2 Methodology for prototyping Integrated

and Organic Farming Systems

F.G. Wijnands, J.J. de Haan & W. Sukkel constitute and enhance system innovation. Novel systems
Applied Plant Research (PPO), Lelystad, The Netherlands are also based on integrated, technology-based agro-eco-
logical principles; agronomy; and biological, physical and
chemical methods. In essence, these novel systems are
2.1 Innovation and prototyping low input – high output systems that will have to be more
sustainable in ecological, agronomical, economical and
Innovation in agriculture is a continuous process of social terms.
creating or utilising opportunities, counteracting threats and
solving problems. At present, a complex of problems is Socially based solutions refer to farming communities
destabilising agriculture and threatening the sustainability. with common objectives and plans that operate as a
However, at the same time, there are opportunities group when communicating with the “stakeholders” in the
available to revitalise agriculture by looking for connections region. This community forming and communication
with the urban population. This is accomplished by offering process can be stimulated and facilitated by social scien-
scarce products and functions as agro-tourism, recreational tists and extensionists (Butler Flora, 1998; Pretty, 1998).
facilities and diversified landscape. Therefore, innovation
in agriculture is now synonymous to finding integral and Innovation is always a process made up of design, testing
coherent solutions while integrating different objectives and improvement (see Figure 2.1) based on multiple
and functions. objectives. Innovation is, however, not always a rational
process resulting from or guided by institutions. The
Innovation is encouraged with: innovation process can be stimulated by all the above-
1. the total complex of policy regulatory packages, mentioned approaches. In many projects all over the
2. technological developments, world, this is attempted in a top-down approach. As initial
3. market developments, step, this might be appropriate. However, when insuffi-
4. more social action at the basic farming community cient attention is given to interaction with the target
level. group and their learning process, innovation is destined
to fail. On the other hand, when successful, the initial
Policy packages offer an excellent opportunity to create linear innovation model (top-down) evolves into a circular,
incentives for change and to facilitate this change. continuous innovation model, supported by the group
Technological developments are necessary to make itself. The prerequisite is, that from the start, the view-
innovation possible. These technological solutions can be point of the farmer is taken into account, in addition to
divided in three levels: 1) system innovations, 2) process- the viewpoints of other stakeholders. Prototyping is a
integrated solutions and 3) end of pipe solutions. It is method that structures the process of continuous inno-
obvious that end of pipe solutions are often improvised vation towards more sustainable farming systems from a
solutions that alleviate the negative effect of farming. technological perspective. Prototyping of farming
Sustainable farming systems have to be based on sys- systems allows theoretical design to be applied in prac-
tem innovation and process-integrated solutions. Novel tice in different systems. Therefore, the four steps as
systems are based on strategic overall concepts that described in Figure 2.1, apply as well to innovation as to

Prototyping Innovation

Analysis and diagnosis

Testing
Design

Design
Improving
Testing and improving

Dissemination

Figure 2.1 Innovation as a dynamic continuous process of design, testing and improvement.
Prototyping is a four-step process

