Operating System

iii) MU (Memory Unit):

A Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information

temporarily or permanently. Storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

i) Primary Memory: Primary memory is computer memory that a processor or

computer accesses first or directly. It allows a processor to access running
execution applications and services that are temporarily stored in a specific
memory location.

Primary memory is also known as primary storage or main memory.

RAM (Random Access Memory): A type of data storage used in computers that is
generally located on the motherboard. This type of memory is volatile and all
information that was stored in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off.
Volatile memory is temporary memory while ROM (read-only memory) is non-
volatile and holds data permanently when the power is turned off.
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ROM (Read Only Memory): A type of non-volatile memory used in computers

and other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM can only be modified slowly,
with difficulty, or not at all, so it is mainly used to store firmware (software that is
closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to need frequent updates) or
application software in plug-in cartridges. Eg- BIOS Chip.

ii) Secondary Memory: Secondary memory is where programs and data are kept
on a long-term basis. Common secondary storage devices are the hard disk and
optical disks. Eg- Hard Disks, Floppy Disk, CD/DVD Disks.

iii) Cache Memory: Cache memory is a small-sized type of volatile computer

memory that provides high-speed data access to a processor and stores frequently
used computer programs, applications and data.
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Registers

Register are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that
are being used immediately by the CPU. These registers are the top of the memory
hierarchy, and are the fastest way for the system to manipulate data. Registers are
used by the CPU for Performing the Operations.

Register perform following functions:

1) Fetch: The Fetch Operation is used for taking the instructions those are given
by the user and the Instructions those are stored into the Main Memory will be
fetch by using Registers.
2) Decode: The Decode Operation is used for interpreting the Instructions means
the Instructions are decoded means the CPU will find out which Operation is to be
performed on the Instructions.
3) Execute: The Execute Operation is performed by the CPU. And Results those
are produced by the CPU are then Stored into the Memory and after that they are
displayed on the user Screen.

Types of Registers:

1. Memory Address Register (MAR): This register holds the address of memory
where CPU wants to read or write data. When CPU wants to store some data in the
memory or reads the data from the memory, it places the address of the required
memory location in the MAR.

2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR): This register holds the contents of data or
instruction read from, or written in memory. The contents of instruction placed in
this register are transferred to the Instruction Register, while the contents of data
are transferred to the accumulator or I/O register. In other words you can say that
this register is used to store data/instruction coming from the memory or going to
the memory.

3. I/O Address Register (I/O AR): I/O Address register is used to specify the
address of a particular I/O device.
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4. I/O Buffer Register (I/O BR): I/O Buffer Register is used for exchanging data
between the I/O module and the processor.

5. Program Counter (PC): Program Counter register is also known as Instruction

Pointer Register. This register is used to store the address of the next instruction to
be fetched for execution. When the instruction is fetched, the value of IP is
incremented. Thus this register always points or holds the address of next
instruction to be fetched.

6. Instruction Register (IR): Once an instruction is fetched from main memory, it is

stored in the Instruction Register. The control unit takes instruction from this
register, decodes and executes it by sending signals to the appropriate component
of computer to carry out the task.

7. Accumulator Register (AC): The accumulator register is located inside the

ALU, It is used during arithmetic & logical operations of ALU. The control unit
stores data values fetched from main memory in the accumulator for arithmetic or
logical operation. This register holds the initial data to be operated upon, the
intermediate results, and the final result of operation. The final result is transferred
to main memory through MBR.

8. Flag Register (FR): The Flag register is used to indicate occurrence of a certain
condition during an operation of the CPU. It is a special purpose register with size
one byte or two bytes. Each bit of the flag register constitutes a flag (or alarm),
such that the bit value indicates if a specified condition was encountered while
executing an instruction. For example, if zero value is put into an arithmetic
register (accumulator) as a result of an arithmetic operation or a comparison, then
the zero flag will be raised by the CPU. Thus, the subsequent instruction can check
this flag and when a zero flag is "ON" it can take, an appropriate route in the
algorithm.

9. Data Register (DR): A register used in microcomputers to temporarily store data

being transmitted to or from a peripheral device.