Advanced SWC - Mannual

Advanced SWC Hassen Mohammed
1. Historical Background of Soil Erosion and Soil and Water Conservation in Ethiopia
Arable farming, or cultivation of crops on tracts of agricultural land, first appeared

around 11,000 years ago. At the end of the Paleolithic period, when ground or polished stone
weapons and implements prevailed, nomad populations moved on from gathering food to
farming. With the domestication of cereals, human settlements were developed hand in hand.
Although for a long time the Middle East was considered the cradle for this evolution,
researchers have identified farming centers dating from the same period in various places around
the world. Ethiopia is assumed to accustom arable farming in the same period since it shares
parallel historical events with its nearby neighbor, the Middle East. It was confirmed that in
Ethiopian Highlands human being lived in cave during Stone Age at an elevation of 11,000 feet
(3352 m) (ETV, August 10, 2019). Barely, Wheat, Sorghum and Teff were thought grew in small
areas nearby.
Over time, production areas expanded in Ethiopian Highlands and the tools used by the first
farmers allowed them to work over agricultural lands in greater quantities, thus leading to the
formation of the first villages. As population grows, development of new settlements became
apparent and a parallel food requirement demanded a greater volume of food; hence size of
farmlands increased and arable farming began.
Arable farming became widespread in Antiquity (the distant past, especially the classical and
other civilizations before the Middle Ages) onwards without improved systems, except
fallowing, agricultural practices allowed production in main cropping season and cereal became
the staple food for whole societies or entire civilizations even. In addition to cereals, livestock
produce became apparently emerged. Farming without fallow periods was gradually developed
and introduced, thereby accelerating food production. The new practice was used to produce
both fodder and cereals. The evolution of agricultural practices played a prominent role in the
growth of the population and urban expansion. To satisfy the needs of ever increasing
population, agricultural activities began encroaching marginal area such as steep slopes,
mountain sides, grazing lands and vegetation covers without sound soil and water conservation
measures.
The geographical position of most Ethiopian Highlands exhibit high elevation differences which
make landscapes steep and susceptible to accelerated soil erosion. Such land degradation has
been aggravated by human mismanagement due to population pressure. Natural resource
disturbance by human ill treatments, in addition to natural catastrophes, has been motivated by a
continuous population growth to satisfy more cultivable land, fuel and construction woods. Such
destruction and ecological disturbance bring about substantial erosion hazards and diminishing
of soil fertility and poor land productivity, disruption of the hydrological cycle, land degradation,
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desertification, and a further reduction in the ability to produce food and other biological needs
demanded by the increasing human and livestock populations.
Sustainability is getting forfeited or disappeared as a result of significant concerns or ignorance

about the unintended social, environmental, and economic consequences of rapid population
growth and consumption of the natural resources. Therefore, one of the main causes for low
productivity of land in Ethiopia traces its roots to a continued depletion of untold quantities of
precious fertile soil carried by untapped water resources. The highlands of Ethiopia are losing
topsoil at an estimated rate of 46 tons/ha/y. This is 10 to 30 times the estimated soil formation
rate in these areas. A formation of 1 cm thick soil takes around 100 to 1000 years depending on
climatic, human activities on the parent material, and soil physical and chemical properties. This
means our soil is almost irreplaceably being lost (Hassen Mohammed et al., 2004; Get Zeleke,
2000; Hurni, 1986).
To eliminate the root causes of natural resources degradation and ensure a good land husbandry
and satisfy present needs without compromising the fate of future generation, the adoption of soil
and water conservation measures had become therefore necessary. Following the devastating
drought of the mid-1980s, the Derg regime, backed by international aid funds and food relief,
initiated a program of Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) in Ethiopian Highlands (Scoones et
al., 1996; Gete Zeleke, 2000). Though the 1984 severe drought was driver for mass start of
SWC, two historical events supported the program: 1) The Influential Highland Reclamation
Study (FAO, 1986) and 2) The establishment of Soil Conservation Research Projects (SCRP) in
the early 1980s in the degraded areas of five Ethiopian Highlands. A standard package of
intervention manuals were developed by Soil Conservation Research Project (Hurni, 1986) and
assisted implementation of SWC structural engineering solutions on wide-scale especially
Wollo, Tgray and Harergie highlands throughout the latter half of the 1980s. Since then SWC
works have been implemented all over the country in soil erosion-prone areas through
government and non-government sponsored conventional and project-based programs.
Although remarkable efforts have been made during the last 40 years in soil and water
conservation activities, the general record for the achievement is not satisfactory. One of the
reasons for the failure of SWC would be the approaches SWC strategy was following. It was
adopted 1) A fragmentary approach, preferably concentrated only on farm terrace construction,
which did not integrated the fauna and flora within a rehabilitation unit and 2) Top-down
approach which was a technocratic approach that does not involve community participation and
household concerns in problem identification, intervention measure identification and priority
setting, planning and implementation.
Another core reason for the failures of soil and water conservation developments could be
attributed mainly to the 1) scarcity of authentic soil erosion and hydrologic processes data, such
as rates and amounts of erosion and runoff and 2) application of wrong technical specification
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and design principles in construction; so that SWC measures were often poorly executed, many
failed and others not maintained. In addition, in some places, the imposed actions caused
intentional damaging the existing conventional SWC mechanical measures, replacing them with
alternatives that were less suited to the local setting or eliminating them at all.
Various efforts, though not sustainable, such as 1) development and preparation of Guideline of
SWC and Community Forestry Manuals for Development Agents in 1986 by Ministry of
Agriculture in collaboration with SCRP, 2) application of Local Level Participatory Planning
Approach (LLPPA) by MoA and 3) implementation of Food-for-Work projects by Word Food
Program (WFP) resulted in the birth of the national Community Based Participatory Watershed
Development (CBPWD) guideline in 2005. The birth of CBPWD has changed the picture of land
and water management and rehabilitation in the country where participation, quality,
sustainability, livelihood and environmental consequences were worth more than fulfilling
quotas (Gete Zeleke, 2014). However, this program similarly doesn’t bring about substantial
results as it is based on mere community participation to fulfil their politically motivated quotas
without knowledge of real problem of the site condition, lack of technical specification and
design principle of the techniques being applied and lack of integration of various disciplines that
naturally occurring in the watersheds.
To achieve sound SWC system it is necessary to have an in-depth understanding of the sciences
of Soil Erosion and Hydrologic Processes and Soil and Water Conservation Engineering and
technically design and keep the right specification of various types of structures. This course is
therefore, intended to have students a few insight into the fundamental nature and cause of soil
erosion, methods of soil erosion assessment, the different techniques and technologies of soil and
water conservation measures and design of some SWC structures leaving the complete
exploration and understanding of the Sciences to Students in their future career.
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2. Soil Erosion Processes
2.1. Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the wearing down of a landscape over time. It includes detachment, transport and
deposition of soil particles, including plant nutrients and organic matter, by the erosive forces of
raindrops and surface water flow or wind.
2.1.2. Occurrence
Soil erosion occurs in two forms

1. Geological or natural erosion: is the gradual removal of soil by natural processes acting
over a long time without depleting soil productivity
2. Accelerated erosion: is the removal of soil at faster rate by the activities of man and is
responsible for depleting soil productivity, destroying land and filling reservoirs with
sediments.
Hereafter, unless specifically mentioned, erosion refers to accelerated erosion.
2.2. Effects of soil erosion
The main damages that are caused by soil erosion are the following:
1. Loss of soil: Quantitative amount of soil is washed away from the surface, for example,
the annual sediment yield transported out of the Abay Basin and the country were
287,400,000 tons (LWRC, 2016) and 1.9 billion tons (EHRS,1986), respectively,
2. Change of soil texture: This results when erosion transports the finer soil particles
separating from the soil mixture and leaves the courser ones predominantly on the
ground,
3. Damage of soil structure: is resulted when the finer grains are washed away by
concentrated overland flow and transported out of the watershed/landscape/field slope, so
if there is no clay, the remaining soil lacks forming coarse granular, prismatic (columnar)
or blocky,
4. Loss of plant nutrients and organic matter,
5. Silting of water bodies and water courses (reservoirs, lakes, ponds, wetlands, river
channels),
6. Loss of soil moisture,
7. Loss of water quality and quantity,
8. Drying of rivers and springs, or reduction in water flow
9. Loss of productivity of land, and
10. Etc.
2.3. Agents of soil erosion
The primary agents of soil erosion are:

i. Water, and
ii. Wind.
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2.4. Mechanics of soil erosion
Mechanics of soil erosion consists of three processes:

i. Detachment,
ii. Sediment transportation, and
iii. Deposition.
The first two activities are solely responsible for taking place of soil erosion; either they are
caused by an agent of water or wind.
2.4.1. Detachment
Soil Detachment is the separation of individual soil units from the main soil body by raindrop
splash and runoff.
2.4.1.1. Causes of detachment
The following geological actions are responsible to detach the soil particles from their parent
materials:
i. Hydraulic action: When the water runs over the soil surface then it compresses the soil
ii. Abrasion: When the soil particle mixed in the running water, it creates an abrasion power
in the water by which the capacity of flowing water to scour the soil particle gets
increased.
iii. Attrition: This action includes the mechanical breakdown of loads running along the
moving water due to collision of particles with each other.
iv. Solution: Actually in this action, the soil or rock materials are dissolved in the running
water due to chemical action, which are carried away with the water flow.
2.4.1.2. Factors affection detachment
The factors are closely related to various soils and raindrop characteristics by virtue of which, a
particular soil becomes susceptible to get detached; the following factors can be cited:
1. Soil permeability  the higher the permeability, the lower is detachment
2. Soil texture  the finer the texture, the lower the detachability.
3. Soil structures  the courser the structure. I.e. fine  granular  blocky  platy 
massive  detachability decreases in this order.
4. Organic matter content  the higher the organic matter content the lower is the
detachment.
5. Vegetation covers  the higher is the vegetation cover  the lower is detachment.
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6. Size of Raindrop  the higher is the size, so are velocity and mass of the raindrop, the
higher is the detachment.
7. Volume of surface runoff and peak runoff rate  the higher of both, the higher is the
detachability and transportation of soil.
The amount of damage done by falling raindrop is proportional to its kinetic energy (KE =
1/2mv2), which ranges from 100 to 1,000,000 times the work capacity of surface flow (runoff),
depending on the runoff coefficient and velocity of raindrop and overland flow.
2.4.2. Transportation
Transportation is the process under which soil particles are carried away from one place to
another by raindrop splash and running water (runoff and streamflow). Sediment transport is
mainly a function of volume of runoff and peak flow velocity. Running water can impact both
transport of sediment and scouring of soil, where the former is typical action of.
2.4.2.1. Factors affecting transportation
The transportation of particles mainly depends upon the following factors:
1. Velocity of runoff: The higher the velocity, the greater amount of particles is transported.
2. Load present in the water: Flowing water containing less load of soil can easily
transported the mixed soil.
3. Obstacles present in the flow path of water. Presence of obstacles reduces transportation
of soil particles and vice-versa.
4. Volume of runoff: A large volume of stream power performs greater soil transportation
and vice-versa.
2.4.2.2. Types of transportation
In water erosion, the process of soil transportation by running water is performed under the
following forms:
1. Solution,
2. Suspension,
3. Saltation, and
4. Surface creep
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3. Methods of Soil Erosion Assessment
The most common unit for sediment yield is tones/year. The specific sediment yield is the yield
per unit of land area which is most commonly given in tones/km 2/year or tons/ha/yr. There are
three major ways, in which soil erosion needs to be measured or evaluated (Hudson, 1995):
1. Direct measurements,
2. Field experiments, or
3. Mathematical models.
3.1. Direct measurements
These are designed to assess erosion at a number of sample sites over an area. Such
measurements include:
i. Point measurements (one-dimensional change for surface level at a point). The method
involves erosion pins, paint collars, bottle tops, pedestals and roots.
ii. Profile measurements (two-dimensional change of profile or cross-section), and
iii. Volumetric measurements (soil loss in three-dimension of rills or gullies). The direct
measurement of changes in soil level is appropriate in the case of localized erosion where
rates are high and the position of the erosion can be predicted, such as deforested steep
land and cattle tracks on rangeland. This method is usually not suitable for losses from
arable land because the surface level is affected by cultivation and settlement.
Structural composition of soil
Soil is comprised of three phases: solid, liquid and gas (Figure 1). The solid phase consists of
minerals and/or organic matter that form the matrix or skeleton of the soil. Between the solid
particles, soil pores are formed that hold the liquid and gas phases. The soil solution may fill the
soil pores completely (saturated) or partially (unsaturated). When the soil is unsaturated, the soil
solution is found as thin films along particle surfaces, as annular wedges around contact points of
particles and as isolated bodies in narrow pore passages.
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Figure 1: Structural composition of soil: A soil contains soil fraction (Vsolids) and pore space for
air (Vair) and water (Vwater).
Bulk Density
The soil’s Bulk Density (BD) defines the relative amounts of pore space and soil matrix. The soil
bulk density, also known as dry bulk density, is the weight of dry soil (M solids) divided by the total
soil volume (Vsoil). The total soil volume is the combined volume of solids and pores which may
contain air (Vair) or water (Vwater), or both (figure 1, above). The average values of air, water and
solid in soil are easily measured and are useful indication of a soils physical condition.
Properties of BD
 Bulk density is the weight of soil in a given volume.

