, but risks related to water quality. Poor ambient water quality
has been decreasing in all worldwide as a function of population in low-income countries is often related to low levels of
growth rates. The decline in global per capita internal renewable wastewater treatment (WWAP, 2017), whereas in higher-
water resources (IRWRs) was about 20% between 2000 and income countries runoff from agriculture is a relatively more
2018; with a greater change in countries with the lowest per serious problem (UNEP, 2021a). The release of hazardous
capita IRWRs, which are often located in Sub-Saharan Africa chemicals from industry still occurs across all continents,
(41%), Central Asia (30%), Western Asia (29%) and Northern and emerging pollutants, including microplastics and
Africa (26%). Europe was the region showing the smallest pharmaceuticals, remain a growing concern (WWAP, 2017;
decline, with 3% (FAO, 2022). United Nations, 2021).

Global freshwater withdrawal was about 3,800 km3/year Freshwater ecosystems are among the most threatened in
in 2017 (United Nations, 2021; Aquastat, n.d.), roughly 10% the world (Vári et al., 2022). A great majority of indicators
of renewable water resources availability. But this global of ecosystems and biodiversity have been experiencing
statistic is particularly misleading as it hides real problems rapid deterioration across the globe as a result of multiple
related to local or regional physical water stress (WRI, human drivers. For example, 75% of the land surface has
2019), a term used to describe water use as a proportion of been significantly altered, with over 85% of natural wetlands
water availability. Physical water stress is determined by a area lost. Since 1970, land use change has had the largest
combination of factors, including surface and/or groundwater relative negative impact on both terrestrial and freshwater
availability (which can be greatly influenced by varying ecosystems (IPBES, 2019).
climatic conditions), ecological requirements, and human
The loss of environmental services and biodiversity is
abstractions.
expected to continue as natural landscapes are lost to
Between 2.2 and 3.2 billion people lived under water stress for at cultivated land (UNEP, 2019). How to maintain sustainable
least 1 month per year in 2010, corresponding to 32% and 46% of levels of production while avoiding further damage to the
the world’s population at the time. Around 80% of people living natural resources and the provision of ecosystem services
under water stress lived in Asia; in particular, northeast China, as will remain a central question in global debates on the
well as India and Pakistan (Vanham et al., 2021). future of food, water and agriculture (FAO, 2022).

2 The United Nations World Water Development Repor t 2023 Par tnerships and cooperation for water
Extreme events important differences in water stress levels were evident at
country and major basin level. On average, 10% of the global
Over the period 2000–2019, floods are reported to have caused
population lives in countries with high or critical water stress,
US$650 billion in economic losses, affecting 1.65 billion people
which significant impacts water access and availability for
and resulting in over 100,000 deaths. Over the same period,
personal needs (FAO/UN-Water, 2021b).
droughts affected another 1.43 billion people, with recorded
estimated losses of nearly US$130 billion. Combined, floods and Water management and transboundary cooperation (SDG
droughts accounted for over 75% of all disasters due to natural Target 6.5): According to the latest indicator status report
hazards affecting people (CRED/UNDRR, 2020). (UNEP, 2021b), while most countries have made some
progress, the global rate of progress on integrated water
Over the period 1985–2015, flood frequency has increased at
resources management (IWRM) implementation needs
both global and latitudinal scales, with floods in the tropics
to double to approach the target. None of the four IWRM
quadrupling since 2000, compared to a 2.5-fold increase in
dimensions are expected to be fully implemented by all
the north mid-latitudes (Najibi and Devineni, 2018). According
countries by 2030.
to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
(Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018), increases in drought frequency In total, 153 countries share 286 transboundary river and lake
and magnitude are projected to pose substantially larger risks basins and 592 transboundary aquifer systems. As of 2022,
with a temperature rise of 2°C than at 1.5°C, particularly in the an estimated 58% of the world’s transboundary basin areas
Mediterranean region (including southern Europe, northern Africa had an operational arrangement for water cooperation. The
and the Near East) and southern Africa (medium confidence). global average of the aquifer component is 42% (UNECE/
UNESCO, 2021).

