Contents

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1.2

1.2 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics ........................................................................................ 1.2
1.3 Definition of a Fluid ....................................................................................................................... 1.3
1.4 Hypothesis of continuum ............................................................................................................. 1.3
1.5 Properties of Fluids ....................................................................................................................... 1.3
1.6 Classification of Fluid ................................................................................................................... 1.7
1.7 Cohesion and Adhesion ................................................................................................................ 1.7
1.8 Surface tension .............................................................................................................................. 1.8
1.9 Capillarity or Meniscus Effect .................................................................................................... 1.10
1.10 Vapour pressure and Cavitaion.................................................................................................. 1.11
1.11 Compressibility and bulk modulus ............................................................................................ 1.12
1.12 Pressure ........................................................................................................................................ 1.13
1.13 Pascal’s Law ................................................................................................................................ 1.13
1.14 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest (Hydrostatic Law) ............................................................ 1.14
1.15 Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressures ......................................................... 1.15
1.16 Measurement of Pressure .......................................................................................................... 1.16
1.17 Simple Manometers .................................................................................................................... 1.16
1.1 Introduction
Fluid mechanics is encountered in almost every area of our physical lives. Blood flows through our veins
and arteries, a ship moves through water, airplanes fly in the air, air flows around wind machines, air is
compressed in a compressor, steam flows around turbine blades, a dam holds back water, air is heated
and cooled in our homes, and computers require air to cool components. All engineering disciplines
require some expertise in the area of fluid mechanics.
Mechanics: It is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under the
influence of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with bodies in motion under the action of forces is called dynamics.
Fluid mechanics: It is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or
in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories.
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics.
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with liquid flows in pipes and open
channels.
Gas dynamics: It deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes, such as the flow
of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such
as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds. Some other specialized categories such as
meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology deal with naturally occurring flows.

1.2 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

It is important to develop a good understanding of the basic principles of fluid mechanics, since fluid
mechanics is widely used both in everyday activities and in the design of modern engineering systems
from vacuum cleaners to supersonic aircraft. For example, fluid mechanics plays a vital role in the human
body. The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human body through the arteries and veins,
and the lungs are the sites of airflow in alternating directions. All artificial hearts, breathing machines, and
dialysis systems are designed using fluid dynamics.
An ordinary house is, in some respects, an exhibition hall filled with applications of fluid mechanics. The
piping systems for water, natural gas, and sewage for an individual house and the entire city are designed
primarily on the basis of fluid mechanics. The same is also true for the piping and ducting network of
heating and air-conditioning systems. A refrigerator involves tubes through which the refrigerant flows, a
compressor that pressurizes the refrigerant, and two heat exchangers where the refrigerant absorbs and
rejects heat. Fluid mechanics plays a major role in the design of all these components. Even the operation
of ordinary faucets is based on fluid mechanics.
We can also see numerous applications of fluid mechanics in an automobile. All components associated
with the transportation of the fuel from the fuel tank to the cylinders—the fuel line, fuel pump, and fuel
injectors or carburetors—as well as the mixing of the fuel and the air in the cylinders and the purging of
combustion gases in exhaust pipes—are analyzed using fluid mechanics. Fluid mechanics is also used in
the design of the heating and air-conditioning system, the hydraulic brakes, the power steering, the
automatic transmission, the lubrication systems, the cooling system of the engine block including the

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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radiator and the water pump, and even the tires. The sleek streamlined shape of recent model cars is the
result of efforts to minimize drag by using extensive analysis of flow over surfaces.
On a broader scale, fluid mechanics plays a major part in the design and analysis of aircraft, boats,
submarines, rockets, jet engines, wind turbines, biomedical devices, cooling systems for electronic
components, and transportation systems for moving water, crude oil, and natural gas. It is also considered
in the design of buildings, bridges, and even billboards to make sure that the structures can withstand
wind loading. Numerous natural phenomena such as the rain cycle, weather patterns, the rise of
groundwater to the tops of trees, winds, ocean waves, and currents in large water bodies are also governed
by the principles of fluid mechanics.