 Soils with a bulk density higher than 1.6 g/cm3 tend to restrict root growth.
 Bulk density increases with compaction and tends to increase with depth.
 As the size of soil particles increases, bulk density increases,
 Information on bulk density is used to derive information on soil hydraulic properties
(saturated hydraulic conductivity and available water content, see figure below), and
 Bulk density can be used to calculate soil properties per unit area (e.g. soil loss, tons/ha,
volume of soil loss, m3).
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100
80
60
40
20
X
-15 -10 -5 5 10 15
-20
Y= Change in Ksat and AWC [%]
X= Change in Bulk Density [%] 40
AWC -60
Ksat
-80
Y
Fig. Mean change in soil hydraulic properties due to change in BD
Figure 2: Mean change in for
soil hydraulic properties due to changes in Bulk Density
the upper soil horizon that arise from changes in land use.
Soil bulk density and porosity (the number of pore spaces) reflects the size, shape and
arrangement of particles and voids (soil structure). Both bulk density and porosity (V pores) give a
good indication of the suitability for root growth and soil permeability and are vitally important
for the soil-plant-atmosphere relation (Cresswell and Hamilton, 2002; McKenzie et al., 2004). It
is generally desirable to have soil with a low BD (<1.5 g/cm 3) (Hunt and Gilkes, 1992) for
optimum movement of air and water through the soil. Bulk density is calculated:
b = MS/VT (1)
where b is the bulk density (Mg m-3), MS is the mass of the solids (Mg), and VT is the total
volume (m3). The total volume is defined as
VT =VA +VW +VS (2)
where VA is the volume of air (m3), VW is the volume of water (m3), and VS is the volume of
solids (m3). The relationship between soil porosity and soil bulk density is
soil 1- (b /s) (3)

where soil is the soil porosity expressed as a fraction of the total soil volume, b is the bulk
density (Mg m-3), and s is the particle density (Mg m -3). The particle density, or density of the
solid fraction, is a function of the mineral composition of the soil matrix. Based on research, a
default value of 2.65 Mg m-3 is used for particle density.
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Example:
A soil conservationist assessed the magnitude of soil lost in 2018/2019 crop calendar from a plot
of farmland of 100 m wide and 100 m long sown with maize at the onset of early summer
rainfall. There was no soil disturbing activities after planting. As direct soil loss measurement
method, 8 erosion pins were put in place on April 15, 2018 EC at selected sites over the
cropland. At the end of the year i.e. on April 16/2019, The pins were observed and noticed pin 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 reduced a soil depth of 5 mm, 3 mm, 1.5 mm, 2.5 mm, 2 mm, 2 mm, 3.5 mm
and 4.5 mm, respectively. How much was the annual soil loss of this plot of land in point
measurement, profile measurement and volumetric basis? Assume Bulk Density of the soil as 1.5
Mg m-3.
Solution: i) Average depth of soil loss = sum of reduction in depth of all pins/# of pins = 24/8=3
mm is a point measurement (one dimensional).
ii) Area of land = 100 m*100 m = 10000 m2
Volumetric soil loss= Area * depth of soil loss = 10000 m2 * 3mm/1000 mm/m = 30 m3
iii) Bulk Density = mass/volume of bulk soil
1.5 Mg/m3 = mass/30 m3
Mass = 45 Mg = 45,000,000 g = 45 tons
Area of land is 10,000 m2 = 1 ha, so in profile measurement, soil loss would be 45 tons/ha.
3.2. Field experiments
These are carried out at permanent research or experimental station based on confined runoff
plots with known parameters from which runoff, soil loss and other biophysical factors are
monitored. By interpreting the data obtained, it is possible to estimate the average soil loss but
also average annual values of factors used for different empirical models such as Universal Soil
Loss Equation (USLE).
Extrapolation of results from field experiments to field conditions can be made only with careful
analysis. Field experiments can be classified as:
1. Runoff plots and
2. Rainfall simulators.
Runoff plots
Runoff plots are bounded experimental fields of known area, slope gradient, slope length and soil
type from which both runoff and soil loss are of the best uses for runoff plots is demonstration,
where the purpose is to demonstrate known facts.
Rainfall simulators
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Rainfall simulators are research tools designed to apply water in a form similar to natural
rainfall. They are useful for many types of soil erosion and hydrologic experiments. Rainfall
simulator research also has major limitation and disadvantages. The cost and time required
constructing a suitable rainfall simulator with related equipment and personnel needed to operate
an effective simulated rainfall research program generally are the greatest hurdles. Extrapolating
this rather narrow band of information to the wide variety of storms, soil and cover conditions,
which occur over a year, is a major difficulty.
3.3. Mathematical models
Modeling soil erosion is the process of mathematically describing and capturing factors affecting
the process of soil particle detachment, transport, and deposition and finally predicting soil
loss/sediment yield on land surfaces. There are three types of mathematical models:
1. Empirical models which are based primarily on observation and are usually statistical in
nature (based on inductive logic). Example is USLE.
2. Conceptual models lie somewhere between physically based models and empirical
models, and are based on spatially lumped forms of water and sediment continuity
equations.
3. Physically based models are intended to represent the essential mechanisms and
processes controlling erosion. They provide the possibility to determine or estimate
spatial and temporal distribution of soil loss, sediment yield and deposition.
Some of the process-based models are SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tools),
AGNPS (Agricultural Non-Point Source) pollution model, SWAT (Soil and Water
Assessment Tool, etc. At choosing a model, the factors to be considered are the level of
application, purposes, required accuracy, space and time scale and the availability of data.
SWAT was developed to predict the impact of land management practices on water, sediment
and agricultural chemical yields in large complex watersheds with varying soils, land use and
management conditions over long periods of time. To satisfy this objective, the model:
o Is physically based. Rather than incorporating regression equations to describe the
relationship between input and output variables, SWAT requires specific information
about weather, soil properties, topography, vegetation, and land management practices
occurring in the watershed. The physical processes associated with water movement,
sediment movement, crop growth, nutrient cycling, etc. are directly modeled by SWAT
using this input data.
Benefits of this approach are:

Watersheds with no monitoring data (e.g. stream gage data) can be modeled
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The relative impact of alternative input data (e.g. changes in management practices,
climate, vegetation, etc.) on water quality or other variables of interest can be quantified
Uses readily available inputs. While SWAT can be used to study more specialized
processes such as bacteria transport, the minimum data required to make a run are
commonly available from government agencies.
Is computationally efficient. Simulation of very large basins or a variety of management
strategies can be performed without excessive investment of time or money.
Enables users to study long-term impacts. Many of the problems currently addressed by
users involve the gradual buildup of pollutants and the impact on downstream water
bodies. To study these types of problems, results are needed from runs with output
spanning several decades.
SWAT is a continuous time model, i.e. a long-term yield model. The model is not designed to
simulate detailed, single-event flood routing.
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4. Sediment Transport
Sediment yield can be estimated for each Hydrologic Response Unit (HRU), a unique
combination of slope, land use and soil, with the Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation
(MUSLE) (Williams, 1975) using Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. While the
USLE uses rainfall as an indicator of erosive energy, MUSLE uses the amount of runoff to
simulate erosion and sediment yield. The substitution results in a number of benefits: the
prediction accuracy of the model is increased and the need for a delivery ratio is eliminated. The
hydrologic model supplies estimates of runoff volume and peak runoff rate which, with the
subbasin area, are used to calculate the runoff erosive energy variable.
Significance of soil loss estimation

i. To predict spatio-temporal soil erosion losses, example: Daily, monthly, yearly average
annual soil loss values can be estimated at HRU, sub-watershed or watershed level,
ii. To pinpoint critical areas,
iii. To prioritise eroded areas for conservation,
iv. To plan conservation program,
v. To conduct scenario analyses, and
vi. To evaluate the effects of applying alternative management practices/.
Limitation of USLE
i. It is empirical
 The various soil erosion processes are not mathematically represented, so it is
liable to introduce predictive error,
ii. It predicts only average annual soil loss
 Does not provide explicitly spatial and temporal distribution of soil loss,
iii. It doesn’t compute gully erosion, and
iv. It doesn’t compute deposition and sediment yield, needs delivery ratio.
Se dim entYield
GrossErossion=
DeliveryRatio
Sediment transport consists of two components:

i. Landscape component and
ii. Channel component.
4.1. Landscape component
From the landscape component, SWAT keeps tracks of eroded sediments. Sediment yield is
calculated HRU level and summarized at sub-basin (sub) level, both expressed in tons/ha.
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sed=11. 8 ( Q surf⋅q peak⋅areahru ) 0. 56⋅K usle⋅Cusle⋅Pusle⋅LSusle⋅CFRG

for land scape
(4)
where, sed is sediment yield on a given day (metric tons),

Qsurf is surface runoff volume (mm
q
ha-1), peak is peak runoff rate (m3s-1),
areahru is area of HRU (ha),
K usle is the Universal Soil Loss
C
Equation (USLE) soil erodibility factor (0.013 metric ton m 2 hr (m3 - metric ton cm)-1), usle is the
USLE cover and management factor,

Pusle is
the USLE support practice factor, usle is the LS
USLE topographic factor, and CFRG is the coarse fragment factor, CFRG=exp ( 0 . 053⋅rock ) ,
where rock is the percent rock in the first soil layer (%).
Surface runoff volume, and peak runoff rate can be calculated using Soil Conservation Service
Curve Number and Modified Rational Method, respectively as:
2
( R day−I a )
Q surf =
( Rday −I a +S )
S=25 . 4 (1000
CN
−10)
, (5)
atc .Q surf . Area

q peak =
3. 6 t conc
(6)
Rday Ia S
where, is amount of rain falling during the day (mm), is initial abstractions (mm), and
CN Ia ¿ S atc
is retention parameter (mm). is curve number for the day, 0.2 , is fraction of daily
Area t conc
rainfall that occurs during the time of concentration, is subbasin area (km ), 2
is time
of concentration for the subbasin (hr), and 3.6 is unit conversion factor.
Eroded sediments from each HRU, which are summarized in subbasin level, deposited on the
land or routes through the channels and surface water bodies at different spatial and temporal
scales expressed in metric tons.
4.2. Channel component
Water is routed through the channel network using variable storage routing method (Chow,
1988). For a given reach segment, storage routing is based on the continuity equation: Vin-Vout =
∆V.
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Manning’s equation for uniform flow in a channel is used to calculate the rate and velocity of
flow in a reach segment for a given time step in open channel of trapezoidal shape as:
A ch⋅R 2⋅slp 1
3 2
ch ch
q ch=
n (7)
R 2⋅slp 1
3 2
ch ch
νc =
n (8)
q ch, pk = prf⋅qch
(9)
q
where, ch is rate of flow in the channel (m3/s),
A ch is cross-sectional area of flow in the channel
(m2),
Rch is hydraulic radius for a given depth of flow (m),
slp ch is slope along the channel
length (m), n is Manning’s coefficient for the channel,

Vc v
is flow velocity (m/s), ch , pk is peak
channel velocity (m/s),

q ch, pk is peak rate of flow in the channel (m3/s), and prf is peak rate of
flow adjustment factor.
Sediment transport in the channel network is a function of two processes, deposition and
degradation, operating simultaneously in the reach. SWAT will compute deposition and
degradation using the same channel dimensions for the entire simulation. Alternatively, SWAT
can also simulate down-cutting and widening of the stream channel and update channel
dimensions throughout the simulation. SWAT will compute deposition and degradation using the
same channel dimensions for the entire simulation. Channel sediment process depends on:
 Amount of erosive force of Stream Power,