Water-related ecosystems (SDG Target 6.6): The wetlands

extent index, a primary indicator for SDG 6.6.1, tracks, tracks
Progress against SDG6 targets natural wetland area since 1700, showing an 80% loss since
Drinking water and sanitation services (Sustainable the pre-industrial era. The data are not yet refined enough to
Development Goal (SDG) Targets 6.1 and 6.2): “Five years into the track discrete trends in recent years (UNEP, 2021c).
SDGs, the world is not on track to achieve SDG Targets 6.1 and 6.2.
According to estimates by the Organisation for Economic Co-
Achieving universal coverage by 2030 will require a quadrupling
operation and Development (OECD), the official development
of current rates of progress in safely managed drinking water
assistance (ODA) disbursed and committed to ‘water’ in 2020
services, safely managed sanitation services, and basic hygiene
was estimated at US$8.7 billion globally, up from US$2.7 billion
services. Least developed countries (LDCs) have the furthest to
in 2002 (OECD.stat, n.d.).
go and it will be especially challenging to accelerate progress in
fragile contexts.” (WHO/UNICEF, 2021a, p. 7). The number of countries with clearly defined procedures in law
or policy for participation by users/communities has increased
Water quality and wastewater (SDG Target 6.3): Globally, an
between 2014 and 2019. Over the same period, the number of
estimated 44% of all domestic wastewater worldwide was
countries reporting high levels of participation has increased
not safely treated prior to its release into the environment
more rapidly, but still remains low overall. Levels for both
in 2020. This number was extrapolated from data from
laws/procedures and participation are very low for drinking
128 countries representing 80% of the global population
water in both urban and rural settings compared to the other
(UN-Habitat/WHO, 2021).
subsectors (UN-Water, n.d.).
About 60% of the world’s reported water bodies were categorized
as having ‘good’ ambient water quality. However, over three-
quarters of the over 75,000 water bodies that were reported on
in 2020 were in 24 high-GDP countries. The poorest 20 countries
Food and agriculture
reported on just over 1,000 water bodies and are therefore
Water allocation from agriculture to urban centres has become
grossly under-represented in this global estimate (UNEP, 2021a).
a common strategy to meet freshwater needs in growing cities
Water use efficiency and water scarcity (SDG Target 6.4): (Garrick et al., 2019; Marston and Cai, 2016; Meinzen-Dick
Water use efficiency rose by 9% from 2015 to 2018 (from 17.3 to and Ringer, 2008; Molle and Berkoff, 2006). Roughly one-third
18.9 US$/m3). All economic sectors have seen an increase in their of the world’s cities that are dependent on surface water are
water use efficiency between 2015 and 2018 (FAO/UN-Water, facing competition with agriculture, which uses approximately
2021a). However, these results are preliminary and remain 72% of the global freshwater withdrawals (Garrick et al., 2019).
inconclusive until more data points are forthcoming. Competition for freshwater between cities and agriculture is
projected to grow due to rapid urbanization, for which urban
Three out of seven SDG regions had water stress values above water demand is projected to increase by 80% by 2050 (Flörke
25% in 2018, including Central and Southern Asia with high et al., 2018).
water stress and Northern Africa with critical water stress. The
remaining regions and subregions, representing approximately The use of reclaimed water in agriculture is an increasingly
31% of the global population, were at the ‘no stress’ level, but viable option in regions experiencing water scarcity, growing
urban populations and growing demand for irrigation water.

Facts, Figures and Action Examples 3

 Action example

Water and environment

Water was included in 75% of countries’ climate change Box 1 Adopt-a-River in action: UNEP and Four Rotary
National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) (Walton, 2015). Clubs partner to clean up the Athi River (Nairobi, Kenya)
Recognition of the role of ecosystems in climate change and plant trees
mitigation and adaptation in the Paris Agreement
(United Nations, 2015) allows countries to focus on Following the signing of an agreement between the
ecosystem-based mitigation and adaptation strategies United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and
in their NAPs and in the Intended Nationally Determined Rotary International, local Rotary clubs embarked on a
Contributions (INDCs) that will determine investment project to remove all solid waste along the Athi River.
priorities as far as 50 years in the future. Following a waste assessment, the first phase focused
on removing solid waste, installing traps at points where
The IPCC’s most updated reports released in 2021 and
storm water carrying solid waste gets into the rivers and
2022 (IPCC, 2021; 2022) confirm that climate change has
planting trees along the river to reduce surface erosion.
already altered freshwater ecosystems, leading to diverse
The clubs collaborated with members of the community
adverse impacts on human systems.
to provide labour. The next phase will include providing
Wastewater, including agricultural runoff, is the leading recycling bins in partnership with waste collection
cause of water pollution. It is intricately linked to human service providers. Industries releasing their effluent to
and ecosystem health, with over 80% of global wastewater the river through various channels will also be brought on
estimated to enter water bodies untreated (WWAP, 2017).
board as part of efforts to improve upstream biological

The continuing rate of loss and degradation of freshwater treatment of industrial waste.
ecosystems and the loss of freshwater biodiversity remains
Source: Ombok (2021).
the highest among all ecosystem types (UNEP, 2021a).