1.3 Definition of a Fluid

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to tangential or shear stress, however
small the shear stress may be.
As such, this continuous deformation under the
application of shear stress constitutes a flow. For example
(Fig.1.1), if a shear stress 𝜏 is applied at any location in a
fluid, the element 011' which is initially at rest, will move to
022', then to 033' and to 044' and so on. In other words, the
tangential stress in a fluid body depends on the velocity of
deformation and vanishes as this velocity approaches
zero. Fig.1.1 – Shear Stress in Fuild

1.4 Hypothesis of continuum

A fluid is composed of molecules which may be widely spaced apart, especially in the gas phase. A fluid
may be treated as a continuous substance or continuum, rather than as a group of discrete molecules.
Therefore, this concept is called the continuum hypothesis.
Fluids are the aggregation of molecules, widely spaced for a gas, closely spaced for a liquid. The distance
between molecules is very large compared with the diameter of the molecule. Molecules are not fixed in
a lattice but move about freely relative to each other. Thus fluid density, or mass per unit volume, has no
precise meaning because the number of molecules occupying a given volume continuously changes.
To illustrate consider a large container filled with a very small mass of gas such that only a few molecules
are present. Due to the lesser number of molecules the force exerted per unit area on the tank wall due to
the boundary of the molecules will depend on the probability of molecules bouncing of a particular wall at
a time. The pressure will vary in a discontinuous fashion. Therefore the distribution of matter is not
continuous i.e. continuum does not exist.
Similarly, in the case of very small volumes of a dense gas which contains very few molecules, the
continuum will not exit. It is necessary to consider that the actual molecular structure is replaced by a
hypothetical continuous medium, called the continuum. Without the concept of continuum, one would
have to take into account the action of each molecule or group of molecules in a flow.

1.5 Properties of Fluids

Density or Mass Density

The density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume. It is
denoted by the symbol ρ (rho).

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 Mass of fluid m
ρ= =
Volume of fluid V
Density has a unit of kg/m3.

Specific Weight or Weight Density

Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the weight of a fluid to its volume.
Thus specific weight is the weight of fluid per unit volume. It is denoted by the symbol w.
w = ρg
where g is the gravitational acceleration. Just as weight must be clearly distinguished from mass, so must
the specific weight be distinguished from density. In SI units, w will be expressed in N/m3.

Specific Volume
Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit
mass of a fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Volume of fluid 1 1
Specific volume = = =
Mass of fluid Mass of fluid ρ
Volume of fluid
Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m 3/kg. It is commonly applied
to gases.

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density (or weight density) of a fluid to the density (or weight
density) of a standard fluid.
For liquids, standard fluid is taken water and for gases, standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also
called relative density. It is a dimensionless quantity and is denoted by symbol S. Mathematically,
Weight density (density) of liquid
S (for liquids) =
Weight density (density) of water
Weight density (density) of gas
S (for gases) =
Weight density (density) of air
Specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.

Viscosity
Viscosity is a quantitative measure of a fluid’s
resistance to flow. More specifically it determines
the fluid strain rate that is generated by given applied
shear stress.
We can easily move through the air, which has a very
low viscosity. Movement is more difficult in water,
which has 50 times higher viscosity. Still, more
resistance is found in SAE30 oil, which is 300 times
more viscous than water. Glycerin is five times more
Fig.1.2 – Velocity variation near a solid boundary.
viscous than SAE30 oil.
Though viscosity is a fluid property, the effect of this property is understood when the fluid is in motion.
Viscosity is defined as the property of the fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid
over another adjacent layer of fluid.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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When two layers of a fluid distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over another at different velocities, say u and (u +
du) as shown in Fig.1.2, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes shear stress acting between
the fluid layers.
The top layer causes shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes shear stress on
the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y.
It is denoted by symbol 𝜏 (Tau).
Mathematically,
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 ∝
𝑑𝑦
du
∴τ=μ Eq. (1.1)
dy
where µ (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity
or only viscosity, (du/dy) represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity
gradient.
From the above equation, we have
𝜏
𝜇 =
𝑑𝑢 Eq. (1.2)
𝑑𝑦
1.5.5.1 Units of Viscosity
The units of viscosity are obtained by putting the dimensions of the quantities in Eq. (1.2).
Shear stress Force/Area
∴μ = =
Change of velocity Length 1
( )×
Change of distance Time Length
Force
(Length)2 Force × Time
∴μ= =
Length 1 Length2
( )×
Time Length
N∙s
In SI system, unit of Viscosity is =Pa ∙ s.
m2
kgf ∙ sec
In MKS system, unit of Viscosity is .
m2
dyne∙s
In CGS system, unit of Viscosity is or Poise.
cm2
N∙s
NOTE: 1 Poise = 0.1
m2