 Channel slope,
 Channel cover, and
 Channel bank and bed erodibility factor.
Each subbasin has a main routing reach where sediment from upland subbasins is routed and
then added to downstream reaches. Five stream power equations are used for modeling sediment
transport based on bank and bed erosions in the channel containing various bed materials and
sediment deposition:
i. Simplified version of Bagnold Equation,
ii. Simplified Bagnold model,
iii. Kodatie model,
iv. Molinas and Wu model, and
v. Yang sand and Gravel model.
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Figure 3: Sediment transport process within the watershed. The numbers are just examples.
The four stream power models (ii to v) are physics based approaches used to predict the transport
capacity of channel (channel erosion). The stream power models predict the maximum
concentration of bedload it can carry as a non-linear function of peak velocity:
CONCsed ch mx = f (peak flow velocity) where CONCsed,ch.mx is the maximum concentration of

sediment that can be transported by the water (metric ton/m 3). For the channel erosion to occur,
both transport and supply should not be limiting, i.e., 1) the stream power (transport capacity) of
the water should be high and the sediment load from the upstream regions should be less than
this capacity and 2) The shear stress exerted by the water on the bed and bank should be more
than the critical shear stress to dislodge the sediment particle. The potential erosion rates of bank
and bed is predicted based on the excess shear stress equation (Hanson and Simon, 2001). No
detail description of those models is presented here rather the reader is advised to investigate
further about the four models.
4.3. Simplified version of Bagnold equation (1977)
Williams (1980) used Bagnold’s (1977) definition of stream power to develop a method for
determining degradation as a function of channel slope and velocity. In this version, the
equations have been simplified and the maximum amount of sediment that can be transported
from a reach segment is a function of the peak channel velocity. The peak channel velocity, vch,pk,
is calculated:
qch , pk
v ch , pk =
A ch (10)
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q
where, ch is rate of flow in the channel (m3/s),
A ch is cross-sectional area of flow in the channel
(m2),
Rch is hydraulic radius for a given depth of flow (m),
slp ch is slope along the channel
length (m), n is Manning’s coefficient for the channel,

Vc v
is flow velocity (m/s), ch , pk is peak
channel velocity (m/s),

q ch, pk is peak rate of flow in the channel (m3/s), and prf is peak rate of
flow adjustment factor.
The peak flow rate is defined as:

q ch, pk = prf⋅qch
(11)
where prf is the peak rate adjustment factor, and qch is the average rate of flow (m 3/s). The
maximum amount of sediment that can be transported from a reach segment is calculated as
(Arnold et al., 2011):
conc sed , ch . , mx = c sp⋅ν
ch sp exp
, pk (12)
where,
conc sed,ch.,mx is the maximum concentration of sediment that can be transported by the
c
water (ton/m3), sp is linear parameter for calculating the maximum amount of sediment that can
ν ch
be re-entrained during channel sediment routing (0.0001 to 0.01), , pk is peak channel velocity
(m/s), and sp exp is an exponent parameter for calculating sediment re-entrained in channel
sediment routing normally varies between 1.0 and 2.0 and was set at 1.5.
The maximum concentration of sediment calculated with equation 4 is compared to the

concentration of sediment in the reach at the beginning of the time step, concsed,ch,i. If concsed ,ch,i >
conc sed,ch,mx , deposition is the dominant process in the reach segment and the net amount of
sediment deposited is calculated:
sed =( conc
dep sed,ch ,i −conc
sed ,ch ,mx ch )⋅V
Deposition, (13)
where seddep is the amount of sediment deposited in the reach segment (metric tons), concsed,ch,i is
the initial sediment concentration in the reach (kg/L or ton/m3), concsed,ch,mx is the maximum
concentration of sediment that can be transported by the water (kg/L or ton/m 3), and Vch is the
volume of water in the reach segment (m3 H2O).
If concsed,ch ,i < conc sed,ch,mx, degradation is the dominant process in the reach segment and the net
amount of sediment re-entrained is calculated:
Degradation, (
sed deg = conc sed , ch , mx −conc sed
, ch , i ) V ch⋅K ch⋅C ch (14)
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August, 2019
where seddeg is the amount of sediment reentrained in the reach segment (metric tons), concsed,ch,mx
is the maximum concentration of sediment that can be transported by the water (kg/L or ton/m 3),
concsed,ch,i is the initial sediment concentration in the reach (kg/L or ton/m3), Vch is the volume of
water in the reach segment (m3 H2O), KCh is the channel erodibility factor, and Cch is the channel
cover factor.
Once the amount of deposition and degradation has been calculated, the final amount of
sediment in the reach is determined:
sedch = sedch i - seddep + seddeg (15)
Where sedch is the amount of suspended sediment in the reach (metric tons), sedch,I is the amount
of suspended sediment in the reach at the beginning of the time period (metric tons), seddep is the
amount of sediment deposited in the reach segment (metric tons), and seddeg is the amount of
sediment re-entrained in the reach segment (metric tons).
The amount of sediment transported out of the reach is calculated as:

V out
sed out =sed ch⋅
V ch (16)
where,
sed out = amount of sediment transported out of the reach (metric tons), sed ch is amount of
suspended sediment in the reach (metric tons), and

V out is the volume of outflow during the time
V
step (m3 H2O), and ch is volume of water in the reach segment (m3).
In this method, the erosion is assumed to be limited only by the transport capacity, i.e., the
sediment supply from channel erosion is unlimited. If the bedload entering the channel is less
than the transport capacity, then channel erosion is assumed to meet this deficit. On the other
hand if the bedload entering the channel is more than the transport capacity, the difference in the
load will get deposited within the channel. Hence, in the default method, the bed load carried by
the channel is almost always near the maximum transport capacity given by the simplified
Bagnold equation and only limited by the channel cover and erodibility factors. During
subsequent floods, the deposited sediments will be resuspended and transported before channel
degradation.
If this method is chosen for sediment transport modeling, it does not keep track of particle size
distribution through the channel reaches and all are assumed to be of silt size particles. Further,
the channel erosion is not partitioned between stream bank and stream bed and deposition is
assumed to occur only in the main channel; flood plain deposition of sediments is also not
modeled separately.
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4.4. Channel characteristics
Most models assume the main channels or reaches have a trapezoidal shape (Figure 2). Users are
required to define the width and depth of the channel when filled to the top of the bank as well as
the channel length, slope along the channel length and Manning‘s “n” value. SWAT assumes the
channel sides have a 2:1 run to rise ratio (Zch = 2). The slope of the channel sides is then ½ or 0.5.
Figure 2: Trapezoidal channel dimensions.
The bottom width is calculated from the bank full width and depth with the equation:
Wbtm = Wbnkfull - 2 · Zch · depthbnkfull (17)
where Wbtm is the bottom width of the channel (m), Wbnkfull is the top width of the channel when
filled with water (m), Zch is the inverse of the channel side slope, and depthbnkfull is the depth of
water in the channel when filled to the top of the bank (m). Because of the assumption that Zch =
2; it is possible for the horizontal and vertical sides to give actual sizes if the user have to do so.
W bnkfull−W btm
Z ch= (18)
2 · depth bnkfull
For a given depth of water in the channel, the width of the channel at water level is:
Wbnkfull = Wbtm + 2 ·Zch · depth (19)
where W is the width of the channel at water level (m), Wbtm is the bottom width of the channel
(m), Zch is the inverse of the channel slope, and depth is the depth of water in the channel (m).
The cross-sectional area of flow is calculated:

Ach = (Wbtm + Zch · depth) · depth (20)
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August, 2019
Where Ach is the cross-sectional area of flow in the channel (m 2), Wbtm is the bottom width of the
channel (m), Zch is the inverse of the channel slope, and depth is the depth of water in the channel
(m). The wetted perimeter of the channel is defined as:
Pch Wbtm · depth ·√ 1+Z ch (21)

2
where Pch is the wetted perimeter for a given depth of flow (m). The hydraulic radius of the
channel is calculated as:
A
Rch = ch (22)
Pch
where Rch is the hydraulic radius for a given depth of flow (m), Ach is the cross-sectional area of
flow in the channel (m2), and Pch is the wetted perimeter for a given depth of flow (m).
The volume of water held in the channel is calculated as:

Vch = 1000· Lch · Ach (23)
where Vch is the volume of water stored in the channel (m 3), Lch is the channel length (km), and
Ach is the cross-sectional area of flow in the channel for a given depth of water (m2).
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August, 2019
5. Design of Soil and Water Conservation Structures
5.1. Principles/Strategies employed in erosion control
Strategies for design of erosion control structures must be based on the studies of the mechanics
of soil erosion (detachment and transport) by raindrop splash and runoff. The principles
employed in erosion control should be focused upon:
1. Reducing the impact of rain drops,
2. Reducing the velocity and volume of runoff,
3. Increasing the soil’s resistance to erosion, and
4. Safe disposal of surface runoff.
The most appropriate strategy for conservation depends upon:

1. Selecting the required level of spatial (medium watershed level) and temporal (10 years
return period) resolution,
2. Identifying most important factors influencing erosion at that scale (climatic, soil,
vegetation, and topographic factors),
3. Determining a value for maximum soil loss tolerance compared to an average of 42
tons/ha/y (Hurni, 1985) soil loss in the Ethiopian highlands, it is reasonable to minimise
soil loss below 10 tons/ha/y, and
4. Determining most suitable techniques controlling erosion at the given scale,
5. The strategic scales can be designed conveniently into three levels:
a) National,
b) Regional, and
c) Local.
The forwarding discussion of SWC is based on local level strategy.
5.2. Definition of soil and water conservation (SWC)
SWC is an activity at the local level which enhances the productive capacity of the soil in
erosion-prone areas through:
A) Reduction of erosion,
B) Conservation of moisture, and
C) Improvement of soil fertility,
5.3. Basic tools for SWC application
For the achievement of sound SWC, the following three tools should be combined together:
A. SWC technique,
B. SWC technology, and
C. SWC approaches.
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A. SWC technique
It describes single measure or a combination of measures covering the same space, like a grass
strip on soil bund.
B. SWC technology
It describes a package of different techniques. Example: contour bunds and contour ploughing
between the bunds.
C. Soil and water conservation approach

It defines the enabling knowledge and socio-economic environment, the ways and means, which
are used to realize a SWC technology on the ground.
Elements of an approach are:
1. All participants (policy makers, administrators, experts, technicians, land users i. e.
actors at all levels),
2. Input and means (financial, material, legislative etc.), and
3. Know-how (technical, scientific and practical).
An approach may include different levels of intervention, from the individual farm, through the
community level, the extension system, the regional or national administration, or the policy
level to international framework conditions.
Even though SWC activities have often been realized through projects or programmes,
indigenous SWC measures and spontaneous adoptions or adaptations of SWC technologies
should be also appreciated and enhanced.
5.4. Choice of method of SWC with respect to amount of annual precipitation
There is no simple way of classifying methods of soil and water conservation. One suggestion is
to do it by comparing annual rainfall with crop requirements since climate is the dominant factor
for soil erosion (Narayana and Ram Babu 1985), giving three conditions:
i. Where precipitation is less than crop requirements; here the strategy includes land
treatment to impound surface runoff onto cropped areas, fallowing for moisture
conservation, and the use of drought- tolerant crops with suitable management practices.
ii. Where precipitation is equal to crop requirements; here the strategy is local
conservation of storm water, maximizing water storage within the soil profile, and
storage of excess runoff in impoundment structures for subsequent use.
iii. Where precipitation is in excess of crop requirements; in this case the strategies are to
reduce water erosion in the upland non-agricultural areas, drain surplus runoff and store it
in impoundment structures (dams, farm ponds, cisterns) for dry season water requirement
use.
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5.5. Classification of SWC technique
This technique is grouped under four headings:

1. Agronomic technique
2. Soil management technique
3. Vegetative/Biological technique, and
4. Mechanical technique.
Due to steep slopes, heavy rainfall, severe past erosion, etc., no single type of measure is wholly
effective in the highlands of Ethiopia. Therefore, in most of the times, all the four techniques
must be combined in an integrated SWC system.
5.5.1. Agronomic techniques
There are numerous definitions and concepts of agronomic practices available in the literature.
The agronomic measures are referred by the practices of growing vegetables on mild slope lands
to cover them and control the erosion by dissipating the power of agents either water or wind
(Tidemann, 1998). In case of water erosion it affects the soil by several ways such as enhancing
infiltration rate and thereby reducing runoff velocity that scour the soil particles, screening the
eroded particles to reach into the channels or reservoir, dissipating the kinetic energy of falling
raindrops and thus reducing the splash erosion (Morgan, 2005). According to FAO (1984), good
agronomic techniques, using either live or killed plants in sufficient quantities, can shield the soil
surface from direct impact of raindrops and evaporation, create a rough surface which will
physically impede run-off and slow it down to non-erosive velocities and provide good crop
production. The major agronomic soil and water conservations practice includes:
A. Crop selection
For conservation purpose, some crops are much more effective than others. Examples are
perennial crops like, tea, fodder grasses, sugarcane and sweet potatoes. High density plants such
as teff, wheat, barley and finger millet, as far as they are grown as early as possible, are more
effective than widely spaced crops such as maize and cotton because they cover the ground
faster.
B. Early planting
Early planting ensures that the crop shoots from the ground within one or two weeks after the
onset of rains and gets develop dense canopy covers which protect the ground quickly against
raindrop impact and erosion is reduced appreciably during the active rainy season. Another use
of early planting is that crops are able to utilize the nitrogen released due to drying and wetting
of the soil during land preparation. If planting is delayed, the rain may leach the nitrogen
released out before the plant roots can use it.
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C. Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the growing of different crops in sequence. It involves alternating cereal crops
with legume, pulse or oilseed crops (Figure 9). This type of rotation produces differing amounts
and types of residue thus make crop residue and trash management easier. Therefore, a rotation
is the key to success in reduced tillage systems, reduces soil erosion and then climate change
adaptation (Ailincai et al., 2009). Example: cereals with pulses or root crops. Since crops vary in
their nutrient demands, susceptibility to pests and diseases and ability to control erosion, rotating
them facilitate:
1. The conservation and addition of humus,

1. Restoration of soil structure and fertility,
2. Control of erosion, and
3. Reduction of pests and diseases, e.g. Striga.
Figure 9: Crop rotation
D. Mixed/Intercropping
It is the growing of two or more companion crops simultaneously in the same field in the same
season (Figure 3) (Andersen, 2005; Meine and Bruno, 2000). A wide range of crops can be used
for intercropping. Mixed cropping of different crops along with the main crops, such as millets
and different legumes, is an insurance against the climate change. The different root systems of
mixed crop feed at different depths of the soil. Moreover, mixing cropping provides small
quantities of a grain of different kinds of home consumption at different times (Morgan, 2005).
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August, 2019
Figure 3:.Mixed/Intercropping: Maize with haricot beans.
 Leguminous and non-leguminous crops are commonly intercropped.

 Production is intensified in both time and space.
 Common examples are maize with beans, peas, groundnuts, cowpeas
pigeon peas or sweet potato, and cotton with beans.
Advantages of inter-cropping are:
1. Reduction of raindrop impact, by fast growing legumes, which provide soil cover
early,
2. Leguminous crops fix nitrogen and make it available to its companion crop,
3. Spread of risks if one crop fails, and
4. Ensures food security to the farmer.
E. Multi-storey cropping
It is the practice of growing tall and short crops in the same field. Multi-purpose trees form the
top canopy, followed by banana, coffee, beans and vegetables. Each grows at different height.
The deep-rooted trees draw water and nutrients from the lower horizon. They shed leaves and
twigs as mulch to shallow rooted-crops. This cropping system is suitable in good rainfall areas.
F. Alley cropping
This practice involves growing annual or biennial crops between rows of leguminous trees and
shrubs, planted on bund or with no bund. The shrubs fix nitrogen and make it available to the
crops. The legumes (i.e. the braches) can also be cut down and used as livestock feed or green
manure. Alley cropping enhances:
i) Soil structure
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ii) Soil fertility and productivity, and

iii) Reduce soil erosion
Figure 4. Alley Cropping: planting trees at wide spacing in rows with a secondary crop grown in
the space between the rows.
Alley cropping helps to increase farm revenue, enhance crop production, provides green fodder
during the lean period, utilizes off-season precipitation which otherwise would go waste, and give
conservation benefits to crops. An example is corn, wheat, soybeans planted in between rows of
hardwood trees such as pecans, oaks, black walnut (Figure 5, below).
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August, 2019
Figure 5: Alley Cropping: Annual crops (corn, wheat, soybeans) planted in between rows of hardwood trees
G. Ley cropping
It is a farming system in which legume based pastures are rotated with food crops. Continuous
cultivation (no fallow) result in deterioration of soil structure → breakage of organic matter →
gradual depletion of organic matter → dissociation of soil aggregates → surface sealing →
formation of hardpan and compacted layers. The period (rotation cycle), for which ley pasture
(pure legume or legume based, e.g. alfalfa, cowpea) remains in field, depends on the nature of
species (annual or perennial) and farmers’ decision. Planting is carried out by minimum tillage.
Fallowing is the term used for a break in cropping when land is rested for natural regeneration
under weeds or bush.
H. Strip cropping
It is the practice of growing alternative strips of different crops in the same field (Figure 4). It is
also called contour strip cropping because they should be on the contour to control runoff. The
strips are normally of similar width. In general close growing crops such as teff are alternated
with strips of wider spaced row crops such as maize, so that water flowing from the maize
reaches to a strip of teff and gets reduced and clayey and silty soils are deposited. The width of
crop strips depend on many factor, but slope is the dominant one. As a guideline the following
relationship is given.
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August, 2019
Table 1: Strip width according to slope

Slope % Strip Width (m)
2–5 30 – 33
6–9 24
10 – 14 21
15 – 20 15
Figure 6: Strip cropping
I. M. Contour cultivation
It refers to all the tillage practices, mechanical treatments like planting, tilling, harrowing
weeding and intercultural practicing performed nearly on the contour of the area applied across
the land slope (Meine and Bruno, 2000) (Figure 5). In low rainfall area it is used to conserve
rainwater due to increased time of concentration, more rainwater seeps through the soil profile to
recharge groundwater. In humid area it is used to reduce soil erosion by retarding overland flow
through their furrows. A contour guideline needs to be established if the field is not under
contour bunds or terraces, and all agricultural operations should be done with respect to this
guideline.
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August, 2019
Figure 7: Contour tillage
5.1.2. Soil management technique
Sound soil management is critical to the success of soil conservation schemes because only by
maintaining the fertility & structures of the soil will a good plant cover be obtained. Where the
structure of the soil breaks down & erosion follows, vital plant nutrients & organic matter are
removed from the soil in runoff. There are several improved practices of soil management
through which maintenance of soil structure and fertility can be ensured.
These include:
A. Appropriate tillage practices,
B. Application of organic manures, and
C. Mulching of crop residues
A. Appropriate tillage practices

i. Slash and burn: is the cutting of vegetation, spreading on the ground and burning it to leave a
clean seedbed, and make planting holes (spot tillage) without disturbing the soil.
ii. Hand hoeing: is digging of seedbed for planting from which large clods are obtained, rough
surface is created and high infiltration is obtained.
iii. Conservation tillage or minimum tillage: This is an approach that has become popular with
mechanized farmers in U. S. A. and other countries in areas that are subject to drought or risk of
erosion. Conservation tillage (Figure 7) aims to:
a. Improve soil structure,
b. Reduce the amount of soil pulverization during cultivation,
c. Leave residues on the surface,
d. Disturb the soil no more than required to promote infiltration of water and germination of
seeds, and
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e. Reduce the cost of cultivation
Figure 8: Conservation tillage
The following systems of conservation tillage have been developed for mechanized farms:
a. Stubble mulch tillage (Figure 7, above), and
b. Zero tillage or no-till.
iv. Deep tillage: This is usually practiced to remove the hardpan developed from conventional
ploughing techniques. Using special equipment such as chisel plough or ripper breaks the hard
pan. Deep tillage encourages improved water holding capacity, drainage, and aeration and makes
a good access to deep root penetration.
V. Improved Fallow Systems (IFS): Arable lands are planted with food crops for some years and
then the land is fallowed for some time to allow the soil to rejuvenate (Meine and Bruno, 2000)
(Figure 8). To shorten the fallow period, the area can be seeded with leguminous trees. Once the
soil has been rejuvenated, the trees are cleared for crops. This can be considered as an improved
version of the traditional shifting cultivation (Burgers et al., 2005).
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Figure 8: Improved fallow systems (IFS)
B. Application of organic manures

Organic matter contributes the following uses to the soil:
i) Stabilizes soil aggregate through chemical bonding of clay and humus.
 Resist soil detachment and transportation
ii) Provides the required plant nutrients for vigorous crop growth.
 Gives quicker vegetative cover to the ground, intercepts raindrop & reduces
erosion.
 Soils with < 3.5 % of organic matter content or 2% of organic carbon are
considered erodible.
The percent organic matter content, OM, of a layer can be calculated:
OM 1.72 orgC (24)
where orgC is the percent organic carbon content of the soil layer (%). The following organic
matters can be cited:
I. Farmyard manure
This is a livestock waste material used as a natural fertilizer and maximum benefit can be gained
if it is prepared and applied appropriately in the following way:
- Animals should be in roofed boma (barn),
- Feed should be placed in manger,
- Adequate bedding & dry condition should be available in the boma to absorb the
urine & to prevent leaching,
- Manure should be covered to prevent leaching of nitrogen until maturity,
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August, 2019
-
When matured manure is taken into the field, it should be placed in furrows &
around planting holes & covered with soil.
- Seeds should be planted near to the manure but not touching.
Another use of manure as fertilizer is to make compost together with other ingredients.
II. Compost
Compost making is a natural process of turning organic material into valuable plant food called
humus. Humus is brownish or blackish substance, which gives a dark colour to the topsoil. It has
a sponge-like structure to retain water & cements soil particles together. When properly made &
applied, compost provides readily available plant food & does not contain as many weed seeds &
pests as farmyard manure, because the heat generated in a compost heap is enough to destroy the
viability of weed seeds & pests. Compost manure can be easily made on the farm using: crop
residues, soil, garden weeds, kitchen & household wastes, hedge cuttings & any other vegetative
material.
Compost making procedure:

i. Compost can be made at a location close to the place where it is used,
ii. Dig a pit of 1.5 – 2 m wide, 0.3-1m deep & desired length. 30 cm depth is in wet area
and 1 m is in dry area, the reason is simply to conserve moisture,
iii. Bottom of the pit should be loosened,
iv. 30 cm layer dry vegetative material like maize or hedge cuttings on the top of loosened
soil to let air,
v. 10 cm thick layer of manure follows the dry material,
vi. Topsoil is then sprinkled to cover the material & absorb any gases that are released,
vii. 20-40 cm layer of green vegetation obtained from weeds, grass, hedge cuttings or kitchen
waste,
viii. Wood ashes or topsoil are then sprinkled on top of the green material & the heap is
watered thoroughly,
ix. The process of adding the five layers is repeated until the compost heap is about 1.5 m.
high,
x. It is then covered, first with topsoil to prevent evaporation escape of gases, and then with
dry vegetative material to prevent evaporation,
xi. A long sharp pointed stick is then driven into the compost heap at an angle to check the
condition of the compost from time to time. Decomposition starts after two to three days.
When the stick is removed it should be damp and warm. If the stick is white it indicates a
fungus called ‘fire fang’ that can destroy the compost. To avoid it the compost should be
watered thoroughly while turning,
xii. As usual process the heap should be watered every third day during dry weather, but
during rainy season there is no need to water,
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August, 2019
xiii. The compost should be turned after three weeks, so that top layer become bottom and
vice versa. After a further three weeks the heap is turned again and the compost is then
left to mature until required, and
xiv. The heap should always be well covered until the time of planting. A total of six to eight
weeks are sufficient to prepare compost for use in the field provided that the material is
not too fibrous.
Figure: Application of Compost as an organic fertiliser
III. Green manuring

It is the practice of growing a crop, usually a legume, and ploughing it when the crop is young
and green or at the flowering stage. It mainly used to fix nitrogen. It is costly that small-scale
farmers do not find it profitable in their small size land holdings.
C. Mulching of crop residues

Mulching is the act of covering protective layers spread over:
a. The bare soil surface,
b. Placed around the stems of plants, or
c. Lying in lines along the contour (trash-line).
Mulches such as dry grass, maize stalks, dry leaves, organic crop residue, pebbles, or polythene
sheets are ground covers that prevent the soil from being washed away, reduce evaporation,
increase infiltration, and control growth of unwanted weeds (Deborah, 2003) (Figure 6).
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August, 2019
Mulching prevents the formation of the hard crust after each rain. Organic mulches add plant
nutrients to the soil upon decomposition.
Figure 6: Organic grass mulch

