OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources
and provides common services for computer programs. It is a vital component of the system
software in a computer system. An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer
user and computer hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks
like file management, memory management, process management, handling input and output, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. It hosts several applications that
run on a computer and handles the operations of computer hardware. Users and application
programs access the services offered by the operating systems, by means of system calls and
application programming interfaces. Users interact with a computer operating system through
Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or Graphical User Interfaces known as GUIs. In short, an
operating system enables user interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between
users or application programs and the computer hardware. Some of the common operating
systems are LINUX, Windows etc.

Definition

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
Objectives of Operating System

The objectives of the operating system are −

 To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users
to access and use other resources.
 To manage the resources of a computer system.
 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating
conflicting requests from different programs and users.
 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.

Characteristics of Operating System

Some of the most prominent characteristic features of Operating Systems −
 Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in use
by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or
program requests it.

 Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the
processor when it is no longer required.

 Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called Input/Output
controller that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.

 File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the
resources.

 Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and
other similar techniques.

 Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.

 Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for a service
and from the system.
  Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console of the
computer in the form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same, does
the corresponding action, and informs the operation by a display screen.

 Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging
and error-detecting methods.

 Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and assignment of

compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer
systems.

The advantage of using Operating System

 Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction
 Easy to use with a GUI
 Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications
 The operating system must make sure that the computer system convenient to use
 Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and the hardware components
 It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format
 Acts as an intermediator between all hardware's and software's of the system
Disadvantages of using Operating System
 If any issue occurs in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored in your
system
 Operating system's software is quite expensive for small size organization which adds
burden on them. Example Windows
 It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at any time
 MICROSOFT WINDOWS
Microsoft Windows:- Microsoft Windows, commonly referred to as Windows, is a group of
several proprietary graphical operating system families, all of which are developed and marketed
by Microsoft.

Purpose of Microsoft Windows:- Microsoft released the first version of Windows in 1985 as a
graphical interface for computers running MS-DOS. Windows made it easier to use computers
by providing intuitive menus and buttons in place of requiring text commands to run programs
and manage the system.
Versions of windows
Windows provides a graphical user interface (GUI), and support many peripheral devices. In
addition to windows operating system for personal computers, Microsoft also offers operating
system for servers and personal computers.

1. Windows 1.0- 2.0 (1985-1992). Window 1.0 allowed users to point and click to access
the windows. Window 2.0 added icons, keyboard shortcuts and improved graphics.

2. Windows 3.0-3.1 (1990-1994). Support better icons and program manager ( Firstversion
of “look and feel” screen of Microsoft windows).

3. Windows 95 (August 1995). It runs faster and has ability to automatically delete and
configure installed hardware (plug and play).

4. Windows 98 (June 1998). It offers supports for new technology FAT32, AGP, MMX,
USB, DVD. It is an active desktop which integrates the web browser (internet
Explorer).

5. Windows ME- Millennium Edition (September 2000). Booting is in Dos option.

6. Windows NT 3.1-4.0 (1993-1996). It supports pre-emptive multi tasking. They are

Windows NT and Windows NT SERVER.

7. Windows 2000 or W2k. (February 2000). It is an operating system for business desktop
and laptop systems to run software applications.

8.Windows XP (October 2001). It has a better look and feel. There are two versions Home
and professional.
 9. Windows Vista (November 2006). It offered an advancement in reliability, security and
ease of deployment.

10. Windows 7 (October 2009). Improved performance and start-up-time and window media
centre.
11. Windows 8 (August 2012). It was developed with touch screen use in mind.
12. Windows 10 (2015). Fast start-up, Microsoft edge, Microsoft new browser.

Window Elements

A window is simply a rectangular unit that acts independently from other windows. Windows
come in two basic types:
1. Application window,
2. Dialog box.

Border
A border is "a part that forms the outer edge of something. The border not only defines where the
window is on the desktop, but it can also be used to change the size of most windows. If you
point to the border with the mouse, the pointer will change to a double-headed arrow, like so: .
If you hold down the mouse button at this time, you can drag the border around and thus alter the
size of the window.