Green infrastructure payments have protected,

rehabilitated, or created new habitats on more than
486 million hectares of land around the world, an area
nearly 1.5 times the size of India, with a total investment
Water supply and sanitation for human
of US$25 billion in 2015, mostly going to landowners and settlements
local communities and mostly driven by water resources- In the global water operators’ partnerships (WOP) database
related objectives (Bennett and Ruef, 2016). However, this maintained by the Global Water Operators’ Partnerships Alliance,
is still a meagre 0.37 to 1.1% of the estimated amount of out of the 425 WOPs documented, the majority (50%) involves
investment required in water infrastructure in the same two utilities from the Global South; and 38% are partnerships
year (WWC/OECD, 2015). A common means of financing between a northern and a southern utility. The remaining are
these schemes is through water funds (Box 5). triangular partnerships (10%) and partnerships among utilities
from the Global North (2%).
Davidson et al. (2019) estimated the annual value of
natural wetlands to be US$47.4 trillion per year at 2011 WOPs can be a valuable instrument to reach underserved
values, 43.5% of the global total value of the ecosystem populations in urban contexts, and implementing WOPs can have
services of all natural biomes, despite wetlands covering a ripple effect because the beneficiary or mentee utility, after
less than 3% of land area. Between 32% and 53% of having enhanced its capacities and acquired new competences,
the monetary value of inland wetlands comes from can go on and use this expertise to help other utilities.
co-benefits such as food, erosion regulation, tourism,
and recreation. This diversity and scale of the benefits The positive outcomes generated by WOPs include
forge strong interests among stakeholders and potential organizational changes related to improvements in staff
partners beyond the water sector. knowledge, skills, awareness and attitude, in addition to
a deeper understanding of the organization’s needs and
Environment-related data form one of the most significant strategies on how to address them (Pascual-Sanz et al., 2018).
gaps in water-related knowledge. This translated in an estimated number of 63.7 million indirect
beneficiaries (UN-Habitat, n.d.). However, from a practical
Partnerships involving local communities (‘citizen science’)
standpoint, some challenges still persist.
are increasingly used to improve monitoring of the
environment. This is particularly so for water quality Many countries are still facing challenges in extending services
monitoring, in order to address the huge gaps in data to rural areas, where coverage of safely managed drinking
availability. Engaging youth and women in data-scarce water services (60%) is lower than in urban areas (86%)
least developed countries is gaining attention, engendering (WHO/UNICEF, 2021a).
personal empowerment and ownership, particularly for
hydrological data (Rigler et al., 2022). At least 2 billion people (globally) use a drinking water source
contaminated with faeces, putting them at risk of contracting
cholera, dysentery, typhoid and polio (WHO/UNICEF, 2021a).

4 The United Nations World Water Development Repor t 2023 Par tnerships and cooperation for water
 Action example
At the end of 2020, the number of forcibly displaced
people was estimated to be 82.4 million, with Box 3 Supporting community-based WASH collaboration
48 million of these internally displaced (UNHCR, 2022). in displacement settings
International human rights law requires that states
guarantee everyone the right to an adequate supply of The International Organization for Migration (IOM) has
safe water for personal and domestic use. However, worked to improve access to safe drinking water and
forced migration puts an increased strain on water sanitation in the Gedo Region of Somalia. A crucial
resources and more importantly, on the local entities element for ensuring water sustainability has been
(utilities, communities) responsible for providing water
the establishment of several water user committees,
supply and sanitation services.
which own and manage the water infrastructure and
services. Their members are elected by the community
Action example and entrusted with responsibility for the operation and
maintenance of the waterpoints on the site, in order to
Box 2 Providing water services to indigenous ensure their long-term sustainability. Water committees
communities in Guatemala through the can also take on other roles, such as promoting positive
FESAN–ADECOR WOP hygiene behaviour change such as safe storage and
collection of water, and safe food and hand hygiene.
In 2017–2018, the National Federation for
Sanitary Services Cooperatives (FESAN) It is key for women to be active participants of the
from Chile supported the Rural Community committees, given that they are primarily responsible
Development Association (ADECOR) to expand for domestic water collection, and are the main
inclusive and sustainable access to safe water decision-makers at the household level. Water
drinking water for people living in rural areas committees can also work to mitigate disputes over water,
of Guatemala, to support women in conditions promoting cooperation and conflict resolution.
of extreme poverty, and to increase women's
Women’s participation and inclusion in labour (work)
participation in the sphere of water.
activities form also a challenge in northeast Nigeria, where
The WOP, financed by the Inter-American the role of women is largely limited to domestic chores,
Development Bank, was characterized by the with little or no opportunity to participate in activities
participation of water professionals and local that bring them out into the public domain. The IOM
leaders. A needs assessment was conducted encourages women to be fully involved at every stage of
that highlighted issues with water access, programme development, for example selecting where
systems functionality and environmental to drill boreholes and place sanitation infrastructure.
hazards. Then, FESAN went on to share Further, the IOM has engaged Hygiene Promotion and
their rich experience about technical and Community Engagement Volunteers, 80% of whom are
administrative capacity-building. As a result, women, who are actively involved in mass campaigns and
the Municipality of San Martín Jilotepeque in risk communication and community engagement, leading
Guatemala decided to establish an independent a large transformation in attitude towards, and access to,
drinking water service unit, aligned with the these types of roles.
culture and identity of the Kaqchikel ethnic
Contributed by IOM.
group. The final phase of the WOP focused on
training women and men from Maya indigenous
communities on sustainable management
models for rural drinking water supply, which
allowed them to expand career opportunities. Industry and energy
Industry and energy together use approximately 19% of the
As a result of this WOP, local communities
world’s freshwater withdrawals (Ritchie and Roser, 2017).
and rural water operators of the district of San
Martín Jilotepeque were able to supply drinking A regional distribution shows that industrial water withdrawal
water to indigenous populations. Considering averages 17% of total water use in high-income countries but
the local culture in a participatory manner is only 2% in low-income countries (Ritchie and Roser, 2017).
fundamental to make a long-lasting impact in
It has been estimated that two-thirds of all water consumption
rural water suppliers, impact workers and help
is involved in corporate supply chains (TNC, n.d.). Supporting
them take ownership of the solutions. this estimate, companies in seven major sectors – food, textile,
Source: GWOPA (2019).
energy, industry, chemicals, pharmaceuticals and mining – are
affecting more than 70% of the world’s freshwater use and
pollution (CDP, 2018).