Mulching is used to:
a. Hinder raindrop splash detachment and reduction of transportation of soils,
b. Protects the soil from surface sealing ⇒ holds water and allows it to infiltrate slowly,
c. Conserve moisture through loss of evaporation.
Mulching is best suited in:
a. Low rainfall areas,
b. Gentle slopes, and
c. Well-drained soils.
5.1.3. Vegetative /Biological technique
This technique is restricted to the practice of conserving soil and water by the use of perennial
grass and trees.
The principal methods by which vegetative technique is used to ensure SWC are:
A. Grass strip
B. Agro forestry
C. Hedge barrier
D. Improved pasture & meadow
E. Vegetative control of gully
F. Afforestation/reforestation
A. Grass strip
It is a narrow band of grass planted on cropland along the contour. The grass strip may be
formed by planting a fodder grass or by leaving a farmland unploughed to grow natural grasses.
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August, 2019
The strips are usually about 0.5–1m wide & spaced at normal terrace spacing, which ends mainly
on the slope of the land.
Grass strips are effective SWC measures on soils with good infiltration & slopes up to 30%.
Common grass species used on strips are:

Vetiver grass
Rhodus “
Phalaris “
Festuca “
Elephant (Napier) grass
B. Agro forestry
It is defined as any land use practice that involves the deliberate retention, introduction or
management of trees or shrubs in agricultural systems, where ecological, economic or social
benefits result from interaction between agriculture &/or livestock & tree husbandry.
Agro forestry can be practiced in a variety of ways such as:

i. In cropland either scattered or planted in lines,
ii. Along boundaries, paths, roads or as live fences,
iii. Along soil & water conservation structures,
iv. For wind breaks,
v. Around the homestead for shade or beauty,
vi. In fruit orchards & home gardens,
vii. For improved fallows using N2 fixing species,
viii. In small woodlots for poles & fuel wood,
ix. In cropland or pasture land for fodder or browse and
x. For gully reclamation & stream bank stabilization.
A list of suitable species for agro forestry includes:

Acacia spp. Leucaena
Neem Moringa
Casuaria spp. Sesbania sesban
Eucalyptus spp. Pepper tree
Gravillea robusta etc.
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August, 2019
C. Hedge barrier
It is a row of shrubs or well-pruned trees planted along the contour to control erosion. Hedges are
planted usually in single or double rows at normal terrace spacing, which depends on the slope of
the land. Hedges are most effective when combined with grass species in their gabs.
Multi-purpose shrubs & trees, which can be pruned for fodder, mulch & fuel-wood, are used as
hedgerow. Examples are leucaenea spp, calliandra & sesbania sesban.
Hedges also contribute, in the same way as grass strips, to the formation of bench terrace.
D. Improved pasture & meadow

Pasture is natural grassland kept for livestock to graze on. Whereas meadow is a field in which
biennial or perennial grasses are grown for haymaking. Improving pasture and meadow means
seeding or planting of grasses, which have a value of:
i) Satisfactory soil protecting cover,
ii) Furnishing hay or pasturage, and
iii) Serving as soil building grasses.
Some of the species (spp.) used in improving pasture & meadow are:
Clover spp. Pigeon pea
Alfalfa Desmodium
Vetch Lablab
Cowpea Velvet bean, e. t. c.
E. Vegetative control of gully

The best method of gully prevention is by providing permanent vegetation cover. Vegetation is
the most economical & satisfactory gully control method.
The vegetation types used in control of gully are those described in grass strips, agro forestry,
hedge barrier, etc.
F. Afforestation/ Reforestation
In any system of sound land use, it is essential that excessively steep slopes be kept under
forests. The capacity of trees to rehabilitate worn-out lands is proved. The leaves, twigs,
branches, & stems of forests control erosion & replenish organic matter to the soil. Tree species
in agro forestry can also be used here.
5.1.4. Mechanical techniques
They are man-made structures formed from soil, stone, wood, masonry or gabion that are
designed to protect the soil from uncontrolled runoff & erosion & to retain water where it is
needed. The previous three techniques influence both detachment & transport, whilst mechanical
measures influence the transport process except little effect on detachment. Mechanical measures
are rarely effective without the other three measures to support them. They are also costly and
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August, 2019
require substantial inputs of labour and capital. By any means they cannot substitute the other
techniques. Mechanical measures are classified into three major groups:
A. Terraces
B. Runoff-disposal structures, and
C. Check-dams
5.5.4.1. Terraces
The word terrace is used for different structures but they all involve a more or less permanent
change in slope profile (either slope, slope length or both). So, it is also called stope stabilizer.
Terraces normally have a ridge of earth, stone or both combined with or without channel. They
are also called slope slop stabilizers.
By the general acceptance of terrace classification, terraces are three principal types:
i. Bench terrace,
ii. Graded terrace (with or without channel), and
iii. Level terrace.
i. Bench terrace
Bench terraces are level or nearly level steps constructed on the contour and separated by
embankments known as risers. The objectives of bench terracing are:
a) To control erosion by reducing the slope of the land, and
b) To make steep land available for cultivation
Bench terraces are generally constructed on the land of up to 55% slope provided that the soils
are deep enough and stable. Bench terraces are classified into three on the basis of the slope of
bench, given as follows:
1. Level bench terrace (Figure 3)
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Level bench terraces consist of level top surface. Level bench terraces are generally used in
areas, which receive medium rainfall and have highly permeable soils.
2. Outward bench terrace (Figure 4)
These terraces have 0.4% slopes outwardly, i.e. down the hill used to distribute runoff along the
width of the bench to conserve moisture. Such bench terraces are adopted in low rainfall areas
with permeable soil.
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August, 2019
3. Inward bench terrace (Figure 5)
These terraces have their slopes inward to drain off excess water as quickly as possible. These
terraces are constructed in areas of heavy rainfall and less permeable soils. These terraces have
drainage on inner side to dispose of runoff to a waterway safely. Both outward and inward
benches can be graded at 0.4% slope.
Shoulder bund specification in all cases:

Shape: trapezoidal
Side slope: 1:1
Height: 15-30 cm
Top-width: 15-40 cm
Bottom width: 50-75 cm
Limitation of bench terrace
Two limits:
1. Although, it is a more or less permanent improvement of land, it requires heavy expenditure of
money and labour.
2. Bench terracing is possible if there is sufficient soil depth. A soil depth of > 15 cm should be
available after depth of cut, d.
5.5.4.2. Design of bench terrace
The design involves determination of two parameters, the spacing & width of bench terrace.
Terrace spacing is the vertical interval, VI between two successive bench terraces. It is equal to
double of the depth of cut. VI = 2 times depth of cut = 2d. Width of bench terrace, W is a net
strip of cultivable land obtained after cut and fill operation is carried out.
Steps:
1. Determine the maximum depth of productive soil. It is one of the most important factors, as it
makes the benches suitable for cultivation,
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August, 2019
2. Find out the maximum admissible depth of cut for the present land slope and crops to be
grown. Normally the depth of cut should be so kept as not to expose the unfertile soil profile.
3. After determining the depth of cut, d find out the width of terrace, W.
4. Decide the slope of the riser, for stable clay loam soils (fine textured soils) make the riser
vertical, for medium textured soils take the ratio H: V, 0.5: 1 and for coarse textured soils take
the ratio H: V, 1: 1. The spacing and width of bench terrace for the three cases of risers are
shown below.
1. When the riser slope is vertical (Figure 6):
VI = 2 d
Opposite depth of cut = d
Tan θ= Slope % = of Δ ABC =
Adjecent W /2
S d SW
= ⇒ = 100 d ⇒ SW = 200 d
100 W /2 2
200 d
W= , Where:
S
W = Width of terrace (m),
d = max depth of cut (m), and
S = slope (% ) (25)
In case of vertical riser, width, W is the same as horizontal distance, HD
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August, 2019
2. When the riser slope is inclined at 0.5:1(H: V) (Figure 7)
1 2d
Tan α = = ⇒ x =d
0. 5 x
VI
HD = d +W ⇒ HD = +W −−−−−−−−−−−(1 )
2
S VI S VI
Tan θ = = ⇒ =
100 HD 100 HD
S
VI = HD ( )−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−( 2 )
100
By substituting equasion ( 1 ) int o ( 2):
VI S 100VI VI
VI = ( +W ) ( )⇒ =( +W)
2) 100 S 2
100 VI VI
− −W = 0
S 2
2 WS
VI = , VI is also = 2 d
200−S
2 WS 2d
2d = ⇒ 2d ( 200 − S ) = 2WS ⇒W = ( 200 − S )
200−S 2S
d
W= (200 − S ) , Where
S
VI = vertical int erval ( m )
d = average depth of cut ( m )
S = slope ( %) (26)
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August, 2019
3. When the riser slope is 1:1 (Figure 8)
1 2d
Tan α = = ⇒ x = 2d
1 x
HD = x +W = 2 d +W
HD = VI +W −−−−−−−−−−(1)
S VI S VI
Tan θ = = ⇒ = ⇒ 100 VI = S( HD )
100 HD 100 HD
S
VI = HD ( )−−−−−−−−−(2)
100
By substituting equation (1 ) int o (2) :
S
VI = (VI +W ) ( )
100
100 VI
= VI + W (27)
S
WS 100 −S
VI = and W =VI ( ), Where
100 −S S
VI = vertical int erval ( m )
d = average depth of cut ( m )
S = slope ( %)
Area lost due to bench terracing

Bench terracing involves the loss of cultivable area due to terrace slope and riser construction.
Case 1. When the riser slope is 0.5:1 Case 2. When the riser slope is 1:1
S +100 S +200
Al= Al =
200 S 200 S
+ +
S 100 S 100 (28)
Where: Al = Area lost (%), and S = Land slope (%)
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Examples:
1. A conservationist proposed to construct a bench terrace of vertical interval 2.5 m and riser
slope of 1:1 on a 45% hilly land (Figure 9). Calculate the following:
a) Width of terrace
b) Length of terrace per hectare
c) Volume of earthwork
d) Area lost due to bench terracing
Given: VI = 2.5 m, riser slope = 1:1
Solution for riser slope1:1
a) Width of bench terrace, W = VI (100-S)

S
= 2.5(100-45)
45
= 3.06 m
b) Length of bench terrace/ha: Area of bench=HD x Length of bench
Original ground level

HD A1
1:1
VI =2d
L1
A2 α = 45° d
VI =2d W
A3 HD
Figure 9. Cross sectional area of bench terrace.

A4
A1 = HD x L1, A2 = HD x L2, A3 = HD x L3… An = HD x Ln

n n n
A total A total
A total =HD ∑ Li ⇒ ∑ Li = ⇒ ∑ Li =Ltotal = , where HD=VI +W =(2. 5+3 . 06 )m
i=1 i =1 HD i =1 HD
1 ha 10000 m
Ltotal = = =1798. 56 m
VI +W 2 .5 m+3. 06 m
c) Volume of earthwork/ha, V = Cross sectional area of the cut section x total length of bench
terrace
= 2 (1/2 x d x w) x L, L= 104 and d = VI = average depth of cut.
2 VI+W 2
= 2 (1/2 x 2.5 x 3.06) m x 1798.56 m = 3439.8 m3
2 2
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This is the volume of earthwork for excavation of the cut section, not includes the fill part of the
work. The volume of earthwork for fill is also the same as volume of cut, but the labor required
to perform cut and fill is different, as cutting earth is a bit laborious job.
S +200 45 +200
= = 50 %
200 S 200 45
+ +
d. Area lost due to benching (%) = S 100 45 100
2. In Arego hilly cultivated areas (hill slopes between Dessie and Kombolcha) bench-terracing
work is proposed for controlling erosion. The average land slope is 30 % and average soil depth
is about 1m. Riser slope is to be laid on 0.5:1. Design the bench terrace.
Solution:
Depth of cut, d: The depth of cut should be so kept as not to expose the unfertile soil profile. So
for most cereal & pulse crops 30 cm of soil depth is enough.
 d = 1.0 x 0.7 = 0.7 m ⇒ VI = 2d = 1.4 m
Width of bench terrace, w:

W = d (200-S) for riser slope 0.5: 1, ground slope, S = 30
S
= 0.7 (200-30)
30
= 4 m, ⇒ HD = d + w = 0.7 + 4 = 4.7 m
ii. Graded-channel terrace
The graded channel terraces are simply bunds like structures, constructed across the land slope at
certain grade to dispose of runoff from inter-terraced area to a waterway. This type of terrace is
used in areas having rainfall >700mm per year and slopes up to 20%. However, it can also be
used in less rainfall areas where the soil of the area is heavy textured soil (clayey or black cotton
soil) and in areas of gentle slopes (<20%) as far as the area gets high annual rainfall and the
infiltration of the soil is low.
Types of graded channel terrace (Figure 10):