Title Bar
A title is "a general or descriptive heading." A heading is "the title, subtitle, or topic that stands at
the top or beginning."
Control Buttons
Control buttons are all the little buttons that are on the title bar but are not actually part of the
title. These include:
Control menu: The button is located at the left hand side of the title bar. Pressing it will give
you a menu with several standard window manipulation commands.

Maximize / Restore Button: Pressing it will make the window as large as it can possibly go -
usually as large as the screen. The button will then change to the Restore Button: which you can
press to change the window back to its previous size.

Close Button: Pressing this button is just one way of closing the window, and it's the easiest.
But take caution on dialog boxes: when this button is active, it usually has the same effect
as pressing the "CANCEL" button, so be sure you don't need to save any changes you made in
the dialog box.
.
Help Button: A special addition to some Windows 95 title bars is this button: . If you press it, a
question mark will be attached to the mouse pointer. Then when you click on something else in
that window, you will see a little box describing the purpose of what you clicked on and/or how
to use it:
Menu Bar
A menu bar is present in nearly every application window directly below the title bar. Each word
on the bar is a separate menu. If you click on the word, the corresponding menu will appear.

Popup Menu
Another type of menu is the Popup menu. Unlike other menus, the Popup does not have a menu
heading and is not attached to a particular spot on a window. Popup menus are usually activated
by clicking the right mouse button on something, and the menu you get will depend on where
exactly you clicked.

Status Bar
Some windows have a status bar to indicate the current state of various parts of the application.
This bar is usually located at the bottom of the window, and is a more-or-less solid gray line.

File Management
File: A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded on secondary storage such
as magnetic disks, magnetic tapes and optical disks. In general, a file is a sequence of bits, bytes,
lines or records whose meaning is defined by the files creator and user.

File Structure: A File Structure should be according to a required format that the operating system
can understand.
 A file has a certain defined structure according to its type.
 A text file is a sequence of characters organized into lines.
 A source file is a sequence of procedures and functions.
 An object file is a sequence of bytes organized into blocks that are understandable by the
machine.
 When operating system defines different file structures, it also contains the code to
support these file structure. Unix, MS-DOS support minimum number of file structure.

File Type: File type refers to the ability of the operating system to distinguish different types of file
such as text files source files and binary files etc. Many operating systems support many types of
files. Operating system like MS-DOS and UNIX have the following types of files −

Ordinary files

 These are the files that contain user information.

 These may have text, databases or executable program.
 The user can apply various operations on such files like add, modify, delete or even
 remove the entire file.

Directory files: These files contain list of file names and other information related to these files.

Special files:
 These files are also known as device files.
 These files represent physical device like disks, terminals, printers, networks, tape drive
etc.
These files are of two types −
 Character special files − data is handled character by character as in case of terminals or
printers.
 Block special files − data is handled in blocks as in the case of disks and tapes.

File Access Mechanisms: refers to the manner in which the records of a file may be accessed.
There are several ways to access files −

 Sequential access
 Direct/Random access
 Indexed sequential access

Sequential access: A sequential access is that in which the records are accessed in some sequence,
i.e., the information in the file is processed in order, one record after the other. This access method
is the most primitive one. Example: Compilers usually access files in this fashion.

Direct/Random access
 Random access file organization provides, accessing the records directly.
 Each record has its own address on the file with by the help of which it can be directly
accessed for reading or writing.
 The records need not be in any sequence within the file and they need not be in adjacent
locations on the storage medium.

Indexed sequential access

 This mechanism is built up on base of sequential access.
 An index is created for each file which contains pointers to various blocks.
 Index is searched sequentially and its pointer is used to access the file directly.

Space Allocation: Files are allocated disk spaces by operating system. Operating systems deploy
following three main ways to allocate disk space to files.
Contiguous Allocation

 Each file occupies a contiguous address space on disk.

 Assigned disk address is in linear order.
 Easy to implement.
 External fragmentation is a major issue with this type of allocation technique.

Linked Allocation

 Each file carries a list of links to disk blocks.

 Directory contains link / pointer to first block of a file.
 No external fragmentation
 Effectively used in sequential access file.
 Inefficient in case of direct access file.

Indexed Allocation

 Provides solutions to problems of contiguous and linked allocation.

 A index block is created having all pointers to files.
 Each file has its own index block which stores the addresses of disk space occupied by
the file.
 Directory contains the addresses of index blocks of files.