Facts, Figures and Action Examples 5

 A study suggests a 24% increase in industry and energy’s water Climate change has already started influencing the
demand by 2050 in a ‘middle of the road’ scenario (Burek et al., transmission and spread of vector-borne diseases, and its
2016). More recently, the CDP (formerly the Carbon Disclosure impacts are likely to worsen (Rocklöv and Dubrow, 2020).
Project) reported that about two-thirds of the companies
that responded to its survey are reducing or maintaining their Workers doing toilet cleaning (predominantly women),
withdrawals (CDP, 2021). faecal sludge management and sewer cleaning
(predominantly men) are among the most vulnerable
According to the CDP, issues of water quality have largely been workers (World Bank/ILO/WaterAid/WHO, 2019).
overlooked, with only 59% of the responding companies monitoring
their wastewater quality, only 12% setting pollution targets and only
4.4% making progress against them (CDP, 2021).
See action example in Box 3 "Supporting community-
There are approximately 400 million small and medium based WASH collaboration in displacement settings".
enterprises (SMEs) globally, representing about 95% of companies
and providing 60% to 70% of employment (National Action Plans
on Business and Human Rights, n.d.). The International Finance
Corporation (IFC) estimates that there are 9.34 million registered
women-owned SMEs in over 140 assessed countries in the non- Climate change
agricultural sector (IFC, 2014).
The opportunities that the water (and sanitation) sector
represent for emission reductions – ranging from
biogas recovery from wastewater treatment systems to
See action example in Box 1 "Adopt-a-River in action: geothermal power generation (UNESCO/UN-Water, 2020)
UNEP and Four Rotary Clubs partner to clean up the – deserve greater attention from climate planners and
Athi River (Nairobi, Kenya) and plant trees". should open the door to further collaboration with water
stakeholders. For example, wastewater treatment and
discharge directly account for 11.8% and 4.2% of global
CH4 and N2O emissions, respectively (Crippa et al., 2019).
In addition, drinking water and wastewater management
are responsible for approximately 4% of global electricity
Health consumption in 2014, often associated with indirect carbon
Global data show that on average progress needs to be four times emissions (IEA, 2017).
faster to meet the promise on safely managed water, sanitation
and hygiene (WASH) for all by 2030 (WHO/UNICEF, 2020; 2021b;
WHO/UNICEF/World Bank, 2022). WASH and health partnerships Action example
are needed to accelerate progress on WASH, and in turn
accelerate progress on WASH-related health goals.
Box 4 Promoting cooperation on water and climate at the
In 2019, 1.4 million deaths and 74 million disability-adjusted life ministerial level
years (DALYs) globally were attributable to inadequate WASH
(WHO, n.d.). The triple climate, health and economic crisis has highlighted
the crucial role of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in
Major gaps in basic WASH still exist, with 1.7 billion people using
building resilient communities and achieving sustainable
health care facilities that lack basic water services and 780 million
development, including meeting environmental goals.
using facilities with no toilets (WHO/UNICEF, 2022). The COVID-19
pandemic has exposed gaps in these basic services but also drew For the first time since its inception, the Sanitation and Water
attention to the need for greater support for WASH in all settings.
for All (SWA) Partnership convened in May 2022 a High-Level
Increasingly, though, COVID-19 efforts are being leveraged to Sector Ministers’ Meeting on water, sanitation and hygiene
strengthen policies, regulations and investments in WASH. with ministers of environment, climate, health and economy1 to
discuss joint solutions for climate change resiliency, pandemic
In 2015, it was estimated that annually there are 1.3 to 4.0 million prevention and increased economic development. The overall
cholera cases, affecting 69 countries across the globe (Ali et al.,
theme for discussion was Building Forward Better for Recovery
2015). Cholera continues to disproportionately affect the world’s
and Resilience.
poorest and most vulnerable communities, often occurring in
‘hotspots’ where access to safely managed water and sanitation During the event, ministers of environment and climate had
is limited.
the opportunity to collaborate with water, sanitation and

WASH programmes, often implemented at scale, can enhance hygiene ministers so that agreements could be forged to make
the coverage and effectiveness of nutrition interventions to
reduce the malnutrition and stunting that affect 22% or 149 1
For more information, please see: www.sanitationandwaterforall.
million children under the age of five years globally according to
org/2022-sector-ministers-meeting.
estimates for 2020 (WHO, 2021).