1. Narrow-based
2. Broad-based, and
3. Fanya juu.
Broad-based graded channel terrace consists of a shallow channel with a wide embankment on
lower side. They are assigned with gentle side slope so that they can be cultivated and planted
with the rest of the field. They are suited on slopes of <8%. They are suitable for mechanized
farms.
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Graded fanya juu is not also common in high rainfall areas due to high labour requirement.
Therefore, more attention is given to narrow-based channel terrace.
Narrow-based graded channel terrace or simply graded bund has the following main function.
1. It reduces the length of slope as a result the soil erosion gets reduced.
2. It also disposes off the excess water safely to a suitable point.
Design specification of graded bund is same as contour bund except the grade. So this part has
been discussed in the fore-going design specification of bund.
iii. Level-terraces (contour bund)
Level terraces are contour bunds formed of soil or stone or both by passing through the points of
equal elevation (i.e. on contour) of the land. Level terrace can be adopted in areas that receive
annual rainfall up to 700 mm and on all types of permeable soils.
The main functions of contour bunds are given as under:

1. It reduces the length of slope, which intern reduces soil erosion.
2. Impound the water at up-stream portion and permits more water to recharge into the soils
that is utilized for crop cultivation.
Limitation of level terrace:

1. It is not used in areas which receive annual rainfall >700mm
2. It is not used in clayey soils
3. It is not technically feasible on the land slope > 6%.
Types of level terrace (Figure 10):

1. Narrow-based
2. Broad-based
3. Fanya juu
The narrow based and fanya juu level terrace create obstruction for crossing of farm implements,
a considerable area is lost in construction and liable to get affected by erosion due to raindrop
impact unless covered by natural vegetation.
Whereas broad-based contour bund does not create hindrances in farming operation, entire area
can be kept under cultivation. But it has some limitation as: the bund is disturbed due to crossing
of farm implements and the bund is ploughed altogether with the rest of the farm each year, so
that frequent maintenance and machinery are required. This implies that it is hardly possible
except in mechanized farms.
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August, 2019
Figure 10: Types of graded or level channel terraces.
Fanya juu terrace
A fanya juu terrace is made by digging a trench and throwing the soil uphill to form
embankment. The cross sectional profile comprises an embankment to impound water, soil &
nutrients a storage area to prevent overtopping of runoff, a berm to prevent the embankment soil
from sliding back into the trench and a trench to retain water.
Contour Fanya juu terrace is very suitable in semi-arid areas for moisture and nutrient
conservation. They are applicable in area of too shallow soils which make bench terrace
construction difficult on slopes < 20%, then their functions are:
1. To conserve moisture and nutrient, and
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August, 2019
2. To be developed into outward bench terracing after some years.

Table 1. Design specification of Fanya juu terrace
Trench excavated to Shoulder bund ht Labour Labour
Land Terrace spacing build terrace Trench when infiltration is: days days
slope VI (m) HD Width Depth area Low Aver. High per per ha
(%) (m) (m) (m) (m )
2
cm cm cm 100m
5 1 20 0.5 0.5 0.25 32 29 26 8.3 42
10 1.35 14 0.5 0.55 0.28 37 34 30 9.3 66
15 1.73 12 0.6 0.55 0.33 41 38 33 11.0 91
20 1.80 9 0.6 0.6 0.36 41 37 33 12.0 133
Fanya juu terraces are created in Kenya and used widely in that country. In Ethiopia it is being
adopted in few places.
5.5.4.3. Design of a bund (both graded and contour bunds)
A bund consists of the following parameters to be determined under design:

1. Choice of bund
2. Spacing
3. Size
4. Side slopes, and
5. Grade and alignment of bunds
1. Choice of bund
Based on the annual rainfall and soil condition the bund should be chosen as graded or contour.
2. Spacing of the bund

The basic principles used to decide the bund spacing are:
1. The bund should be able to stop the surface runoff at the point where flow attains an
erosive velocity
2. The bund should meet all the requirements of agricultural operations.
The following formula can be used for spacing of a bund:
1. Ramser’s formula (used in U.S.A.)

VI = 0.3 (S/3 +2) (29)
where VI = vertical interval (m) and S = slope (%)
2. Indian formula:
i) For heavy rainfall areas:
VI = (30S/3) +60 (30)
where VI = vertical interval (cm) and S = slope (%)
ii) For low rainfall areas:
VI = (30S/2) +60 (31)
symbols are as above.
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3. Cox formula:
Incorporating the effect of infiltration rate and rainfall, Cox developed the following
equation:
VI = 0.3 (XS+Y) (32)
in which,
X = rainfall factor,
Y = infiltration and crop cover factor,
S = percent land slope, and
VI = vertical interval (m).
The factor values are obtained in the following table:
Table 2. Value of (X) based on rainfall factor
Rainfall distribution Annual rainfall (m) X

Scanty (low) < 640 0.80
Moderate 640-900 0.60
Heavy > 900 0.40
Table 3.Values of ‘Y’ based on intake rate and crop cover

Intake rate Crop cover during Y
erosive storm period
Below average (clay soil) Low coverage 1.0
Above or average (loam & sandy) Good coverage 2.0
Below average Good coverage 1.5
Average or above Low coverage 1.5
Examples:
1. Calculate the vertical interval to be used for bund construction at 5% land slope. The soil of
the area has good crop cover during erosive period of rainfall.
Given:
i) Intake rate is average
ii) Annual rainfall is 950 mm
iii) Rainfall distribution is heavy
Solution:
S = 5%
X = 0.40 (from the table)
Y = 2.0 (from the table)
VI = 0.3 (XS+Y) = 0.3 (0.4x5+2.0) = 1.2 m
2. A farmland has an average slope of 5%. The annual rainfall of the area is heavy, i. e. it is 1000
mm. What spacing is maintained to construct a contour bund?
Solution:
Given: S = 5%, Annual rainfall = 1000 mm = heavy
VI = (30S/3) +60 = 30x5/3+60 =1.10m
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3. By the Ramzer’s formula VI of the above equation is also:

VI = 0.3(S/3+2) = 0.3 (5/3+2) =1.10m
Recommendation: If data are available, better to use Cox’s formula since it covers climatic, soil
and cover factors of the particular land under consideration. The VI obtained by the above
formulae is the vertical spacing used to set the spacing, S between consecutive bunds. The
horizontal spacing, simply spacing, is almost equivalent to horizontal distance, HD. The HD is
simpler to lay off spacing between consecutive bunds than vertical intervals.
Figure 11: Laying out spacing.
The spacing of a particular bund is measured by the following formula:

VI Opposite VI VI
HD = tan θ = = ⇒ HD = ,
Land slope (%) : Because Slope = Adjecent HD S where
Spacing , S = √(VI )2 + ( HD)2 ≈ HD
HD = Horizontal distance, and VI = Vertical interval
From example 1 above, HD for VI = 1.2 m and S = 5%, HD and S will be:
1.2m 1.2 120
HD = = = = 24m
5% 0.05 5
S = √(1.2)2 + (24)2 = 24 .03
Therefore, longitudinal distance between consecutive bunds, Spacing, S can be taken
approximately the same as HD ⇒ 24 m ≈ 24.03 m for graded and contour bunds.
3. Size of the bund (cross-section)
Size of the bund (both furrow and ridge) includes:

i. Height, h
ii. Top width, t
iii. Bottom width, b
iv. Side slope, H: V (horizontal to vertical ratio). For clay soils, H: V = 1:1, sandy loam soils
= 1.5:1, and sandy soils 2:1
v. Seepage line has a horizontal to vertical slope of 3:1, 5:1, and 6:1 for those soils
respectively.
vi. Berm, and
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vii. Freeboard.
For general purpose, dimensions of a bund are given below (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Recommended bund size in cm.
Berm is a flat strip of land or narrow ledge located between a ditch and the base of a ridge of the bund. A
bund can be constructed without a furrow if construction material for the ridge is available as per
the design. The height of the bund (ridge) should be fixed first (Figure 13).
h=
√3 XS
1000
, where
X = spacing of the bund ( HD)
S = land slope
h = height ( m )
The height of the bund is determined for three minor heights, i, e.:
Total height = (depth of water to be stored, h1) + (depth of water to be discharged, h2) +
(freeboard, h3) ⇒
h=h +h +h
1 2 3
Bund size needs to be evaluated and updated according to the climate (amount, intensity and
return period), spacing, soil type and topography of the land under consideration.
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Other details about bund S

VI S A1
HD_= HI
A2
1. Length of a bund per hectare, L

A3
10000
L= , because one hectare is 10000 m2
HI
S VI 100VI
Slope = = ⇒ HI =
100 HI S
10000 10000 S S
L= = ⇒ L = 100 , where L is in m
100VI 100VI VI
S
2. Volume of earthwork, E
Figure 14: Bund length and cross-sectional area of bund furrow.
Area of trapezoid = h/2(t + b)

E = Length x crosssectional area of the furrow
S h
E = (100 ) x (t+b )
VI 2
Example:
1. Calculate the total length and volume of earthwork of a contour bund, which is going to be
constructed on 5 ha land of 5% slope. The bund spacing (spacing b/n bunds measured along the
slope) should be maintained as 25 m. The bund furrow cross section is given as: Top width =125
cm, bottom width =50 cm, height =100 cm. Calculate also the area lost due to bund construction.
Solution: a) length per hectare = 10000/HI = 10000/25 = 400 m/ha

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Total length = 400m/ha x5 ha = 2000 m = 2 km.
b) Earthwork/ha, E = length x cross-sectional area

Cross-sectional area = h/2 (b +t) = ½ (0.5 +1.25) =0.88m2
E = 400m/ha x 0.88 = 350 m3/ha
Total volume of earthwork, Et =350 m3/ha x5h a = 1750 m3
Area lost per hectare, Al = length/ha x base width
= (10000/HI) x b
= (400m/ha) x1.25m = 500m2/ha
Total area lost = 200 m2/ha x 5 ha = 2500 m2 = 0.25 ha
2. Design a graded bund on a sandy loam soil for the following condition
Length of the bunds = 400 m
Average slope of the land = 2.5%
VI = 1.5 m
Grade of the bund: for the first 100 m = 0.1%
for the second 150 m = 0.15%
for the third 150 m = 0.18%
Rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration and for the recurrence
interval = 10 years is 16.5 cm/hr, and
Runoff coefficient, C = 0.3
Solution:
Assumption:
Let the depth, d of water near the bund = 30 cm.
WS = submerged width of strip of land along the up-stream.
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VI 1.5
HD = ×100 = ×100 = 60 m
S 2.5
By similarity of triangle,
VI d
= , by substitution
HD Ws
100 d 100×0.3
Ws = = = 12 m
S 2.5
Catchment area between two bunds, A = 60 ×400 = 2. 4ha
CIA 0.3× 16 .5 ×2 .4
Design runoff rate , Q = = = 0.33 m3 /s
36 36
1 1
Water cross sec tional reea , a = × d ×Ws + ×1. 5d ×d
2 2
1 1
a = × 12 ×0 .3 + × 0.45 ×0.3
2 2
2
a = 1.87 m
Wettedperimeter , P = P1 + P2 = √(0.3)2 +(0.45)2 + √(12)2 +(0.3)2 = 12 .55
A 1 .87
Hydraulicradius, R = = = 0.15
P 12 .55
R2/3 S1/2 (0.15 )2/3 × 0.00181/2
V= = = 0.3 m/s ⇒ This velocity is non−erosive at the tail end
n 0 .04
for such smaller grades of 0.1, 0 .15 and 0.18 %.
Q = AV = 1.87 ×0 .3 = 0 .56 m3 /s ⇒ This design capacity is higher than the max imum discharg e
of the 10 years recurrence int erval , so we are on safe side .
However the height (depth) is not reduced due to practical consideration as the depth should
not be less than 30 cm.
A freeboard, f of 15 cm should be provided ⇒ f = 0.15m
Therefore total height of the bund, h =0.45 m.
The slope of the seepage line in sandy loam soil is 5:1, when the water depth is 30 cm
Base width for seepage line = 5 x 0.3 = 1.5 m.
Total base width, b = 0.45 +1.5 =1.95 m.
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3.
Grade and alignment of bunds
Grade:
The contour bunds are laid along the contour of the land; therefore grade is kept as zero in this
case. The grade in graded bunds should be sufficient to make good drainage and to develop
adequate flow without causing erosion. Either uniform or variable grade is provided to the bund
system. If the length of a bund is short (below 150m), Uniform grade of 0.2 to 0.5% is given. If
the length of a bund is long (>150m), a variable grade is established, which increases uniformly
every 100m by 0.1% in the direction of the outlet. That is 0.2% for the first 100m, 0.3% for the
second 100m, 0.4% for the third 100m and 0.5% for the last. This variation of grade is also
applied to impervious soils regardless of the bund length.
Bund alignment:
1. Bunds should be constructed in straight line
2. If there occurs gullies, or surface depressions, or ridges the bund should be constructed at
right angles to them. A deviation of 30cm is also possible.
3. Longer length of graded bund should be avoided. It should not exceed 350m in one
direction.
4. The planning of graded bund should be carried out in such a way that:
 The first step is to decide the appropriate location of outlets to be used for draining
surplus water. The outlet is directed to the natural or artificial waterway.
 Simple instruments and materials used for surveying of bund in the field are:
a) Line level
b) 10.5m cotton string
c) 30 m measuring tape
d) Levelling stick (2cm thick x 4.5cm wide x 1.2 m long). The stick can be made of
sawn timber or eucalyptus post. It should be graduated at 5cm interval.
e) Stalk
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August, 2019
f) Digging material, like hoe, spade, draft power (oxen, or heavy duty machineries)
g) Construction materials, like the excavated soil from the bund trench &/or the
surrounding stones.
5.5.1.2. Runoff-disposal structures
These are the means used to drain/divert runoff from the land safely to a natural drainage system.
To effect removal, a network of runoff disposal structures needs to be constructed which
comprise:
1. Diversion ditches (cut-off drains)
2. Terrace channels (graded bunds), and
3. Grassed waterways
From the three types of the disposal structures, the terrace channel (graded bund) is discussed in
detail in the previous section. So, attention will be given for the rest two.
5.5.1.2.1. Diversion ditches (cut-off drains)
They are structures placed upslope of areas where protection is required to intercept water from
top of hillside. They are built across the slope at slight grade so as to convey the intercepted
runoff to a suitable outlet, such as waterway. The supporting ridge (bank) is on the lower side.
Uses:
1. Reduce length of slope.
2. Divert runoff from the prohibited area
3. Divert runoff from gully over-falls.
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4.5.1.2.1.1 Estimation of Runoff Rate
In order to design appropriate conservation structures such as diversion ditches or waterways it is