1.5.5.2 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

It states that the shear stress (𝜏) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear
𝑑𝜃
strain( ). The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of viscosity. Mathematically, it is
𝑑𝑡
expressed as given by Eq. (1.2) or as
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝜃
∴ 𝜏 = 𝜇 =𝜇
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not obey the
above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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1.5.5.3 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
The viscosity of the fluid is due to two contributing factors, namely
a) Cohesion between the fluid molecules
b) Transfer of momentum between the molecules

In the case of gases, the interspace between the molecules is larger and so the intermolecular cohesion
is negligible. However, in the case of liquids, the molecules are very close to each other and accordingly a

intermolecular cohesive force decreases with the rise of temperature and hence with the increase in
temperature the viscosity of a liquid decreases. Poiseuille gave the following formula, showing the
interdependence of the viscosity of a liquid on temperature.
For Liquids
1
𝜇 = 𝜇0 ( ) Eq. (1.3)
1 + 𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽𝑡 2
where
μ = Viscosity of liquid at t °C, in poise
μ0 = Viscosity of liquid at 0 °C, in poise
α, β = Constants for the liquid
For water,
-3
μ0= 1.79 x 10 poise, α = 0.03368 and β = 0.000221.
Eq. (1.3) shows that with the increase in temperature, the viscosity decreases.

For a Gas
𝜇 = 𝜇0 + 𝛼𝑡 − 𝛽𝑡 2 Eq. (1.4)
-9
For air, μ0 = 0.000017, α = 0.000000056, β = 0.1189× 10
Eq. (1.4) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity increases.

Kinematic Viscosity
It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of the fluid. It is denoted by the Greek
symbol ν (called ‘nu’). Mathematically,
Viscosity
ν=
Density
μ
∴ν =
ρ
Units of Kinematic viscosity:
unit of μ Force × Time Force × Time
ν= = =
unit of ρ (Length)2 × Mass Mass
(Length) 3 Length
Length
Mass × × Time (Length)2
(Time)2
= =
Mass Time
Length
In MKS system and SI the unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s.
In CGS system it is cm2/s.
NOTE:
cm2 m2
1 =1 stoke =10-4
s s

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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1.6 Classification of Fluid
The fluids may be classified into the following five types:
1) Ideal Fluid
A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no
viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only
an imaginary fluid because all the fluids, which exist,
have some viscosity.
2) Real Fluid
A fluid which possesses viscosity is known as real
fluid. All the fluids in practice are real fluids.
3) Newtonian fluid
A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity
gradient), is known as the Newtonian fluid.
Example: Water, Air, Thin motor oil
4) Non-Newtonian Fluid
A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not Fig.1.3 – Shear stress and deformation rate
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity relationship of different fluids
gradient), is known as the non-Newtonian fluid.
a. Dilatant or Shear thickening fluids
Fluids for which the apparent viscosity increases with the rate of deformation are referred to as
dilatant or shear thickening fluids.
Example: Solution with suspended starch or sand
b. Pseudoplastics or Shear thinning fluids
Fluids for which apparent viscosity decreases with the rate of deformation are referred to as
pseudoplastics or shear thinning fluids.
Example: Paint
5) Ideal Bingham plastic fluid
Some material can resist a finite shear stress and thus behave as a solid but deform continuously
when the shear stress exceeds the yield stress and thus behave as a fluid. Such material are referred
to as Bingham plastics.
Example: Toothpaste, Mayonnaise

1.7 Cohesion and Adhesion

Cohesion: The force with which the neighbouring or adjacent fluid molecules are attracted to each other.
Adhesion: It represents the adhering or clinging ability of the fluid molecules to the solid surface with
which they come in contact.
In brief, forces between like molecules are cohesive and the forces between unlike molecules are
adhesive.
When a liquid like mercury, is spilled on a smooth horizontal surface it tends to gather into droplets
because the cohesive molecular forces are greater than the adhesive forces between the mercury
molecules and the material of the surface.
Mercury tends to stay away from the surface and is said to be a non-wetting liquid.
In the case of water, adhesive forces are greater than cohesive forces. Naturally, when water is poured on
the same smooth horizontal surface, it would spread out and wet the horizontal surface.