Clean up and defragment your hard drive in Windows

Your Windows computer will perform more efficiently if you periodically remove unnecessary
files from your hard disk and consolidate disk space. You can use Disk Cleanup and Disk
Defragmenter to perform these maintenance tasks.
Disk Cleanup
The Disk Cleanup utility frees up space on your hard disk by finding files you can safely delete.
You can decide which files you want to delete. The method for using the Disk Cleanup utility
depends on your version of Windows:
Disk Defragmenter
The Disk Defragmenter utility consolidates files so they occupy space more efficiently. The end
result is that files are accessed faster, improving your computer's overall performance.
1. Select Start, All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, and Disk Defragmenter.
2. Select the hard drive to be defragmented (usually the C drive).
3. Select the Defragment or Defragment disk button. If a User Account Control message
appears, select Yes.
If you have multiple hard drives, repeat these steps for each drive.
 Taskbar:
In the bottom section of the screen, there is (or there may be) a long object. It is called the
Taskbar:
On the right side of Start, there is a wide area that is empty when the computer starts. This is
actually referred to as the taskbar. As you keep using the computer, this area would be filled with
some objects. In some versions (Windows 95, 98, Windows Server 2003), the color of the
taskbar may be gray (or Silver). In some other versions (Windows Millennium), the taskbar may
be yellowish. In Windows XP, it may be blue. On the far right side of the taskbar is a section
called the tray area. One of the things that this area displays is the current time (as set on your
computer).

Shut Down :
After using the computer, you can exit from it, which is also referred to as shutting down the
computer.
Microsoft Paint
Microsoft Paint is a simple graphics editing program that is included with Microsoft
Windows. Microsoft Paint can paste any object you put in the clipboard that you take from the
Internet, although it will only save in bitmap file format. A nice feature is its ability to locate the
pixel position by putting the cursor over the desired position. It can also tell the amount of
pixels that an object contains by pointing the cursor to the bottom right of the object. This
feature allows users to create objects exactly the size they want
them to be.

Microsoft Paint can also reduce the size of an image in two ways. The first is by allowing you
to shave off sides of the image. The other is by allowing you to decrease the overall image.
Paint will let you select a portion of a picture, too. You can copy it to the clipboard and/or
entirely remove it from the original. By opening another Paint application, you can paste that
selected image to work.
One way to start Paint from the Desktop is as follows.
Select Start > Programs > Accessories > Paint. The executable file for Paint is pbrush.exe
and is located in the Windows directory, usually C:\
WINDOWS.

Notepad (software)

Notepad is a common text-only (plain text) editor. The resulting files—typically saved with
the .txt extension—have no format tags or styles, making the program suitable for editing
system files to use in a DOS environment. Notepad supports both left-to-right and right-to-
left based languages. Notepad offers only the most basic text manipulation functions, such as
finding text. Only newer versions of Windows include an updated version of Notepad with a
search and replace function.
Notepad also has a simple built-in logging function. Each time a file that starts with .LOG is
opened, the program inserts a text timestamp on the last line of the file.

Notepad accepts text from the Windows clipboard. When clipboard data with multiple formats
is pasted into Notepad, the program only accepts text in the CF_TEXT format. Formatted text
can be temporarily pasted into Notepad, and then immediately copied again in stripped format
to paste into the other program.

Notepad can print files, but doesn't print correctly if Word Wrap is turned on. Headers, footers,
and margins can be set and adjusted when preparing to print a file under Page Setup.

WordPad

WordPad can format and print text, including fonts, bold, italic, colored, and centered text,
etc., but lacks intermediate features such as a spell checker, thesaurus, and the creation of
tables. However, WordPad can read, render, and save many RTF features that it cannot create
such as tables, strikeout, superscript, subscript, "extra" colors, text background colors,
numbered lists, right or left indent, quasi-hypertext and URL linking, and various line spacing.
As such, WordPad is well suited for taking notes, writing letters and stories, or for usage in
various tablets, PCs, and smart phones. However, WordPad is underpowered for work that
relies heavily on graphics or typesetting such as most publishing-industry requirements for
rendering final hard copy.
Recycle Bin

When you delete a file or folder in Windows, it is placed in the Recycle Bin. Items are
temporarily stored in the Recycle Bin before they are permanently deleted by the user.