important to estimate peak rate of runoff. There are two methods of estimation:
1. Rational Method
As an alternative to Cooks Method, Rational Method is used to calculate Peak Runoff Rate, if
rainfall intensity is available. Rational Method is widely used in the design of ditches (cut-off
drain), channels (waterways), and storm water control systems. Peak Runoff Rate (Q) is the
maximum runoff flow rate that occurs within a given rainfall event. The peak runoff rate is an
indicator of the erosive power of a storm and used to predict sediment loss. The rational method
is based on the assumption that if a rainfall intensity, i begins at a time, t = 0 and continues
indefinitely, the rate of runoff will increase until the time of concentration, t = tconc where the
entire subbasin area is contributing to flow at the outlet. The rational formula is (Neitch et al,
2011):
C .i. Area
Q=
3 .6 (33)
Where Q is the peak runoff rate (m /s), C is the runoff coefficient, i is the rainfall intensity
3
(mm/hr), Area is the subbasin Area (km2), and 3.6 is a unit conversion factor.
This formula needs analysis of intensity-duration-frequency (idf) data. A simple method, the so-
called Cook’s method, can be applied.
2. Cook’s Method
The method was developed in U. S. A. and adapted for African condition. There are only three
factors to be determined:
1. The area of the catchment
2. The shape of the catchment, and
3. The catchment characteristics CC)
These factors can be determined from maps or direct field surveying. The CC is the sum of
values of cover, soil type and drainage, and slope that are attached to each character (Table 4).
Table 4. CC table used for determination of runoff rate by Cook’s method.

Cover Soil type and drainage Slope
Forest or heavy grass, 10 Deep, well drained soils, 10 Very flat to gentle, 5
Scrub or medium grass, 15 Deep, moderately pervious soil, 20 Moderate, 10
Cultivated lands, 20 Soils of fair permeability and depth, 25 Rolling, 15
Shallow soils with impeded drainage, 30 Hilly, 20
Bare or eroded land, 25 Medium heavy clays or rocky surfaces, 40 Mountainous, 25
Impervious surface & waterlogged soils, 50
Select the most appropriate factor from these three lists and add them together.
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Example:
Heavy grass (10) on shallow soils with impeded drainage (30) and moderate slope (10), then:
CC = 10+30+10 = 50. Once the CC is calculated, runoff rate can be obtained from the following
table for small watersheds (<500 ha).
Table 5. Peak Runoff Rates (m3/s) by Cook’s Method for 10 years return period based on
Catchment Condition for African Conditions (10 Year Probability High Intensities for Tropical
Storms)
CC → 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
5 ha 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1
10 ha 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.7
15 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.4 4.0 4.6 5.2
20 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.8 4.4 5.1 5.8 6.5
30 0.8 1.3 1.8 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.4 5.3 6.3 7.3 8.4 9.5
40 1.1 1.5 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.6 7.8 9.1 10.5 12.3
50 1.2 1.8 2.5 3.5 4.6 5.8 7.1 8.5 10.0 11.6 13.3 15.1
75 1.6 2.4 3.6 4.9 6.3 8.0 9.9 11.9 14.0 16.4 18.9 21.7
100 1.8 3.2 4.7 6.4 8.3 10.4 12.7 15.4 18.2 21.2 24.5 28.0
150 2.1 4.1 6.3 8.8 11. 14.7 18.2 21.8 25.6 29.9 35.0 40.6
6
200 2.8 5.5 8.4 11.7 15. 19.1 23.3 28.0 33.1 38.5 45.0 52.5
3
250 3.5 6.5 9.7 13.2 17. 21.7 27.0 32.9 39.6 46.9 55.0 63.7
2
300 4.2 7.0 10.5 14.7 19. 25.2 31.5 38.5 46.2 54.6 63.7 73.5
6
350 4.9 8.4 12.6 17.2 23. 30.2 37.8 46.3 53.8 62.5 71.5 81.0
2
400 5.6 10.0 14.4 19.4 25. 33.6 42.2 51.0 60.0 69.5 79.5 90.0
6
450 6.3 10.5 15.5 21.5 28. 36.5 45.5 55.5 65.5 76.5 86.5 97.5
5
500 7.0 11.0 17.0 23.5 31. 40.5 51.0 62.0 73.0 84.0 95.0 106.5
0
The conversion factor

The watershed shape is also another factor, which influence the amount of runoff yield.
Shape Conversion factor
Square or round 1.00
Long and narrow 0.80
Broad and short 1.25
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August, 2019
Example:
A broad and short shaped watershed has an area of 50 ha. Half of the area is heavily grassed with
half cultivated and all the area is on waterlogged soils. The land has a gentle slope. What would
be the runoff rate?
Given: Factors
Broad and short shaped 1.25
Area 50 ha
Heavily grassed 10 → 50% of the area
Cultivated 20 → 50% of the area
Solution:
CC of cover = (10x0.5) + (20x0.5) =15
CC of gentle slope = 5
CC of water logged soils = 50
Total CC, CCt = 15+5+50 = 70. From the table for CC value of 70 and area of 50 ha:
Q = 11.6m3/s, considering the shape, the final Q value will be = 11.6 x1.25 = 14.50 m3/s.
Design of cut-off drain

Steps:
Step -1. Determine the alignment of the diversion drain on topographic map, DEM or on the
field,
Step 2. Determine the catchment area contributing runoff to the outlet of the drain,
Step 3. Compute the quantity of runoff rate, anticipated from the catchment by cook’s method,
Figure: Cross-sectional area of Cut of Drain.

Legend:
b= bottom width, d= depth, t= top width, T= top width with free board, D = Depth with free
board, and f = free board.
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August, 2019
Step 4. Select the maximum permissible velocity above which scouring takes place (see the table
below). The velocity is selected based on the degree of development of vegetation but not on the
conditions existing at the time of construction.
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August, 2019
Table 6: Maximum permissible velocity (MPV)
Channel lining MPV (m/s)

Unconsolidated fine sand 0.30-0.46
Rubble & fine sand soil 0.46-0.61
Sandy soil 0.61-0.76
Sandy loam soil 0.16-0.84
Consolidated loam & clay loam soil 0.91-1.14
Gravel soil 1.23-1.52
Poorly grassed 0.95-1.05
Fairly grassed 1.20-1.30
Densely grassed 1.45-1.55
Loose gravel, pebbles, & sandy gravel 1.52-1.83
Conglomerate, hard pan, soft rock 1.83-2.44
Hard rock 3.05-4.57
Concrete 4.57-6.10
For simplicity better to take the average value of MPV.
Step 5. Calculate cross- sectional area of the drain to carry peak runoff rate, calculated in step 3.
Q = Av, A = Q/V, V = the selected MPV from above table.
Step 6. Select a value for Manning’s roughness coefficient (n) for the lining chosen in the above
table. Smooth channels have low ‘n’ values and rough channels have high ‘n’ values. Typical
values are 0.02 for earth lined and 0.04 for grass-lined channel. Anyways see the following table.
Table 7: Table of values for Manning Roughness coefficient (n)
Channel type and lining n

Earth lining, clay soil 0.02
Loosely grassed 0.04
Densely grassed 0.05
Rough rock 0.04
Dry stone pitching 0.06
Stone pitching with cement mortar 0.09
Concrete 0.12
Step 7. Select a suitable channel slope. For diversion ditch, it is usually between 0.1 and 1%
(0.001 m/m to 0.01 m/m), based on the roughness of channel bed. Rough lined channel gets high
S value.
Step 8. Find hydraulic radius, R from the following Manning’s formula:
1 vn
( 1 /2 )3/2
V = n R2/3. S ½  R = ( s )
Geometric characteristics of a trapezoidal shape cut-off drain or waterway (see figure below)
Side slope = 1/Z, where Z = 0.5, 1, or 2, accr to the type of soil.

Area, A= bd + Zd2,
Wetted perimeter, P = b +2c = b +2(d Z +1 ) √ 2
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2
August, 2019 bd +Zd
Hydraulic radius, R= A/P = b +2 d Z +1 √ 2
Bottom width, b = t - 2dZ

Step 9. Find wetted perimeter, P: R = A/p  P = A/R, A and R are known.

Step 10. By trial and error an arbitrary value for bottom width, b should be given and we can
determine the value of c,
I.e. P = b+2c
c = (p-b)/2
Step11. By assigning side slope, Z, we can now obtain depth, d, for example for most clay loam
soils θ = 450  Z= 1
Tan θ= tan 450 = d/e = 1=Z
Sine θ = sin 450 = 0.707 = d/c, c is known in step 10.  d is now obtained & top width, t =
b+2d. Check the area Acalculated = d/2 (b + t) with Aobtained in step 5, if they are not equal try again
by changing the value of b. Acalculated should be always  Aobtained by Q/V in step 5 to be on the safe
side.
Step12. Add freeboard of 10 to 15% of d to find the new depth, D = 1.1d
Step13. Finally, the top widths are also determined by the following formulae described above
as:
t = b+2dZ = b+2d, for 450 angle
T = b+2DZ
Important: Not to entangle in the above complicated steps, it is also possible to employ the
following table of ditch dimension for a given gradient and discharge, based on earth lining and
1:1 side slope.
Table 8: Ditch dimension
Ditch dimensions Gradient of ditch

Bottom Top Cross-
width Depth Width sectional 0.1% 0.2 % 0.5%
(m) (m) (m) area (m2) m3/s m3/s m3/s
0.6 0.3 1.2 0.27 0.14 0.20 0.31
0.8 0.4 1.6 0.48 0.30 0.42 0.67
1.0 0.5 2.0 0.75 0.54 077 1.21
1.2 0.6 2.4 1.08 0.88 1.25
1.4 0.7 2.8 1.74 1.34 1.88
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August, 2019
Layout and Construction of cut off drain

1. Should be aligned on non-erosive grade,
2. Uniform grade can be used or it can be reduced at upstream side,
3. Should follow the boundary of the area to be protected,
4. Where actual slope of the land exceeds designed grade, use drop structures, like stone
pitching,
5. The end of diversion ditch should be linked to safe waterway
6. Its construction is the same as to the graded terrace, and

7. After the end of construction check the grade & ridge height.
5.5.1.2.3. Waterways
Waterways are the natural or man-made watercourses:

1. Used to dispose surface water from hill slopes to valley bottoms where it can a join stream
or river,
2. Act as an outlet for inward bench terraces & channel terraces (graded bunds) and diversion
ditches (cut-off drains), and
3. Used as emergency spillways in farm ponds or other water storage structures.
Artificial waterways should be ready to hold water before construction of terraces & diversion
ditches.
Types of waterway based on construction material:
1. Grassed waterways, & 2. Stone lined waterways
Types of waterway based on shape:
1. Trapezoidal, 2. Parabolic, and 3. Triangular waterways
Parabolic shape approximates the natural channel. But trapezoidal is suitable for
construction, through time will be changed into parabolic shape.
Design of waterways:
The design principle of waterways is similar to the design of irrigation channels or cut-off drains
discussed above (refer design of cut-of drain).
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August, 2019
Data required for the design of cut-of-drain or waterway