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The wetting and non-wetting of the surface is dictated by the angle of contact between the liquid and the
surface material.

Fig.1.4 – Wetting and non-wetting liquid

Refer Fig.1.4 which illustrates the liquid-gas interface with a solid surface.
The liquid would wet the surface when 𝜃 < (𝜋/2) and the degree of wetting increases as 𝜃 decreases to
zero. For a non-wetting liquid 𝜃 > (𝜋/2). The contact angle dependent on the nature and type of liquid, the
solid surface and its cleanliness.
For pure water in contact with a clean glass surface 𝜃 is essentially zero degree. Even when the water is
slightly contaminated, 𝜃 becomes as high as 25 degree. Mercury a non-wetting liquid has 𝜃 between 130
to 150 degree.

1.8 Surface tension

A liquid is not able to expand freely so it will form an interface/free

surface with a second liquid or gas.
Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the
surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between
two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like
a membrane under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit
length of the free surface is called surface tension(σ). In MKS units,
it is expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as N/m. Fig.1.5 – Surface tension
The effect is also called surface energy and is expressed in the
equivalent unit of (𝑁 ∙ 𝑚/𝑚2 ). It is denoted by Greek letter σ (called sigma). The phenomenon of surface
tension is explained by Fig.1.5.
To visualize how surface tension arises, consider three molecules A, B, C of a liquid in a mass of liquid.
Molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the
resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero. But molecule B, which is situated near the free surface, is
acted upon by upward and downward forces which are unbalanced.
Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction. Molecule C, situated on the
free surface of the liquid, does experience a resultant downward force. Therefore there is a net attractive
force acting on the molecule at the surface of the liquid, which tends to pull the molecules on the surface
towards the interior of the liquid. This force is balanced by the repulsive forces from the molecules below
the surface that are being compressed.
The resulting compression effect causes the liquid to minimize its surface area. This is the reason for the
tendency of the liquid droplets to attain a spherical shape, which has a minimum surface area for a given
volume.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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The surface tension varies greatly from substance to substance, and with temperature for a given
substance. For example, at 20 ℃ the surface tension is 0.073 N/m for water and 0.44 N/m for mercury
surrounded by atmospheric air.
The surface tension of a liquid in general decreases with temperature and becomes zero at critical point.
The effect of pressure on surface tension is negligible.
The surface tension of a substance can be changed considerably by impurities. Therefore certain
chemicals called surfactants can be added to a liquid to decrease its surface tension. For example, soaps
& detergents lower the surface tension of water and enable it to penetrate through the small openings
between fibres for more effective washing.

Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet

Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius r.
On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due
to surface tension will be acting.
Let σ = Surface tension of the liquid
p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of
the outside pressure intensity)
d = Dia. of droplet. Fig.1.6 – Force on droplet
Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting
on one half (say left half) will be
a) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as shown
in Fig.1.6(b) and this is equal to
= σ × Circumference
𝜋
b) pressure force on the area 𝑑 2 as shown in Fig.1.6(c).
4
These two forces will be equal and opposite under equilibrium conditions, i.e.,
𝜋
𝑝 × 𝑑 2 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑
4
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 4𝜎
∴ 𝑝 = 𝜋 = Eq. (1.5)
𝑑2 𝑑
4
Eq. (1.5) shows that with the decrease of the diameter of the droplet, pressure intensity inside the droplet
increases.

Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble

A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside.
Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface tension.
𝜋 2
𝑝 × 𝑑 = 2(𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑)
4
2(𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑) 8𝜎
∴ 𝑝 = 𝜋 2 = Eq. (1.6)
𝑑 𝑑
4

Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet

Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘d’ and length ‘L’ as shown in Fig.1.7.
Let σ = Surface tension of the liquid
p = Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure
d = Dia. of jet.
Consider the equilibrium of the semi jet, we have

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 Fig.1.7 – Forces on liquid jet
Force due to pressure = p x area of semi jet
=pxLxd
Force due to surface tension = σ x 2L
Equating the forces we have
𝑝 × 𝐿 × 𝑑 = 𝜎 × 2𝐿
𝜎 × 2𝐿 2𝜎
𝑝 = = Eq. (1.7)
𝐿 × 𝑑 𝑑

1.9 Capillarity or Meniscus Effect

Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of s liquid surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when tube is held vertically in the liquid.
The rise of the liquid surface is known as capillarity rise while the fall of liquid surface is known as
capillarity depression or fall. It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid.
Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the
liquid.