8
prototyping. These steps are elaborated in more detail in 3. Agro-ecological, state-of-the-art:
the following sections. An analysis of the following factors: current farming
practices (methods and strategies); threats; problems
and sustainability of production in terms of quality
2.2 Analysis and diagnosis production and the underlying maintenance of soil fer-
tility (especially biological and physical soil fertility);
The process of prototyping starts with an extensive crop protection (long term control options of (soil-
regionally based analysis and diagnosis phase. In addition born) pests and diseases); and other agronomical
to examining the past and the current status, future aspects.
trends have to be identified as well. By identifying trends 4. Trends in structural changes:
and progressive views, a window of opportunities opens. The developments during the past decade have to be
analysed in terms of farm size, specialisation, mecha-
Figure 2.2 presents a possible framework of the analysis. nisation, demand and availability of labour, and mar-
The central point in the analysis is the farm. First, it is ket developments to put the present situation into
important to get a good view of the farming practice by perspective. For example, some general trends in the
studying sectoral statistics, farm structure and the agro- EU are a decreasing number of farms, decreasing
ecological problems. Also structural changes are identi- employment in agriculture and increasing specialisation.
fied. Social demands have to be examined, economically
and politically as well as socially. Finally, the ecological Social demands
and environmental impact of current farming systems 5. Socio-economic situation:
needs to be studied. The three phases are described in Economic conditions in farming and developments in
more detail below. markets are analysed. Factors examined included:
farmers’ incomes, production costs such as labour
Farming practices and land, product prices and competition in national
1. Sectoral statistics: and international markets. Also, options to enhance
A statistical analysis has to be made of all possible farmers’ incomes are studied. An inventory is made
factors concerning the sector under study. of possibilities to increase efficiency (specialisation
The factors include: the total surface area, the crops, and scale enlargement), to add value to products with
the area per crop, the trade value per crop, the post-harvest processes (sorting, packing) or to focus
involved trade channels, the import/export flows of on special products or niche markets.
products and commodities. With this analysis, a pic- 6. Current socio-political conditions:
ture the sector’s importance and the chosen crops An analysis is carried out of all legislation, rules, poli-
can be established. When possible, this analysis has cies and subsidies that influence the way farmers
to be out for different regions or for the region where work on different levels (EU, national, regional and
the project is located, in perspective to national data. local level).
2. Farm structure: 7. Multi-functionality:
The farms are analysed as production units in order The demands on and expectations of agriculture are
to define a comprehensive typology of the chosen gathered from stakeholders in the region, including
farms in terms of size, geographical location, scale the urban population. Opportunities are derived from
and type of crops grown. these demands and expectations.

Socio-political conditions

Farm
statistics,
Socio-economic conditions structure, Eco-environmental effects
shortcomings in
agronomy

Urban demands and needs

Figure 2.2 The farm in the context of agriculture and society

9
Ecological and environmental effects • Defining objectives from an innovation vision.
8. Ecological/environmental impact: • Quantifying objectives with a set of parameters, cov-
Effects of farming on the quality of ecology (biodiver- ering the objectives totally and setting ambitious and
sity, nature, landscape) and environment (contamina- relevant target values for these parameters.
tion of soil, air and water) have to be identified and • (Re)designing farming practices to be able to reach
documented in relation to farming practices. the target values.
• Implementing general strategies in a theoretical proto-
Based on this analysis, a clear view can be described of type, drawing up specific farming and cropping pro-
a sector’s structure and importance in the region, the grammes, and designing the agro-ecological layout.
typology of the farms and the relative importance of dif-
ferent crops and their marketing needs. In addition, the 2.3.1 Objectives and themes
shortcomings in agronomy, farming, ecology and environ- To formulate objectives, it is important to have a clear
ment, and the degree of anticipation of socio-political innovation vision. This vision has to be based on the
changes can be identified. This includes the economic results of the analysis and diagnosis. The vision contains
position of farms and their development in general. a search direction for the position of farming in the total
Future perspectives are made clear. The outcome of this field of multifunctional agriculture, the type of farms and
process forms the basis for the second step in the proto- cropping activities and the position in market, society and
typing: the design phase. environment. Then, the current situation can be described
In Chapter 3, the results of the analysis and diagnosis in terms of shortfall to the vision. When the causes of the
carried out in VEGINECO study are summarised. The fol- shortfall are known, priorities can be set for development
lowing items are described in detail: farm economic and of new systems and objectives can be defined.
structural aspects, farm types, policy, legislation on an Based on this innovation vision, objectives can be
EU and national or regional level, certification guidelines established. In the prototyping methodology, there is a
and environmental problems. standardised well-defined set of main objectives and sub-
objectives (between brackets) (Vereijken, 1992):
• food supply (sustainability, stability, accessibility,
2.3 Design quality and quantity),
• employment (farm, region, national),
In the design phase, the prototype is developed. Before • basic income/profit (farm, region, national),
this can be done, the objectives of the prototype must be • abiotic environment (water, soil, air),
clear and the parameters need to be developed to evalu- • nature/landscape (flora, fauna and landscape),
ate the prototype. Therefore, the design phase consists • health/well-being (farm animals, rural or urban
of several steps: population).