The Recycle Bin is located on the Windows desktop. When it is empty, the icon is an empty
recycle bin. If it contains one or more items, the icon changes to a recycle bin with papers in it.
You can move items to the Recycle Bin by either dragging them to the Recycle Bin icon or by
selecting the items and pressing the Delete key. You may also right-click an item and select
"Delete" from the pop-up menu.

You can open the Recycle Bin by double-clicking its icon. This allows you to view the files
the Recycle Bin contains, just like a typical folder. However, in the left sidebar of the window,
there is a "Recycle Bin Tasks" section that includes the options "Empty the Recycle Bin" and
"Restore all items." Since Windows remembers the original location of each item, if you select
"Restore all items," the files will each be placed back in their original location. You can also
select items individually and restore them back to their previous folders.
Emptying the Recycle Bin: If you select "Empty the Recycle Bin," all the items in the Recycle
Bin will be will permanently deleted. If you only want to delete a single item, you can select it,
press Delete, then confirm you want to delete it. Deleted items cannot be restored, so you should
only empty the Recycle Bin if you are sure you no longer need the files.

Windows Explorer:-

Microsoft Windows Explorer is a graphical file management utility for the Windows operating
system (OS). Windows Explorer was introduced with Windows 95 and later renamed File
Explorer. Each time that a computer user accesses a disk or opens a folder containing files,
they are using the Windows/File Explorer utility.

When a file is selected within the Windows/File Explorer interface, users can select from a
variety of context-sensitive actions such as renaming, moving, copying, publishing, emailing,
printing or deleting the file. Entire folders can also be opened, explored, shared, copied, cut,
pasted, moved or deleted. Files can be searched or dragged and dropped between folders, and
folders can be moved into other folders and disk drives as desired.

Windows/File Explorer can present files and folders in several different formats such as
thumbnail image arrays, icons, lists and details (including name, size, type, date, time and
other information). For example, a folder with an extensive library of image files, videos, or
music may be displayed in thumbnail format, while a folder of documents might be better
viewed as a detailed list.

The Windows 10 version of File Explorer is divided into three main sections. The top portion
of the interface contains a graphical toolbar. This toolbar is divided into three separate tabs. By
default, Windows displays the toolbar’s Home tab which contains general purpose icons for
functions such as Copy, Paste, Move To, Rename and Properties.

The toolbar’s share tab contains icons corresponding to options for sharing the selected item
with others. Using the icons found on this tab, it is possible to e-mail, print, or fax an item, or
even burn it to disk.

The toolbar’s View tab can be used to customize File Explorer’s appearance. This is where
you can find the option to display items using extra-large icons, large icons, medium icons,
small icons, list, details, tiles, or content. Furthermore, the View tab can be used to either
display or hide filename extensions, item checkboxes, and hidden items. Additionally, the
View tab contains options for viewing or hiding the navigation pane, the preview pane, and the
details pane.

The second of Windows Explorer’s three areas is the navigation pane. The navigation pane is
displayed along the left side of the interface in a tree like view. It exposes network drives and
their folders, libraries (Desktop, Documents, Downloads, Music, Pictures, and Videos). The
navigation pane can also contain quick access shortcuts to commonly used folders.

The third area of the Windows Explorer interface displays the files and folders within the
currently selected location. From here, a user can navigate the file system, double click on a
 file to open it, or right click on a file to access a context sensitive menu containing options
such as Share, Open with, Send To, or Properties.

Windows Explorer replaced File Manager in versions of Windows prior to Windows 95. In
Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012, File Explorer received a revamped toolbar. Unneeded
capabilities have also been removed from Windows/File Explorer in successive versions of
Windows.