6 The United Nations World Water Development Repor t 2023 Par tnerships and cooperation for water
sure that water adaptation needs, as well as mitigation Cooperation is crucial for ensuring water security in the region’s
opportunities, are introduced in national climate plans. The many transboundary basins and aquifers. In the Stampriet
meeting also served to discuss how to ensure that climate Transboundary Aquifer shared by Botswana, Namibia and
priorities are integrated into national COVID-19 recovery South Africa, a joint assessment of the water system required
the harmonization of data across the countries. The project
plans.
has generated more than 40 thematic maps. The coordination
The 2022 Sector Ministers’ Meeting was preceded by a mechanism supports science-based decision-making on water
six-month-long preparatory process, composed of multi- allocation and sound management at the basin level.
stakeholder discussions at national and regional levels.
During those discussions, water and climate stakeholders
jointly analysed national progress on identified bottlenecks See action examples in Box 1 "Adopt-a-River in action:
and successes regarding water and sanitation, and agreed UNEP and Four Rotary Clubs partner to clean up the
on joint action. Athi River (Nairobi, Kenya) and plant trees"; Box 4
"Promoting cooperation on water and climate at the
As a result of this WASH and climate collaboration, a
ministerial level"; Box 7 "Joint monitoring of groundwater
set of 25 commitments by country governments and
levels across borders"; and Box 8 "Citizen science for
other constituencies were formulated. An example is the
development".
commitment made by the Ministry of Water and Sanitation
of Malawi to increase alignment to sector strategies, such
as the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and
the National Water Policy, by closely working with climate
stakeholders. The outcomes of the meeting were followed Europe and North America
up through national-level processes, contributing to the The Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation
preparatory process of the 27th Conference of the Parties in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental
(COP27) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Matters (Aarhus Convention – UNECE, 1998) and the
Climate Change (UNFCCC), the 2023 UN Water Conference, Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary
and the Sanitation and Water for All 2023 Finance Ministers’ Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention –
Meeting. UNECE, 1992) have facilitated the development of various
types of partnerships in the region and are also contributing to
stakeholder participation outside the region.

Since 2006, National Policy Dialogues (NDPs) have been

implemented in in countries of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus
and Central Asia under the EU Water Initiative (EUWI). NPDs
have strengthened water governance and IWRM in line with the
Regional perspectives provisions of the Water Convention, its Protocol on Water and
Sub-Saharan Africa Health, and EU Directives.
Of the 771 million people still lacking even a basic drinking
water service in 2020, half lived in Sub-Saharan Africa The International Joint Commission (IJC) between Canada and
(WHO/UNICEF, 2021a). There is a widening gap in water the United States of America demonstrates good practices
supply between urban and rural dwellers (Adams et al., 2019; for successful water cooperation and for the establishment
Grasham et al., 2019; Niva et al., 2019) where governments of partnerships not only across borders but also within
have not been able to expand the necessary infrastructure to countries and between sectors, administrative levels and
meet growing demand. other stakeholders. Public outreach and engagement are
foundational components of the IJC's activities.
Community–public partnerships (CPPs) have been linked
to the resolution of water-related conflicts. In Ghana, a
partnership between the Ghana Water Company, private
Latin American and the Caribbean
operators and community water boards enabled a successful
mediation of water tariff conflicts by showcasing broader In Latin America and the Caribbean, rural drinking water
communal benefits (Galaa and Bukari, 2014). and sanitation services are generally led by community
organizations, such as administrative boards or water vigilance
In Uganda, more than 500 hectares of wetland areas committees. An estimated 80,000 of these associations
were reportedly restored through a partnership between were active in the region’s rural and peri-urban areas in 2011
companies and local industries operating in the Ruwizi River (AVINA, 2011). However, these associations tend to have
catchment area (IWaSP, n.d.a). In Tanzania, a stewardship weak management capacities, mainly due to the lack of
partnership comprising development partners resulted in funding, insufficiently trained technicians, poor or insufficient
successful restoration of the Mlalakua River and safeguarded infrastructure, and/or the difficulty of agreeing on rates or fees
it from pollution (IWaSP, n.d.b). with the local population.