Table 2.1 Description of the themes

Quality production The objective is to produce a sufficient volume and quality. A secondary objective is the
production of healthy and safe products.

Clean environment The objective is to prevent and minimise the emission of environmental damaging inputs.
Emission and damage of nutrients and pesticides are the most important aspects.

Nature and landscape The main objective is to strengthen and protect the current ecological value of farms,
integrated in an ecological infrastructure, embedded in the regional landscape to
enhance the environment for humans, flora and fauna. Other functions can be implied as
well, for example care for different groups of people on a farm and water storage.

Sustainable management The main objectives are maintenance and/or improvement of production means (soil and
of resources water) and minimisation of the use of production means with a lasting stock (energy,
water and phosphates). Maintaining or improving the soil means maintaining or improving
soil fertility (biologically, physically and chemically) without causing environmental damage
and organic matter management.

Farm continuity Safeguarding farm continuity by improving farm economics, use of labour and manage-
ment, especially with respect to crop rotation, fertilisation, labour organisation and inte-
gral quality chain care. The main objective is to manage a farm with profitable result.

10
These rather abstract objectives can be converted to needs to be chosen which represents the state of a
directional themes that cover all aspects of farming. The theme in a clear and understandable way. Parameters
themes used in the VEGINECO project are: quality produc- need to be chosen that are objective-oriented (in contrast
tion, clean environment, multifunctionality, sustainable use to means-oriented) and easy to define. In addition, the
of resources and farm continuity (Table 2.1). Another pos- parameter must be able to be influenced by one or more
sible theme is well being/health, which is mainly impor- farming practices. Parameters are not only descriptive,
tant in animal production systems. These themes are sig- but they must be controllable as well. To evaluate a proto-
nificant for all progressive systems. There can be a type of a farming system, only a limited set of parame-
difference in the degree in which priority is given to differ- ters can be used, for practical and strategic reasons. In
ent themes and sub-aspects and the targets. the prototyping methodology, only parameters should be
chosen whose status is taken seriously in the improve-
When the innovation vision is clear and the objectives are ment process. “Empty shells” should be eliminated. From
set, a choice has to be made on the type of farms to be the objectives and the vision can arise that the develop-
used in the project. Also, the type of system to be ment of new parameters is necessary.
defined has to be chosen: integrated, organic or both Every parameter needs a target value to give ambition
type of systems, pure vegetable farms or a combination and focus to the development of the system. The differ-
with arable crops. For example in the Netherlands, the ence between a parameter’s actual value and the target
trend is to include vegetable crops in arable rotations. value indicates the deficit in the parameter.
Therefore, this type of farm was chosen to work on, with Target values can be elaborated from different sources:
integrated as well as an organic systems. • policies and legislation on regional national and global
level,
2.3.2 Quantification of themes: parameters • system specific values,
and target values • scientific state-of-the-art technology.
Next in the design phase, the requirements of the system
have to be identified. A target picture for the medium-long If all of the parameters have target values, the target pic-
and long term has to be developed for the type of sys- ture is quantified and the results of management are veri-
tems chosen. Within each theme, a set of parameters fiable to the target picture. Sometimes, more research is

Table 2.2 Overview of the common set of multi-objective parameters

Theme Parameters Abbreviation

Quality production 1. Quantity of produce QNP

2. Quality of produce QLP
3. Nitrate content of produce NCONT

Clean environment nutrients 4. Nitrogen (mineral) Available Reserves NAR

5. Phosphate Annual Balance PAB
6. Potash Annual Balance KAB

Clean environment pesticides Pesticides input active ingredients

7. Synthetic PESTAS-Synth
8. Copper PESTAS-Cu
Environment Exposure to Pesticides
9. Air EEP-air
10. Groundwater EEP-groundwater
11. Soil EEP-soil