Expression for Capillary Rise

Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘d' opened at both ends and
is inserted in a liquid, say water. The liquid will rise in the tube above
the level of the liquid.
Let, h = height of the liquid in the tube.
Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height h is
balanced by the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But the
force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension.
Let σ = Surface tension of liquid
θ = Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube. Fig.1.8 – Capillary Rise
The weight of liquid of height h in the tube
= (Area of tube x h ) x ρ x g
𝜋
= ( 𝑑2 × ℎ ) × 𝜌 × 𝑔 Eq. (1.8)
4
where ρ = Density of liquid
Vertical component of the surface tension force
Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering
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 = (σ × Circumference) × cos θ
= 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 Eq. (1.9)

For equilibrium, equating Eq. (1.8) and Eq. (1.9), we get

𝜋
( 𝑑 2 × ℎ) × 𝜌 × 𝑔 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
4
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
∴ℎ= π
d2 × ρ × g
4
4𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
∴ℎ= Eq. (1.10)
𝜌𝑔𝑑
The value of 𝜃 between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence cos 𝜃
to unity.
Then rise of water is given by
4𝜎
∴ℎ=
𝜌𝑔𝑑

Expression for Capillarity Fall

If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the
tube will be lower than general level of the outside liquid as
shown in Fig.1.9.
Let h = height of depression in tube
Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside
the tube. First one is due to surface tension acting in the
downward direction and is equal to
= 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × cos 𝜃
Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is
equal to intensity of the pressure at the depth ‘h’ X Area
𝜋 𝜋 Fig.1.9 – Capillarity fall
= 𝑝 × 𝑑 2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑑 2
4 4
Equating the two forces
𝜋 2
∴ 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 × cos 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ × 𝑑
4
4𝜎 cos 𝜃
∴ℎ=
ρgd

Value of  for mercury and glass tube is 128.

1.10 Vapour pressure and Cavitaion

A change from a liquid state to gaseous state is known as vaporization. Vaporization (which is depend
upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition) occure because of continuous escaping of the
molecules through the free liquid surface.
Consider a liquid (say water) which is confined in a closed vessel. Let the temperature of liquid is 20°C
and pressure is atmospheric. This liquid will vaporize at 100°C. When vaporization takes place, the
molecules escapes from the free surface of the liquid. These vapor molecules get accumulated in the
space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated vapors exert pressure on

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the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapor pressure of the liquid or this is the pressure at which
the liquid is converted into vapors.
Again consider the same liquid at 20°C at the atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel. If the pressure
above the liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling temperature will also reduce.
If the pressure is reduced to such an extent that it become equal to or less than vapor pressure, the boiling
of liquid will start, though the temperature of liquid is 20°C. Thus a liquid may boil even at ordinary
temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapor
pressure of the liquid at that temperature.
Now consider a flowing liquid in a system. If the pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes equal
to or less than the vapor pressure, the vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapors are
carried by the flowing fluid into the region of the high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high
impact pressure. The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the material from
adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This phenomenon is known as
cavitation.
Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapor bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where
the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapor pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapor bubbles in
a region of higher pressure. When vapor bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic
surface, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action
on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the metallic surface and hence the name is cavitation.

1.11 Compressibility and bulk modulus

Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity.
Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of compressive
stress (increase in pressure) to volumetric strain.
Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in
Fig.1.10.
Let the pressure is increase from p to (p + dp), the
volume of gas decrease from V to (V – dV).
Then increase in pressure = dp
Fig.1.10 – Change in volume of gas under pressure
Decrease in volume = dV
𝑑𝑉
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −
𝑉
-ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure.
∴ Bulk modulus
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
∴𝐾=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
∴𝐾= =− 𝑉
−𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
Compressibility
1
=
𝐾

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.12
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties
1.12 Pressure
When a certain mass of fluids is held in static equilibrium by confining it within solid boundaries, it exerts
force along direction perpendicular to the boundary in contact. This force is called fluid pressure Fig.1.11.