Facts, Figures and Action Examples 7

 The current gender gap in governance and decision-making Inequity in terms of water access remains an issue.
in the water sector has been recognized by policy-makers Households with low education that also belong to the
across Latin America and the Caribbean, and in fact, of all bottom 40% in wealth distribution face higher restrictions
gender-related water policies established over the past in access to basic sanitation (UNESCAP, 2018). Women and
20 years, 58% address gender equality in governance and vulnerable groups suffer more from limited access to water
participation in the sector (Saravia Matus et al., 2022). and sanitation (Brighton, n.d.; UNESCAP, 2018). Furthermore,
women, who are primarily responsible for water collection in
In Latin America, only 4 of the 22 countries (Argentina, Brazil, local communities, often have limited participation in water
Ecuador and Paraguay) have arrangements for at least 90% management due to traditional norms and practices, such
of the surface of their transboundary basins. Furthermore, in as power imbalances and sociocultural factors (Thai and
ten countries, the area of the transboundary river and lake Guevara, 2019).
basins covered by operational arrangements does not reach
10%. There are however, several encouraging examples Other critical regional challenges include inadequate
(UNECE/UNESCO, 2021). sanitation services, pollution – both very closely related
(WWAP, 2017) – as well as shortcomings in transboundary
cooperation.
Action example
Public–private partnerships (PPPs) have been set up for
infrastructure projects supporting water distribution, treatment
Box 5 Santiago Maipo Water Fund
and transmission (ADB, 2022), benefitting 67.5 million people
in Asia and the Pacific in 2013 (Jensen, 2017). There has been
To address water security challenges in the Maipo River
an increase in PPPs for water services in China, Singapore and
basin, particularly the growing water deficit (mega-drought),
South Korea since 2000, but some have experienced a lack of
the Santiago Maipo Water Fund brings together multiple
sustainability when financial viability is not ensured.
water users to find collective solutions. The objective of this
partnership is to implement projects aligned with six strategic Asia and the Pacific records generally high levels of IWRM
lines of action: (i) source water protection, (ii) water use implementation (GWP/UNEP-DHI, 2021), which attest to a
efficiency, (iii) information management, (iv) risk management, focus on both water and land management for social and
(v) awareness and communication, and (vi) territorial planning. economic development.
For instance, the water fund has launched a demonstration
project based on restoration and reforestation for the
protection of natural habitats, such as high Andean wetlands The Arab region
and key riparian areas in the Maipo River basin. A pioneering Characterized by its arid to semi-arid climate, the Arab
initiative for environmental monitoring of wetlands has also region suffers from surface water scarcity. Over 392 million
been launched. The fund has the support of the Metropolitan people in the region live with less than 1,000 m3 of renewable
Regional Government and forms part of the Resilience Strategy freshwater per person per year (Aquastat, n.d.; UNDESA,
of the city of Santiago. 2019). This and other rising challenges, such as climate
change, high dependency on transboundary water resources
Source: Fondo de Agua Santiago-Maipo (n.d.). and high usage of water resources by the agricultural sector,
require successful cooperation and partnership initiatives.

Fifteen out of the twenty-two Arab states are riparian to a

shared surface water basin, and all Arab states, except the
See also action example in Box 2 "Providing water Comoros, are riparian to a shared aquifer. Several examples
services to indigenous communities in Guatemala of cooperation modalities do exist in the region, including
through the FESAN–ADECOR WOP". transboundary aquifers. The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer
System, the North Western Sahara Aquifer System and the
Orontes River basin are among those where such cooperation
arrangements are in place.

Asia and the Pacific

Several of the region’s major river basins are experiencing See action examples in Box 6 "H2O Maghreb: A training
high to critical levels of water stress. Compounded by the partnership responding to Morocco’s water challenges";
effects of climate change, these stress levels are reported to and Box 9 "Blended finance example: The As Samra
be increasing (UN-Water/UNESCAP, 2022). wastewater treatment plant expansion in Jordan".