Nature and landscape 12. Ecological Infrastructure EI

Sustainable use of resources 13. Phosphate Available Reserves PAR

14. Potash Available Reserves KAR
15. Organic Matter Annual Balance OMAB
• Energy Input ENIN

Farm continuity 16. Net Surplus NS

• Hours hand weeding HHW

11
needed to establish a target value. Then, estimations can It may be clear that this redesign cannot be done on an
be used in first instance. ad hoc basis or a case-by-case approach. It has to be
A target picture can be more or less ambitious. The farm done in the context of farming with the full awareness of
type in its regional context determines this picture. The the interaction with the other farming methods. Every sin-
picture can often be deduced from the innovation vision gle technique has to have the character of a process-inte-
and the overall objectives set. Overall, the target picture grated solution contributing to the system innovation. To
can be set on different levels: elaborate on the methods in the context of new farming
• minimum requirements from policy and legislation or systems, the following steps have to be taken:
economic laws, 1. inventory of all available knowledge,
• technical feasibility, 2. analysis of negative external effects, specifically
• the ideal picture for the middle-long or long term. focused on the interactions within the system context
and on the (re)interpretation of the validity of these
It can be considered to define target values at all three conclusions as these are often biased by the one-
levels. Then the distance of the actual realisation with the sided focus on physical yields,
different target pictures can be made. 3. consultation with specialists to extract the available
Target values can also be a result of negotiations expert knowledge in the light of the systems objec-
between stakeholders in the development of these new tives,
systems. The nature and justification of a target value 4. adapting and integrating knowledge in the farming
therefore might vary considerably between parameters. method strategies and the underlying toolbox of avail-
Target values are necessary as they play a crucial role in able techniques.
the process of testing and improving.
The parameters used in the VEGINECO project are listed The elaboration of methods follows a natural sequence: it
in Table 2.2. The definition, justification for the choice of starts with the elaboration of a multi-functional crop rota-
parameters and target values are discussed in Chapter 4. tion, followed by the design of methods for nutrient man-
More comprehensive definitions of the parameters are agement, soil tillage, crop protection and nature conser-
given in Annex 2. vation on the farm. Optimisation of the farm structure
concludes this.
2.3.3 Methods
In the next step, a suitable set of farming methods has to Below, an overview is given of the methods that are in
be designed that enables the targeted results to be operation; definitions that are more extensive are given in
reached as quantified in the parameters. The conventional, Annex 3. Most of these methods were defined previously
one-sided, production-oriented methods have to be evalu- in the EU concerted action (Vereijken, 1994; 1995;
ated, redesigned. New methods have to be developed to 1996; 1998). The specific manuals on the farming meth-
be able to meet all of the objectives. Methods are ods (see VEGINECO publication list) will go into a consid-
defined as coherent strategies for the major aspects of erate amount of detail on each of these methods.
farming, consisting of packages of several techniques
(Figure 2.4). All of the traditional areas of farming are Multifunctional Crop Rotation (MCR)
involved starting with crop rotation, followed by nutrient MCR is the major method to preserve soil fertility in bio-
management, crop protection and soil tillage. Farming is logical, physical and chemical terms and to sustain quali-
not possible when the principles of these methods are ty production with a minimum of inputs (pesticides, manu-
not applied. al and machine labour, fertiliser and support energy). A
well-balanced “team” of crops is lined up to reach these
As in every system, the system is a result of interacting objectives.
processes (Figure 2.3). Processes have internal effects,
influencing the system itself, and external effects. A set Integrated and Ecological Nutrient Management
of coherent strategies has to be redesigned to create the (I/ENM)
right method, which optimises internal effects (interac- I/ENM gives directions to supply nutrients to crops in
tion) and minimises external effects. In each strategy, the such amounts and forms and at such time to achieve
right techniques should be chosen from the toolbox with optimal quality production, minimise nutrient losses to the
techniques to reach the target values of the parameters. environment and maintain agronomically desired and eco-
For instance, the general crop protection strategy is step- logically acceptable nutrient and organic matter reserves
wise from prevention, need of control to control. To oper- in the soil. Maximum use is made of the nutrients within
ate this strategy, different techniques are available for the rotation and application techniques.
each step. A suitable technique in prevention is cultivar
choice, decision support systems can be used to estab- Integrated and Ecological Crop Protection (I/ECP)
lish the need of control and application techniques can I/ECP supports MCR and Ecological Infrastructure
help during control. The techniques should be chosen Management (EIM) in achieving optimal quality production
with the aim to reach target values. by selectively controlling residual harmful species with