Folders:-

Folders can store and organize different types of applications, files or libraries. Folders can
also contain other folders, which in turn could contain other folders or files. Due to the manner
in which folders organize and store data within the file system of the storage media, folders are
also known as file directories or simply directories.
How to Make Your Own Folder Icons for Windows 7
Each time you create a new folder in Microsoft Windows 7, the operating system displays a
generic folder icon. If you want to customize your folders, however, Windows 7 allows you to
change the icon that is displayed on your screen. Depending on your preference, you can
create a new icon file from an existing picture on your computer or create a new icon image
from scratch.
Create an Icon

Step 1
Open Microsoft Paint, located in the Windows "Accessories" folder.
Step 2
click the "Paint" tab, select "Open" and import the image you want to use for your icon. If
you want to create a new design, use the brushes, color palette and shapes to create a design
on the blank canvas.
Step 3
Click the "Paint" tab after you import your image or create your new custom design,
highlight the "Save As" option and select "BMP picture."
Step 4
Enter a new name for your image and type ".ico" at the end. Your new file should appear as
"youriconname.ico."
Step 5
Select the folder you want to use to store your new icon image, and then click the "Save"
button.
Set the Folder Icon

Step 1
Right-click the folder you want to customize with your new icon, and then select the
"Properties" option from the context menu.
Step 2
Click the "Customize" tab in the "Properties"window.
Step 3
Click the "Change Icon" button, which is located in the "Folder icons" section at the bottom of
the window.
Step 4
Click the "Browse" button and navigate to the folder that contains your new icon image.
Select the file and click "Open." A preview of your icon will appear in the "Change Icon"
list.
Step 5
Select the icon and click "OK."
Step 6
Click "Apply" in the "Properties" window to set your new folder icon.

Windows 10 is the most recent version of the operating system from Microsoft. Officially it was
released in 2015 and was initially offered free of charge to legitimate users of Windows 7 and
Windows 8.1. This new version combines features from those two previous installments to suit
the users in a better way for both desktop/laptop computers as well as mobile devices.

After you have installed or upgraded your Windows, you will get a Welcome Screen with the
time and date. Just click anywhere to go to the User Accounts Screen.
This screen lets you choose which user you want to log in to from the lower-left corner. After
choosing the right user, and entering a password if necessary, you will see the Windows
Desktop.

The Windows Desktop is simply your operating system main screen. Here you have access to an
array of tools like the Start Menu, Taskbar, and other icons. Windows 10 also introduces a search
box in the Taskbar, which facilitates browsing both your computer and the Web

One of the most important parts of your Desktop is the Taskbar. By default, it sits at the bottom
of your screen giving you access to the Start Menu, several application icons, and the
Notification Area.
In Windows 10, if an application is active or opened, you will see a green line below its icon.
Clicking the icon will bring the application window up. Every open window features three
buttons in the upper-right corner. These are used to minimize, maximize, or close the window −

 Minimizing means that the window will hide in the Taskbar.

 Maximizing will bring the window to a full-screen size.

Windows can be moved around or resized as you please −

 To move a window, just click on its Title Bar on the upper side of the window and drag
it.

 To resize a window, move your mouse to any corner until you see a double-sided arrow.
Then click and drag until you reach the desired size.

Icons

An icon is simply a graphic representation of an application or a file. To open or access an icon,

just double click on it.
Although the amount and type of icons will vary, depending on the computer, you can add more
icons by following these steps −

Step 1 − Right-click on the Desktop Background.

Step 2 − Choose “New” and “Shortcut”.

Step 3 − Browse for the application or file you want to create a shortcut to.

Step 4 − Assign a name to the shortcut and click “Finish”.

Icons can also be moved around by clicking on them and dragging them to another place in the
screen.

Desktop Background

Another component of your Desktop is the Background. This is simply an image that appears at
the back of your screen. Most computers come with a pre-selected background, but you can
change it to any image you want.

To change the background, follow these steps −

Step 1 − Right-click on the background and choose “Personalize”.

Step 2 − From the Personalization window, choose from a series of pre-selected pictures or
browse for your own. After choosing a picture, the Background will change automatically.
To navigate your Windows, you can simply type what you are looking for on the Taskbar
search. It can be the name of a document or application, or just any information you are looking
for.

Start Menu

If you are looking for a specific application, you can also open the Start Menu and click “All
Applications”. This will open an alphabetical list of all the applications installed on your
computer.

File Explorer

If you are looking for a specific document, another alternative is to use the File Explorer by
clicking on the Folder icon on the Taskbar. In the File Explorer window, you can browse all
your folders and documents