Fig.1.11 – Normal force exerted by a fluid to the boundary of surface

“Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area, when fluid is stationary.”
𝐹
p= Eq. (1.11)
𝐴

∴ Force or force due to pressure is

𝐹 = 𝑝 × 𝐴
Units of Pressure: N/m2, N/mm2, Pa, MPa, kgf/m2, kgf/cm2, bar

1.13 Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s law states that “The pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in all
directions.”
Proof of Pascal’s law:
Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a
fluid mass at rest as shown in Fig.1.12.
The fluid element is of very small dimensions i.e., dx, dy
and ds.
Let the width of the element perpendicular to the plane of
paper is unity and px, py and pz are the pressures or
intensity of pressure acting on the face AB, AC and BC
Fig.1.12 – Forces on a fluid element
respectively.
Let ∠ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝜃. Then the forces acting on the element are:
I. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces, and
II. Weight of element in the vertical direction.

The forces on the faces are:

Force on the face AB = 𝑝𝑥 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐵
= 𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1
Similarly force on the face AC = 𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1
Force on the face BC = 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1
Weight of the element = (mass of the element) x g

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.13
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties
 𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶 𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦
= (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝜌) × 𝑔 = ( × 1) × 𝜌 × 𝑔 = ( × 1) × 𝜌 × 𝑔
2 2
where 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑.
Resolving the forces in x-direction, we have
∴ 𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 − {(𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1) sin(90° − 𝜃)} = 0
∴ 𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 − {(𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1) cos 𝜃} = 0
But from Fig. 2.1, 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑝𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 − 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑦 × 1 = 0
∴ 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑧 Eq. (1.12)

Similarly, resolving the forces in y-direction, we get

𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1 − {(𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1) cos(90° − 𝜃)} − {( × 1) × 𝜌 × 𝑔} = 0
2
𝑑𝑥 × 𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1 − {(𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑠 × 1) sin 𝜃} − { × 𝜌 × 𝑔} = 0
2
But 𝑑𝑠 sin 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥 and also the element is very small and hence weight is negligible.
∴ 𝑝𝑦 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1 − 𝑝𝑧 × 𝑑𝑥 × 1 = 0
∴ 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑧 Eq. (1.13)

From Eq. (1.12) and Eq. (1.13)Eq. (1.26), we have

∴ 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧 Eq. (1.14)

The above equation shows that the pressure at any point in x, y and z directions is equal.
Since the choice of fluid element was completely arbitrary, which means the pressure at any point is the
same in all directions.

1.14 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest (Hydrostatic Law)

The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by the Hydrostatic Law which states that the rate of
increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at
that point. This is proved as:
Consider a small fluid element as shown in Fig.1.13
Let ∆𝐴 = Cross-sectional area of element
∆𝑍 = Height of fluid element
𝑝 = Pressure on face AB
𝑍 = Distance of fluid element from free surface.
The forces acting on the fluid element are:
1. Pressure force on AB acting perpendicular to face AB in the
downward direction.
= 𝑝 × ∆A
2. Pressure force on CD acting perpendicular to face CD in Fig.1.13 – Forces on a fluid element
vertically upward direction.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.14
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties
 𝜕𝑝
= (𝑝 + × ∆𝑍) × ∆A
𝜕𝑍
3. Weight of fluid element.
= 𝜌 × 𝑉 × 𝑔 = 𝜌 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) × 𝑔
4. Pressure forces on surfaces BC and AD are equal and opposite.

For equilibrium of fluid element, we have

𝜕𝑝
∴ 𝑝 × ∆A − (𝑝 + × ∆𝑍) × ∆A + 𝜌 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) × 𝑔 = 0
𝜕𝑍
𝜕𝑝
∴ 𝑝 × ∆A − 𝑝 × ∆A − × ∆𝑍 × ∆A + 𝜌 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) × 𝑔 = 0
𝜕𝑍
𝜕𝑝
∴ × ∆𝑍 × ∆A = 𝜌 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) × 𝑔
𝜕𝑍
𝜕𝑝
∴ =𝜌×𝑔=𝑤 Eq. (1.15)
𝜕𝑍
where w = Weight density of fluid.
Eq. (1.15) states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to weight density of the
fluid at that point. This is Hydrostatic Law.
By integrating the above Eq. (1.15) for liquids, we get

∴ ∫ 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧

∴ 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 Eq. (1.16)

where p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure and Z is the height of the point from free surfaces.
From Eq. (1.16), we have
𝑝
∴𝑧= Eq. (1.17)
𝜌𝑔

Here Z is called pressure head.