12
 external effects
System

Method
technique technique
Method
technique technique
technique technique process
technique technique
technique technique
technique technique

internal
effects

process process

Method
technique technique
technique technique
technique technique
external effects external effects

Figure 2.3 Schematic overview of the influence of methods on interacting processes and their effects

minimal exposure of the environment to pesticides. Need energy use; to maintain sufficient soil cover as basis for
of control is reduced by giving maximum emphasis to erosion-prevention; shelter for natural predators and land-
prevention (resistant varieties, cultural measures such as scape/nature values; and to maintain an appropriate
adapted sowing date and row spacing), a correct organic matter annual balance too.
interpretation of the need of control. Careful pesticide
selection and application technique can lower risks of Farm Structure Optimisation (FSO)
emission. FSO determines the minimum amounts of land, labour
and capital goods needed to achieve the required net sur-
Ecological infrastructure management (EIM) plus (all revenues - total costs, including labour), which
EIM supports MCR in achieving optimal quality production should be larger than zero. A region specific tested proto-
by providing airborne and semi soil-borne beneficials a type that can meet the quantified objectives has to have
place to survive unfavourable conditions, and recover and also farm economic perspective. FSO elaborates insight
disperse in the cropping season. In addition, EIM should in the needed farm structure to render an agronomically
achieve nature/landscape objectives. and ecologically optimised system economically optimal
Operating EIM implies establishing an area of linear and too. A method “new” style is a coherent multi-objective
non-linear elements to obtain spatial and temporal conti- strategy that is safe, flexible and utilises a diversified set
nuity in nature area, establishing buffer strips to protect of techniques, dependent on the specific conditions on
these natural areas and finally establishing a plan for the the farm and during the growing season. Each method
long term considering the target species/communities will affect the status of several parameters in different
and special ecological elements such as ponds and hay themes. The influence of the method on a parameter can
stacks. be different. In Figure 2.4, the relation between the methods
and the themes (and underlying parameters) is visualised.
Minimum Soil Cultivation (MSC)
MSC is a method additional to all other methods to sus- 2.3.4 Theoretical prototype and cropping
tain quality production by preparing seedbeds, controlling programmes
weeds, incorporating crop residues and restoring physi- As a last phase in the design process, methods have to
cal soil fertility reduced by compaction from machines, be put together in a theoretical prototype. A design has
notably at harvest. However, Soil Cultivation should be to be made for the prototype in the actual place where it
minimal in order to achieve the objectives with respect to will be tested and cropping programs have to be set up.

13
 Sustainable management
of resources

Integrated/Ecological Multifunctional Minimum

Nutrient Management Crop rotation Soil Cultivation

Clean Environment Quality production

nutrients/pesticides Nature & landscape
Farm continuity

Integrated/Ecological Crop Farm Structure Ecological infrastructure

Protection Optimisation management

Figure 2.4 Relationship between methods and themes (parameters) used in the VEGINECO project. Thick arrows indicate
a strong relationship between the methods and the themes (the parameter value in a theme is mainly influ-
enced by the method). Thin arrows indicate a weaker relationship between the method and the theme (the
parameter value in a theme is partly influenced by the method, however other methods are important as well).

