Lecture 5

2. Matrices

2.1 Introduction
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers
arranged in rows and columns and enclosed in
a pair of brackets.
Examples
1  2 6  2 
 2 2    
   7 9 3  ,   3
  1 5 
,
 2 0 3  4 
   

If the matrix has m rows and n columns it is

called an m  n matrix or a matrix of order m  n .
A matrix is denoted by a single capital letter. If
matrix A has m rows and n columns it is
denoted by Amn .
Consider the following matrix

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  a11 a12 .. .. a1n 
 
 . . . . . 
 
 . . . . . 
 ai1 ai 2 . aij ain  . This matrix can be
 
 am1 am 2 . amj amn 
 

written as A  ( aij ) mn .

2.2 Some Special Matrices

Square Matrices
A matrix is called a square matrix when the
number of rows is equal to the number of
columns.
 a11 a12 . . a1n 
 
 a21 . . . a2 n 
 . . . . . 
 
 . . . . . 
a . . ann 
 n1 an 2
In a square matrix the elements having equal
subscripts i=j , such as a11 , a22 ,...ann form the
diagonal of the matrix.

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Zero matrix
A matrix whose elements are all zero is called a
zero matrix or null matrix and is denoted by
Omn . m is the number of rows and n is the
number of columns.
i.e. aij  0 for all i and j
0 0 0
 
Then  0 0 0   O33
0 0 0
 

Diagonal matrix
A square matrix whose only non zero elements
are in the diagonal is called a diagonal matrix.
1 0 0
 
0  3 0
i.e.  
0 0 2

Unit matrix
A diagonal matrix whose elements of the
diagonal are all equal to 1 is a unit or an
identity matrix and is denoted by I

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 1 0 0
 
I 33  0 1 0
i.e. 0 0 1
 

Transpose of a matrix
The matrix obtained from a given matrix by
interchanging its rows and its columns is
called the transpose of this matrix
If the given matrix is A the transpose of A is
denoted by AT.
3 1
3 2 5  
  AT   2 4 
If A=  1 4 7  then
  5 7
 

Column matrix (Column vector) and Row

matrix (Row vector)
A column matrix is the matrix having only one
column while row matrix is the matrix having
only one row.

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Triangular matrix
A square matrix A  (aij )nn is called an upper
triangular matrix if all its elements below the
diagonal are zero. If its elements above the
diagonal are zero it is called a lower triangular
matrix.
A matrix is called a triangular matrix if and
only if it is upper or lower triangular.
 1 0 0
 1  3  
A    is upper triangular and B   2 1 0 is
 0 1    3 2 1
 

lower triangular.

2.3 Operations with matrices

Addition of matrices
The sum of two matrices of the same order is
defined as the matrix whose elements are the
sums of the corresponding elements of both
given matrices.
If  
A  aij mn , B  bij m n then A  B  aij  bij mn

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Example
 1 3  0 2  1 5 
       
 2 5   1  3  3 2 

Scalar multiplication
A matrix is multiplied by a number, when all its
elements are multiplied by that number.
A  aij mn then kA  kaij mn

Example
1 3 5  1 0 0
   
A  2 4 1 B   0 2 3
If  3 1 4
and  1 0 2 
find the matrix
   
X such that 3( A  2 B  2 X )  2 A  B  4 X

3( A  2 B  2 X )  2 A  B  4 X  3 A  6 B  6 X  2 A  B  4 X

1
2 X   A  7B  X  ( A  7 B)
2

 3 5
  1 3 5   1 0 0   3   
1      2 2
X    2 4 1   7 0 2 3     1 5 10 
2 
  3 1 4    1 0 2   5  1 5 

 2 

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Product of two matrices
The product A  B of two matrices is defined
only if the number of columns of the first
matrix is equal to the number of rows of the
second matrix.
The product A  B is equal to a matrix C
whose elements are the sums obtained when the
elements of a row of the first matrix are
multiplied by the elements of a column of the
second matrix as shown below
 b11 b12 
 a11 a12 a13    b 
   21 b22 
 a21 a22 a23   b 
 31 b32 
a b a b a b a11b12  a12b22  a13b32 
  11 11 12 21 13 31 
 b  a b a b  a b 
 21 11 22 21 23 31 21 12 22 22 23 32 
a b a a b

 c11 c12 
=  c21 c22 

In general if A  aij mn and B  bij n p then

A  B  aij mn  bij n p  C  cij m p

Where cij  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ......  ainbnj

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B  A  bij n p  aij mn . This is possible if m = p.
In general A  B  B  A
Exercise
 1 3 3
 
A   2 5 1
Show that A  B  B  A when   3 1 2
 
and
 2 0 3
 
 1 3 5
B=  2  4 1 .
 