1.15 Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressures

The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, it is measured above the
absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the absolute pressure and in another system, the
pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure and it is called gauge pressure. Thus:
1. Absolute pressure: It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute vacuum
pressure.
2. Gauge pressure: It is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a pressure measuring
instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as the datum. The atmospheric pressure on
the scale is marked as zero.
3. Vacuum pressure: It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.

The relationship between the absolute pressure, gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are shown in
Fig.1.14.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.15
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties
 Fig.1.14 – Relationship between pressures

Mathematically,
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure.

𝑝𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠

1.16 Measurement of Pressure

Various devices used to measure fluid pressure can be classified into,
1. Manometers
2. Mechanical gauges

Manometers
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing
the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are classified as:
(a) Simple Manometers,
(b) Differential Manometers.

1.17 Simple Manometers

A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where pressure
is to be measured and the other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple manometers
are:
1. Piezometer
2. U-tube Manometer, and
3. Single Column Manometer.

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.16
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties
 Piezometer
It consists of a glass tube inserted in the wall of the vessel or pipe at the
level of a point at which the intensity of pressure is to be measured as
shown in Fig.1.15. The other end of the piezometer is exposed to air.
The height of the liquid in the piezometer gives the pressure head from
which the intensity of the pressure can be calculated. If at a point A, the
height of liquid say water h in piezometer tube, then the pressure at point
A is given by
𝑁
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × ℎ
𝑚2
Merits:
1. Simple in construction
Fig.1.15 – Piezometer
2. Economical
Demerits:
1. Not suitable for high pressure intensity.
2. The pressure of gases cannot be measured.

U-tube Manometer
It consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at which pressure is
to be measured and the other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig.1.16.
The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose specific gravity is greater than the specific
gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.

Fig.1.16 – U-tube Manometer

A) For Gauge Pressure
Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p. The datum line is A -A as shown
in Fig.1.16(a).
Let
h1 = Height of light liquid above the datum line
h2 = Height of heavy liquid above the datum line

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.17
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties
 S1 = Specific gravity of light liquid
ρ1 = Density of light liquid = 1000 × S1
S1 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid
ρ1 = Density of heavy liquid = 1000 × S1
As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal datum line A-
A in the left column and in the right column of the U-tube manometer should be the same.
Pressure above A-A in the left column = 𝑝 + (𝜌1 × 𝑔 × ℎ1 )
Pressure above A-A in the right column = 𝜌2 × 𝑔 × ℎ2
Hence equating the two pressures
∴ 𝑝 + (𝜌1 × 𝑔 × ℎ1 ) = 𝜌2 × 𝑔 × ℎ2
∴ 𝑝 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 Eq. (1.18)

B) For Vacuum Pressure

For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid in the manometer will be as shown in
Fig.1.16(b). Then as per pascal’s law

Pressure above A-A in the left column = Pressure above A-A in the right column
∴ 𝑝 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 0
∴ 𝑝 = −(𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 ) Eq. (1.19)

Single Column Manometer

A single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which a reservoir having a large
cross-sectional area (100 times) as compared to the cross-sectional area of U – tube connected to it as
shown in Fig.1.17.
For any change in pressure, change in the level of manometric liquid in the reservoir is small and change
in level of manometric liquid in the U- tube is large. The other limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there
are two type of single column manometer as:
1. Vertical single column manometer
2. Inclined single column manometer