In a theoretical prototype, parameters and methods are quent fertilisation, soil cultivation, crop protection and the
linked to each other as basis for a correct evaluation. management of the ecological infrastructure are also
This final step is necessary to check the links between optimal. The agro-ecological layout is discussed in more
methods and parameters and functions as basic frame- detail in the design of the MCR (Chapter 6.3.4).
work for interpretation of the results. Before the proto-
type is put into practice, a theoretical ex-ante evaluation The last part of the theoretical exercise ends with a
of the prototype can be made. Values of the parameters detailed operational plan, the cropping programmes.
can be calculated or estimated on the basis of expert Before the first growing season, exact and detailed crop-
knowledge and standard figures. These estimated values ping programmes are set up in which the tasks are
are compared with target values. If the values are far described that have to be done, at which time and the
below the target values in some parameters, it may be expected inputs to be used. Running the system is then a
necessary to redesign the system. Lack of knowledge matter of operating these cropping programmes.
can also be identified, which can be included more disci- Adjustments to the cropping programs in practice might
plinary research programs. be necessary depending on actual crop, weather and soil
conditions.
The basis for a successful test phase is the design of the
farming system in time and space. This concerns not
only the design of a multifunctional crop rotation and the 2.4 Testing and improving
other methods, but the agro-ecological identity of the
farm as well. 2.4.1 Pilot farms or experimental farms
When the design of the prototype is completed, it is
“A farming system is an agro-ecological unity that consists ready to be put into practice. Prototypes can be tested
of a set of continuous interactions, and rotating of crops and improved on experimental farms or with groups of
and possibly livestock, together with their accompanying pilot farms. The advantage of testing on experimental
(beneficial or harmful) flora and fauna” (Vereijken, 1994). farms is the experimental freedom. The design of the
system can be carried out without compromises. The
An optimal, agro-ecological layout contributes to the bio- level of detail can be very high which provides opportuni-
logical soil fertility by controlling harmful species with ties for a thorough analysis of the shortfall. Especially
crop rotation and encouraging beneficial species. when the systems seem to be very experimental, a first
Additional criteria can be formulated with regard to the development phase on experimental farms is necessary.
layout such as: field adjacency, field size, field length and On these farms, a full implementation, testing, and
width, adjacency of subsequent crop rotation blocks and improvement of the prototype is possible.
the ecological infrastructure. This ensures that crop rota- The advantages of pilot farms are the interaction with the
tion contributes optimally to the prevention of pests and farm management and the possibility to have “replicates”
diseases (Vereijken, 1994). In this framework, subse- with respect to soil, farm, and management conditions.

14
 Analysis and diagnosis
Analysis and diagnosis

Design
Objectives and themes of
integrated and ecological systems
Multi-objective
farming methods

Parameters quantifying target results

Ex-ante evaluation
Theoretical prototype

Testing and improving

Layout of prototype in practice

Monitoring of results
agronomy and test-parameters

repeated annually
Test:
compare target and actual level

Figure 2.5 Schematic overview of prototyping procedure

When working with farmers, interaction and communica- this task, who will work with the farm manager as a team
tion is essential. However, in order to guarantee sufficient on implementing the plans.
innovation and implementation of the prototype, farmers
will have to commit themselves to a contract that com- All agronomic data is recorded including: all inputs and
mits to a fundamental and well-planned “conversion” of outputs, all operations, machinery and equipment utilised,
their present system. all data of operations and labour. This experimental agro-
If testing and improving is done on an experimental farm, nomic database forms the basis for all relevant evalua-
it has to be repeated again as dissemination on small tions. Sets of all test parameters are assessed according
scale with a group of farmers. A more detailed analysis to the standardised formats, aggregated where neces-
of the problems and challenges encountered in this inter- sary and compared with the target results.
active method of working can be found in Wijnands, 1992
and Wijnands et al. 1998. 2.4.3 Testing and improving of the prototype
Testing implies that the shortfall between the parameters’
2.4.2 Annual implementation and monitoring target values and actual results are analysed. The
of the prototype method that causes the shortfall has to be identified.
In order to develop the prototypes in practice, each year Within this method, the responsible strategies and tech-
the complete prototype on the farms needs to be run niques need to be improved. The agronomic database
according to the cropping programmes with specific and the qualitative observations during the growing sea-
weather, field and other conditions. This task is usually son are indispensable for the analysis of the shortfall
time-consuming and involves a great deal of fieldwork (Figure 2.5).
and input costs. A high level of strategic and agronomic
expertise is needed from the research group and the In this phase, detailed knowledge is generated about the
farm manager with the team. It is recommended to different methods and underlying production techniques;
appoint a researcher as the responsible co-ordinator for their compatibility with other farming methods; their