8 The United Nations World Water Development Repor t 2023 Par tnerships and cooperation for water
 Action example
Education and capacity development
The recent COVID-19 pandemic has given a major boost to the Box 6 H2O Maghreb: A training partnership
development of digital content and the adoption of information responding to Morocco’s water challenges
and communication technologies (ICT) for teaching and
training worldwide. For example, the International Capacity The lack of a skilled workforce in a water-scarce
Development Network for Sustainable Water Management country like Morocco prevents industry and
(Cap-Net UNDP) experienced a 200% increase in demand for agriculture from exploiting the full potential of
online courses during the pandemic (Cap-Net, 2019; 2021). growth (through improved water use efficiency
and water quality/pollution control, among others).
Awareness that scientific knowledge needs to be better
Responding to Morocco’s water challenges, the
integrated with other knowledge bases, such as local and
United Nations Industrial Development Organization
indigenous knowledge, is also increasing. This is particularly
relevant for managing water resources and risks. As women (UNIDO) launched the project H2O Maghreb in
often play a major role in traditional water management, this 2017, as a public–private development partnership
also provides opportunities for women’s empowerment and between the Moroccan government, the United
gender mainstreaming (Feijoo and Fürst, 2021). States Agency for International Development
(USAID), the Moroccan National Institute for Water
The Global Multi-stakeholder Coalition that supports the ‘Call
and Electricity (ONEE), and the private sector
for Action to accelerate gender equality in the water domain’
partners Festo Didactic SE and EON Reality (UNIDO,
initiative, coordinated by UNESCO’s World Water Assessment
2019). Festo Didactic and EON Reality have created
Programme (WWAP) is a recent example of an active
partnership that spurs the development and implementation a Virtual Reality Aquatronics training simulator that
of gender-inclusive strategies and transformative actions. features several water and wastewater scenarios in
which users interact with a virtual water treatment
North–South and South–South inter-institutional educational plant, operate machinery and perform emergency
collaboration can make e-learning materials locally relevant, procedures. Virtual Reality (VR) applications
improve their quality, and train local teachers and academics
introduce professionals to new disciplines and
to make best use of those materials in local curricula.
technologies, as well as to situations that are
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural dangerous and difficult to reproduce.
Organization (UNESCO) Water Family, which includes
H2O Maghreb introduces cutting-edge solutions
approximately 30 water-related category 2 centres as well
as 70 water-related UNESCO Chairs and the University to urgent water needs in Morocco and the region,
Twinning and Networking Programme is a prime example of while improving the skills and employability
a partnership that aims to enhance institutional and human of young Moroccans by providing them with a
capacities through knowledge-sharing and collaboration. The market-driven training programme in a newly
category 2 centres also function as regional and global hubs established water training hub (USAID, 2022). By
to foster collaborative action and capacity development on developing a new water management curriculum,
strategic priorities including water. the project brought together the public and
private sector to provide innovative training and
Greater uptake and development of open science, as
advocated by the UNESCO Recommendation on Open equipment. The H2O Maghreb training programme
Science, can also support local relevance of, access to, and combines elements from different professions
dissemination of training materials (UNESCO, 2021). Open (e.g. mechanics, electronics, hydraulics, chemistry,
Science promotes not only the co-development and sharing biology) to address the challenges of improving
of knowledge (e.g. through open courseware), but also tools water management, access to water and water
and techniques to create locally relevant knowledge, for quality in a systematic manner (UNIDO, 2019).
example through open software, open laboratories and open
innovation. Additional information about the H2O Maghreb training
programme can be found at https://lkdfacility.org/h2o-
Partnerships between scientists, entrepreneurs and venture maghreb/.
capitalists can support the integration of new technologies
and innovation in capacity development, through the
incubation of start-up companies, the creation of innovation
hubs, and the local commercialization of new ideas and
See action example in Box 2 "Providing water services
solutions. This has the potential to create new jobs and
to indigenous communities in Guatemala through
commercial activity, but also to actively stimulate the
the FESAN–ADECOR WOP".
participation of women and minorities in the workforce.

Facts, Figures and Action Examples 9

 Data, information and monitoring Innovation
Despite the essential importance of data and New technologies are making the exploitation of
information in water-related decision-making, a range new and non-conventional water sources more
of challenges exist in producing holistic data sets, feasible. For example, solar energy may allow
including a general lack of data across all use sectors, harvesting drinking water from the air (Lord et al.,
limited gender-disaggregated data (Miletto et al., 2021) and simultaneous production of electricity
2019), temporal and spatial variability in local water and freshwater (Wang et al., 2019). Innovations in
availability, and difficulties (or reluctance) in sharing treatment technologies are creating opportunities
data, especially across international borders (Mukuyu for the recycling and reuse of wastewater
et al., 2020). (WWAP, 2017).

Joint monitoring of transboundary water resources Taking account of social innovations, for example
promotes a shared understanding of the system and regarding working conditions, education,
provides a platform where data can be shared in real community development or health, can further
time and applied in a timely manner. As more data are enhance the partnerships, making them more
generated, water use planning can thus be supported transparent, robust, sustainable, resilient and
by evidence to harness shared benefits across the inclusive.
transboundary landscape and manage water in
transboundary basins or aquifers more sustainably. Intellectual property issues, such as restrictive
licences and patents, can pose challenges to the
In many countries, obtaining access to data and sharing sharing of technologies, even within partnerships.
them transparently remain important challenges. The adoption of the Open Science principles
Water-related data, in particular, have been criticized can help avoid intellectual property issues and
for being siloed across different sectors and therefore promote a more sustainable and equitable
not interoperable for multiple users due to differences approach to technology-sharing (UNESCO, 2021).
in terminology and other factors (Cantor et al., 2018).
Transparency supports better management of water The introduction of new technologies and
resources and promotes accountability when dealing innovations, such as ICT to facilitate new
with challenges such as pollution and over-abstraction. partnerships, may favour participation of those
that are more knowledgeable and able to pick
With the advent of the digital era and the rollout up those technologies. Care should therefore be
and uptake of mobile phones, the potential for data taken that the introduction of new technologies
generation is phenomenal. The ability of satellites to does not lead to unintended side effects, such as
produce remotely sensed data, along with the Internet a widening of the digital divide (Mirza et al., 2019).
of Things and associated sensors, are also increasingly
providing high-frequency data in real time.