 1 3 3   2 0 3   11  3 21 
     
A  B   2 5 1    1 3 5    11 11 32 
  3 1 2  2  4 1   1  5  2
     

 2 0 3  1 3 3    7 9 12 
     
B  A   1 3 5    2 5 1     8 23 16 
 2  4 1    3 1 2    9  13 4 
     

 A B  B  A
2 4 
 1 2 0  
A    and B   1  2
If  1 we can
  2 
3 1 7

show that AB  0 .
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 This proves that if A and B are matrices
such that A  0, B  0 the product AB can be a
null matrix.
NOTE
If AB = 0 it does not necessarily follow that
either A= 0 or B=0.

2.4 Properties of Multiplication of Matrices

For three matrices A, B, C

(i) A(BC) = (AB)C

(ii) (A+B)C = AC+BC
(iii) A(B+C) = AB + AC
(iv) AI = IA = A where I is an identity
matrix.

2.5 Properties of Transpose matrices

1. A square matrix is said to be symmetric if

it is equal to its transpose.

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 2. A square matrix which is equal to the
negative of its transpose is called skew
symmetric.
3.For two matrices A and B

(i) ( A ) A
T T
(ii) ( A  B)  A  B
T T T

(iii) ( kA) T
 k AT
(iv) ( AB)  B A
T T T

Exercises
1. In the case of a skew symmetric matrix
show that all the elements in the principal
diagonal are zero.
A is a skew symmetric marix
 A   AT

Let A  (aij )nxn then aij   a ji

For elements along the diagonal i=j

aii   aii  aii  0

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 2. Show that any square matrix can be
expressed as the sum of a symmetric and
a skew symmetric matrix.
1 1
A  ( A  AT )  ( A  AT )
2 2
( A  AT )T  AT  A  ( A  AT ) is symmetric

( A  AT )T  AT  A  ( A  AT ) is skew

symmetric
3. Given the following matrices verify that ,
(AB)T = BT AT .
 2  1
2 1 1  
 
3 0 1  0 3 
A= 1 3  2
, B=  
   1 2 

2.6 Determinant of a square matrix

If A = ( aij ) nxn then the determinant of A is

n

denoted by A and defined as A = a

j 1
ij Aij
,

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1 i  n where Aij is called the co-factor of
aij and Aij = (1)i  j M ij
M ij is the matrix obtained deleting i th row and
j th column of A and is called the minor of aij .

a11 a12 a13

3 3

= a Aij   aij (1)i  j M ij

a21 a22 a23
Thus, j 1
ij
j 1
a31 a32 a33

When expanding using first row i  1.

3

  1j
1 j
a ( 1) M1 j
j 1

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

 a11  a12  a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

Ex. Evaluate the following determinant

expanding it using second row.
1 0 3 2
5 1 1 4
3 2 1 6
2 3 0 1

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2.6.1 Properties of Determinants

(i) The value of the determinant of a matrix

is zero if every element of a row or a
column of the matrix is zero.

(ii) If two columns or rows of a matrix are

identical then the value of the
determinant of the matrix is zero.

(iii) If A and B are two square matrices then

AB  A B

(iv) The value of the determinant of a matrix

is not changed if a scalar multiple of a
row or a column is added to any other
row or a column.

e.g.
a1 a2 a3 a1  kc1 a2  kc2 a3  kc3
b1 b2 b3  b1 b2 b3 , R1  R1  k R3
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3

(v) If a square matrix B is obtained from

another square matrix A by an

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 interchange of two columns or rows then
B A .

(vii) If every element in any row or

column is multiplied by some
number, then the whole determinant
is multiplied by that number.
e.g.

a1 a2 a3 ka1 ka2 ka3

k b1 b2 b3  b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3

Exercises

a b c 1 1 1
1
a1 b1 c1  a1bc b1ca c1ab
1. Prove that abc
a2 b2 c2 a2bc b2ca c2 ab

a b c abc b c
1
a1 b1 c1 a1bc b1 c1
= bc a bc b c2
a2 b2 c2 2 2

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 abc abc abc
1
 a1bc b1ac c1ab
(bc)(ac)(ab)
a2bc b2 ac c2 ab

1 1 1
abc
 a1bc b1ac c1ab
(bc)(ac)(ab)
a2bc b2 ac c2 ab

1 1 1
1
 a1bc b1ac c1ab
abc
a2bc b2 ac c2 ab

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 3
1 a a
1 b b3
2. Express 1 c c 3 as a product of
linear factors in a, b, c.

1 a a3 1 a a3
1 b b3  0 b  a b 3  a 3 , R2  R2  R1 , R3  R3  R1
1 c c3 0 c  a c3  a3

Note:
The following operations are applied on
previous determinant.
R2  R2  R1, R3  R3  R1

b  a b3  a3

c  a c3  a3

1 b 2  ab  a 2
 (b  a)(c  a)
1 c 2  ca  a 2

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 (b  a)(c  a)(c 2  ca  a 2  b 2  ba  a 2 )
 (b  a)(c  a)(c  b)(c  b  a)

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