15
effectiveness in relation to the objectives; and the (poten- scale in practice. The first phase of dissemination should
tial) conflicts with other methods and objectives. This involve a group of well-motivated practical farmers with
information is directly used to improve the prototype. It various soil, farm and management conditions. For each
increases the general knowledge of input-output relation- farm, a specific variation of the general prototype has to
ships and enables to exchange production techniques in be set up. The two major objectives of this phase are 1)
model studies when different balances of objectives are to evaluate the effectiveness and feasibility (manageabili-
to be reached (Rossing et al 1995). ty and acceptability) of the prototype and 2) to gain the
necessary knowledge to implement the prototype safely
Testing on farm level also implies testing of the degree of and successfully on a large scale under a wide range of
usefulness and manageability of the newly developed circumstances.
methods. On pilot farms, attention also has to be paid to Very close co-operation between the researchers, exten-
how well the farm manager accepts the new methods sionists and farmers is a pre-requisite for the dissemina-
(Vereijken, 1995). tion of the results in the next phase: the dissemination on
a large scale.
The prototype will be improved by enhancing the set of
methods in a precise manner. This means looking at how Dissemination on a large scale
to make the currently utilised farming methods more The aim of dissemination on a large scale is to introduce
safe, efficient, acceptable and manageable and, at the as efficiently and effectively as possible the prototype
same, reach the desired results. The prototypes will con- tested on a small scale. This can only be successful if
tinue to be improved from year to year. Any adjustment in the expertise is available to adapt the general prototype
the cropping programmes must be considered carefully into farm-specific variations. It is important that the agri-
in order to avoid new conflicts between the objectives cultural community’s (extension, education and farming
and needs. industries) motivation for and the familiarity with the new
prototype should be sufficient. These conditions can only
The testing and improving continues until the objectives be fulfilled if during the preceding stage, sufficient atten-
as initially defined for each of the relevant parameters are tion was given to the transfer of this expertise. It is recom-
reached. Agro-ecological objectives are tested under field mended to approach this phase as a coherent project
conditions. Economic objectives can be studied and opti- with a clear infrastructure as this ensures clear objectives
mised with model studies, involving different scales of and good transfer of expertise.
farms. These studies can be done during and after the
testing and improving of the agronomic parameters. In Obstacles in the dissemination process
these studies, the needed farm structure can be made How the dissemination of new prototypes must be organ-
explicit to fulfil the agronomic and ecological objectives. ised is highly dependent on the motivation for, the knowl-
This is a very important point of view for policymakers. edge of and the experience with the new prototypes of
The required time to reach the objectives is dependent the individual farmers and the farming community as a
on the objectives, the specific character of the parame- whole. Motivation has to be gained from an increasing
ters (variability and response-time), the specific situation awareness of the agronomic, environmental, ecological
of the prototype and the extent to which production meth- and economical problems that agriculture is currently
ods are already developed. facing. Different points of view on these topics are
expressed in society and the public discussion in agricul-
tural magazines is rather confusing. Awareness of the
2.5 Dissemination necessity for changes leads to a change in attitude.
When alternatives with sufficient potential are available
The potential of new prototypes can only be evaluated in too, a change in behaviour is possible.
practice. Management is the key factor for the success
and feasibility of these new approaches. When the proto- The alternatives in this case are the new prototypes.
type shows stable results, such as when parameter val- Increasing knowledge about the new systems and build-
ues are stable and have reached (almost) all target val- ing up individual experience follows naturally when the
ues, dissemination is the next step. Dissemination can be positive motivation is apparent. Support from the sector
take place on a small scale or on a large scale. During is inevitable for a successful implementation of future-ori-
small-scale dissemination, a small group of pilot farms is ented systems because the ”social carrying capacity” has
guided closely. During large-scale dissemination, larger to originate there. Moreover, sector (farmers or product-
groups of farmers are supported more extensively. oriented) organisations often play an important role in
financing these types of projects. A complicating factor is
Dissemination on a small scale that these types of systems often base their objectives
A first test on a small number of pilot farms of the proto- on the same perspective that policy visions are based on.
type(s) developed on experimental farms is an indispen- Thereby, they acquire a political and negative dimension
sable step before introducing new prototypes on a large in the view of the sector.

16