Action example

Box 7 Joint monitoring of groundwater levels across borders

In the Tuli Karoo Transboundary aquifer system shared by Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe, efforts to generate data about the system
have been improved through cooperation. Prior to this intervention, monitoring had not been managed in an integrated manner, resulting
in limited spatial and temporal data about the system and how it can sustainably support the livelihoods of the mainly rural communities
through food security and climate resilience. Joint groundwater-monitoring allows for the assessment of long-term and annual changes in
aquifer storage due to climate change and water withdrawals.

Collaboration among the three country governments, the regional entity (the Southern African Development Community Groundwater
Management Institute) and the basin organization (the Limpopo Watercourse Commission) led to the co-design of the groundwater
monitoring system.

Source: Adapted from Ebrahim et al. (2021).

10 The United Nations World Water Development Repor t 2023 Par tnerships and cooperation for water
 Action example Action example

Box 8 Citizen science for development Box 9 Blended finance example: The As Samra
wastewater treatment plant expansion in Jordan
Citizen science is a partnership in which volunteers,
scientists and potentially other partners jointly create The As Samra wastewater treatment plant
new scientific knowledge. While some projects focus is the first in the Middle East to have used a
only on the intellectual challenge, citizen science combination of private, local government and
is increasingly explored as a means to support donor financing, which can serve as inspiration
sustainable development. For example, community- for similar projects in emerging markets. This
based hydro-meteorological monitoring can help filling blended financial package was put in place with a
gaps in statutory monitoring networks and generate viability gap funding mechanism (VGF) and grant
information that can support local water resources financing.
management. Efforts in Ethiopia and Nepal have
The 2012-initiated project consists of the
shown that community-based monitoring can produce
expansion of the As Samra wastewater treatment
reliable and consistent measurements (Walker et
plant. It aims at expanding services for initially
al., 2016; Davids et al., 2019). In South Africa, the
2.3 million inhabitants to around 3.5 million
Water Research Commission is putting major efforts
people, thus covering 70–75% of the population
in engaging citizens in water quality monitoring,
of Amman and Zarqa (two of Jordan’s most
while citizen science is also explored as a method
populous cities) by 2025. The total expansion
to generate evidence for the implementation of the
costs of US$223 million were co-financed
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Fritz et al.,
by a US$93 million grant from The Millenium
2019). A major challenge of applying citizen science
Challenge, and a US$20 million grant from the
in a development context is to create sufficient
Government of Jordan. This combination of donor
value for volunteer participants to ensure long-term
and public funding, referred to as ‘viability gap
sustainability of citizen science activities.
funding’, was critical in leveraging an additional
For more information, please see: www.wrc.org.za/. US$110 million in private financing. The largest
share of US$102 million came from private debt
(banks), and a smaller share of US$8 million was
mobilized in equity by the contracted private
operator, The Samra Plant Company (SPC). The
duration of the Build-Operate-Transfer contract is
Funding investment and efficient spending 25 years, including 3 years for construction and
Water-related investments have historically been financed 22 years of operation and maintenance, running
by public budgets, including international transfers, with until 2037.
contributions from water users (e.g. water tariffs). Official
Development Assistance (ODA) for water increased steadily since In sum, by bringing down the capital costs, the
the beginning of the millennium, from US$2.7 billion in 2002 grant funding enabled the project to be financially
up to US$9.6 billion in 2018, then dropping to US$8.7 billion in viable, thus benefiting the government and local
2020. Compared to other sectors, these funds represent a minor rate-payers, without subsidizing the private sector.
share of total ODA, with just below 4% allocated to water over the This new mechanism provides significant leverage
2016–2020 average (OECD.stat, n.d.). and is likely to allow new projects to materialize.

The amount of private finance mobilized through official Sources: WWF (2020, pp. 37–38); Kolker and Tremolet
development finance for water supply and sanitation totalled (2016); MCC (2018); private communication from Veolia to
US$4.6 billion between 2016 and 2020, compared to over AquaFed (July 2022).
US$48 billion for the energy sector (OECD.stat, n.d.).

In 2020, 80% of ODA allocated to water was labelled as

contributing to ‘climate change adaptation’. For other policy
objectives, such as ‘climate change mitigation’ and ‘biodiversity’,
these percentages are significantly lower (19% and 5%
respectively) (OECD.stat, n.d.), suggesting there is room to
coordinate and communicate mutual benefits between water and
other objectives more explicitly to financiers.

Facts, Figures and Action Examples 11

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Facts, Figures and Action Examples 15

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