1.17.3.1 Vertical Single Column Manometer

Fig.1.17 shows the vertical single column manometer.
Let X–X be the datum line in the reservoir and in the right
limb of the manometer when it is not connected to the
pipe.
When the manometer is connected to the pipe, due to
high pressure at A, the heavy liquid in the reservoir will be
pushed downwards and will rise in the right limb.
Let
∆ℎ = 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
ℎ2 = 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
ℎ1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑋 – 𝑋
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐴 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 Fig.1.17 – Vertical single column manometer
𝑎 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
𝑆1 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌1 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑆2 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌2 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.18
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb.
∴ 𝐴 × ∆ℎ = 𝑎 × ℎ2
𝑎 × ℎ2
∴ ∆ℎ = Eq. (1.20)
𝐴
Now consider the datum line Y–Y as shown in Fig.1.17. Applying Pascal’s law:
Pressure in the left limb above Y-Y = Pressure in the right limb above Y-Y
∴ 𝑝𝐴 + {𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ1 + ∆ℎ)} = 𝜌2 𝑔(ℎ2 + ∆ℎ)
∴ 𝑝𝐴 = {𝜌2 𝑔(ℎ2 + ∆ℎ)} − {𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ1 + ∆ℎ)}
∴ 𝑝𝐴 = ∆ℎ {𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔} + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1
Putting value of Eq. (1.20) in above equation
𝑎 × ℎ2
∴ 𝑝𝐴 = {𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔} + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 Eq. (1.21)
𝐴
𝑎
As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio becomes very small and can be neglected. Then
𝐴
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 Eq. (1.22)

From Eq. (1.22), it is clear that as h1 is known and hence by knowing h2 or rise of heavy liquid in the right
limb, the pressure at A can be calculated.

1.17.3.2 Inclined Single Column Manometer

Fig.1.18 shows the inclined single column manometer. This manometer is more sensitive. Due to
inclination the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right limb will be more.

Fig.1.18 – Inclined single column manometer

Let
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑋 − 𝑋
𝜃 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
ℎ2 = 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜 𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑋 − 𝑋 = 𝐿 × sin 𝜃
From Eq. (1.22), the pressure at A is
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1
Substituting the value of h2 , we get
𝑝𝐴 = sin 𝜃 × 𝜌2 𝑔 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 . Eq. (1.23)

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.19
FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties
 Differential Manometers
Differential manometers are used to measure the pressure difference between two points. It is consists
of a U-tube, containing heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the two points, whose difference of
pressure is to be measured.
Types of differential manometers are: 1. U-tube Differential manometers 2. Inverted U-tube differential
manometers

1.17.4.1 U-tube Differential Manometer

Fig.1.19shows the differential manometers of U-tube type.
In Fig.1.19(a), the two points A and B are at different level and also contains liquids of different specific
gravity. These points are connected to the U-tube differential manometer. Let the pressure at A and B are
pA and pB.
Let
ℎ = 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑈 − 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝑦 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
𝑥 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
𝜌1 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
𝜌2 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
𝜌𝑚 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦

Fig.1.19 – U-tube differential manometers.

Taking datum line at X–X .

Applying Pascal’s law
Pressure above X–X in left limb = Pressure above X–X in right limb
∴ 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥) = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 − 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥)
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝑔ℎ(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌1 ) + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 − 𝜌1 𝑔𝑥
Difference of pressure at A and B = 𝑔ℎ(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌1 ) + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑦 − 𝜌1 𝑔𝑥 Eq. (1.24)

In Fig.1.19(b), the two points A and B are at the same level and contains the same liquid of density 𝜌1 . Then
applying Pascal’s law at datum X–X in Fig.1.19(b),
Pressure above X–X in left limb = Pressure above X–X in right limb

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties
 ∴ 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥) = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑥 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑥 − 𝜌1 𝑔(ℎ + 𝑥)
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝑔ℎ(𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌1 ) Eq. (1.25)

1.17.4.2 Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer

It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light
liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected to the
points whose difference of pressure is to be measured.
It is used for measuring difference of low pressures.
Fig.1.20 shows an inverted U-tube differential
manometer connected to the two points A and B. Let
the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B.
Let
ℎ1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
ℎ2 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
ℎ = 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜌1 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
𝜌2 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 Fig.1.20 – Inverted U-tube differential manometer
𝜌𝑠 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐴
𝑝𝐵 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
Taking X–X as datum line. Applying pascal’s law, then
Pressure in the left limb below X–X = Pressure in the left limb below X–X
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑝𝐵 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ
∴ 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑔ℎ Eq. (1.26)

Prof. Darshit S. Dadhaniya, Department of Mechanical Engineering

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FMHM (3141906) | Unit-1 Fluids and Their Properties