1. Watershed area and characteristics used to choose peak runoff rate, Q from the table
(Refer Cook’s method).
2. Grade of the proposed waterway: It depends on the land slope & elevation of the outlet.
Grassed waterways are recommended for slopes up to 25%. For steeper slopes the
channel should be lined with stone, masonry, and reinforced concrete. Concrete drop
structures are recommended where there are steep sections.
3. Manning’s roughness coefficient, n for vegetal cover condition can be obtained from the
table.
4. Maximum permissible velocity as per the condition of the cover of the waterway is also
found from look-up table.
5. Allowance should be provided to the cross section of the waterway for compensating the
space, occupied by the vegetation.
6. Additional “depth as free board” for removing the chances of overtopping from the top of
the waterway. Freeboard is added by increasing the design depth 25% for grass
waterways & 10% for stone lined waterways.
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August, 2019
Table 9. Grassed waterway design specification: Minimum dimensions for different situations
Ground slope  5% 10% 15% 20% 30%
Lining  Close grass Close grass Close grass Grass+stone Grass+stone
Design velocity → 2 m/s 2 m/s 2 m/s 3 m/s 3 m/s
Q, D and Wbtm

0.25 m3/s
Depth, m 0.40 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.19
Width, m 0.65 1.10 2.30 0.67 0.91
0.50 m3/s
Depth, m 0.40 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.19
Width, m 1.30 2.20 4.43 1.34 1.82
0.75 m3/s
Depth, m 0.40 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.19
Width, m 1.96 3.30 6.73 2.01 2.73
1.00 m3/s
Depth, m 0.40 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.19
Width, m 2.61 4.39 8.86 2.68 3.63
1.25 m3/s
Depth, m 0.40 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.19
Width, m 3.27 5.49 11.16 3.35 4.54
1.5 m3/s
Depth, m 0.40 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.19
Width, m 3.92 6.59 13.28 4.02 5.45
1.75 m3/s
Depth, m 0.40 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.19
Width, m 4.57 7.69 15.58 4.69 6.36
2.00 m3/s
Depth, m 0.40 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.19
Width, m 5.23 8.79 17.71 5.36 7.27
The depth should be increased by 25% to allow for free board. This will increase the width, too.
5.5.1.3.Check-dams
They are mechanical obstruction walls built across the bottom of a gully or river. It is the
advance stage of channel or rill erosion.
5.5.1.3.1. Effects of gully erosion
Gully Erosion has the following negative impacts:

1. Fertile soil gets lost,
2. Unproductive soil (subsoil due to widening and undercutting of the gully) covers the
productive soil layer downstream,
3. Downstream waterbodies get silted up,
4. Cutting of land into smaller units called ravine, which decrease the value of land, and
5. Endanger farm facilities and roads, bridges and culverts.
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August, 2019
5.5.1.3.2. Causes and processes of gully formation
Causes:
1. Creating the land surface without vegetation,
2. Adoption of faulty tillage practices,
3. Overgrazing and other forms of biotic pressure, and
4. Not smoothing of rills, channels, roads, and cattle trails.
Processes:
Processes of gully formation follow sheet and rill erosion. It also occurs when runoff volume
from a steep land increases sufficiently. The processes are:
1. Scouring of the soil particles from the bottom and sides of the gully,
2. Water fall erosion at the gully head, and
3. Sliding or mass movement of the soil from gully banks.
5.8.1.3.3. Stage of gully erosion
There are four recognized stages of gully development:

Stage 1: It is an initial stage where channel erosion and deepening of gully bed takes place.
Stage 2: It is known as development stage. Due to runoff, width and depth (up to C horizon) of
gully is enlarged.
Stage 3: This is a healing stage, in which vegetation are started to grow in the channel. During
this stage there is no appreciable erosion in any form from the gully section.
Stage 4: This is the last stage of gully development, in which the gully has been fully stabilized.
The channel and walls secured stable gradient.
5.5.1.3.4. Classification of gully
Gullies may be classified:
1. Based on shape of the gully:
i. U-shaped: found in alluvial plains.
ii. V-shaped: found in hilly areas, where the sub-soils are very tough to erode
2. Based on the state of the gully:
i. Active gully: whose dimensions are enlarged with time?
ii. Inactive gully: whose dimensions are constant with time?
3. Based on the dimensions of the gully:
i. Small gully: up to 3m deep
ii. Medium gully: 3 to 9m deep
iii. Large gully: depth > 9m
5.5.1.3.5. Gully control measures
As gully control can be an expensive undertaking, prevention is always better than cure. In many
instances the cost of control far exceeds the value of land that will be saved.
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August, 2019
General procedure for gully control

a. Study the gully to understand the cause(s): current, active, processes, stages of development
and problems,
b. Determine the responsibilities that are the implementers of the gully control work?
C. Draw up (with concerned people) and appropriate design, including action to counteract the
causes of the gully & work on the gully itself (exploit locally available materials)
d. Prepare simple cost-benefit analysis to establish whether the control work can be justified.
Ideally, costs should not exceed the value of potentially damaged land.
e. Advise & assist the people responsible for the implementation of the gully control as per
designed.
5.5.1.3.6. Principles of gully control measures
1. Watershed rehabilitation
It is done to reduce and regulate the quantity of runoff produced from the watershed. Because
gully formation is often a symptom of land misuse, it can be prevented by good land husbandry.
Complete gully control cannot be achieved without watershed management.
2. Diversion of runoff
The stabilization of gully head can be achieved by diverting the runoff through diversion ditches.
3. Conveyance of water supply safely
This is done by allowing the runoff through the gully using some structures, such as reducing the
gully head up to 45, stabilizing its head by riprap, sod, brush cover, gabion, and treating its bed
by using check dams.
Gully stabilization
It includes two measures:
1. Vegetation measure
The purpose is twofold:
i. It provides soil cover, and
ii. It protects the gully against scouring.
“In gully control a bag of fertilizer is more important than a bag of cement”
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August, 2019
5.5.1.3.7. Vegetative treatment of gully
Useful plant species for treatment of gully:

1. Grasses
Barrier grasses:
Vetiver, Phalaris, Rhodes, Setaria, Fescue etc.
Large erect grasses:
Mountain bamboo (Kerkeha), Reed (Shembeko), Elephant (Sudangrass)
Running grasses: Kikuyu, Couch, Star
2. Live fencing plants: Sisal and Cactus
3. Legumes: Vetch species, Seradella, Desmodium, Siratro, and lablab
4. Multipurpose trees: Willows, Poplus, Locust, Flame tree, Acacia spp, and Mulbery tree
(Morus Alba)
5. Multipurpose shrubs: Trilucern, Suspania, cowpea, etc.
5.5.1.3.8. Structural measures
In this method, structures are used to control the flow velocity and thereby the gully erosion. The
structures are constructed to check velocity of flowing water in the gully.
The working principles of check dams are:
1. They reduce the degree of slope of the gully bed by constructing a series of checks at
regular interval,
2. They reduce the velocity of runoff by creating obstruction in the flow path and thus
making silt deposition over the gully bed, and
3. The series of such breaks increase percolation of water into the soil ⇒ Moisture
conservation
5.5.1.3.9. Classification of check dams:
Check dam
Temporary check dams Permanent check dams

1. Spillway
a. Drop spillway
b. Drop inlet spillway
c. Chute spillway
2. Rubble masonry dam
Brush wood dams Semi-permanent dams 3.Concrete dam
1. Single row 1. Loose rock dams 4. Gabion dam
2. Double row 2. Netting dams 5. Silt trap dam
3. Log check dams
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August, 2019
Temporary Check dams

Serve the following Purposes:
1. Suitable in small gullies,
2. Check the gully erosion until sufficient vegetation has been established, and
3. Suitable where tree for post and poles are available.
Single-row brush wood dams
 Suitable for gullies up to 1.5m deep and < 4.5m wide
 Before construction, sides of gully should be sloped 1:1
 The gully bed and entire width should be excavated for 15cm.
 The brushwood is kept in position by tying the posts with poles
Double row brush wood dams
 Suitable for gullies up to 1.5m to 2.5m deep and 4.5m to 6m width
 Other specifications are same as above
Loose rock fill dam

 Suitable where there are ample loose rocks (stones) nearby the gully,
 Simple in construction and effective in gully control, and
 The stones are kept across the gully width loosely placing one after the other or by wire
netting.
 When the height of the dam attains 0.70m, a notch (spillway) of 30cm depth and half of
gully width is constructed to discharge the runoff safely.
 An apron is also constructed up-stream and down-steam sides of the gully to dissipate the
force of runoff.
Log check dam
 Suitable when large size wood are available in the nearby of the gully area,
 Two rows of vertical wooden posts (Ø 10cm) formed at a spacing of 2m and made fixed
by rafter. The logs are packed between the two rows.
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August, 2019
Permanent gully control structures

 Made of permanent materials of masonry, reinforced concrete, and gabion.
Precondition for the use of permanent check dams
1. Volume of surface runoff is very high, that cannot be controlled by vegetation
2. Soil condition is adverse (unstable in nature),
3. The area is remote that regular maintenance is difficult,
4. Temporary measures are either inadequate or impractical to install, and
5. When the benefits are justifiable in comparison to the cost of construction. It is better to
construct such dams on the basis of cost benefit ratio.
General requirements
1. They must be constructed with permanent materials,
2. They must have adequate design capacity to handle the peak runoff rate, and
3. They should help in stabilizing the gully.
5.5.1.3.10. Design of check dam (loose rock and rubble masonry)
Proper design of check-dams is very crucial if they are to fulfil their objectives.
Design specification
d = depth of spillway
h = maximum height of water above spillway
F = free board
L = length of spillway crest
H = Effective height of the check dam
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August, 2019
1. Foundation
a. A key trench having 0.5 – 1m in depth should be constructed. While excavating the trench
a 10% reverse slope should be given.
b. The trench should extend into both abutments from g 0.5 – 1m reaching to the crest level
of the free-board (shoulder).
c. The width of the trench (both key & abutment) is ranging from 0.5m to 1.00m to improve
stability.
2. Super structure
a. As a rule of thumb, the bottom, mid, & top width of the dam body should be 0.6, 0.5, &
0.4 times the ht of the dam respectively. The effective height of the check dam is usually
between 0.3-1.0m depending on the purpose that: a). To trap silt for levelling purpose,
higher H is used, & b). To stabilise the gully floor, and sides and to safely dispose of the
discharge lower values of H are used.
b. The apron should be extended up to a distance of 1.5 to 2m times the height of the dame
to protect the dam from under cutting, and a sill should be constructed about 15cm high
to dissipate the hydraulic jump of the waterfall.
c. The side slope of the bank protection is 1.5:1 for stone check dam but the horizontal can be
reduced for masonry check dam. The side slopes of the wings in the abutments follow the
slopes of the gully bank.
3. Spillway
Step 1. Determine the peak discharge by Cook’s method, for the area, which contributes runoff
to the dam site.
Step 2. Use the following formula for trapezoidal weir (1:4 side slopes)
Q 2/3
3/2 ⇒ h =( )
Q = CLh CL (34)
where:
Q = peak discharge in m3/s
C = Coefficient of discharge (c for stone & brush wood = 3 and 1.8 for masonry and gabion),
L = Length of spillway in m, and
h = height of wall above the spill way crest in m.
The depth of spillway, d is found by adding a freeboard (f) of 20-25cm, as a safety margin, to the
height of water flow (h).
Step 3: For length L of the spillway:
Effective length of spillway = bottom width of the gully
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August, 2019
Example: A gully is 2 m deep and 3 m wide and the estimated discharge of runoff (Q) into the
gully is 1.8 m3/s what should be the depth d, of the spillway for a masonry check dam?
Given: effective length of spillway, L = 3 m, C = 1.8, and Q = 1.8 m3/s
Solution: Q = CLh 3/2
1.8 = 1.71 x 3 x h 3/2
h3/2 = Q/ (CL)
h = (Q/ (CL)) 2/3
h = (1.71/(1.8 x 3)) 2/3
h = 0.47 m
Therefore depth of spillway = h + f = 0.47 + 0.2 = 0.67 m
4. Spacing of check dam

Spacing can be determined into two ways:
1. Using empirical formula

1.7 H
HD = , Where
S
(35)
HD = spacing in m
H = effective dam height, m
S = slope of gully floor in fraction
2. Using Rule of Thumb
The spacing of the check dams should be such that the spillway crest of one check dam is level
with the base of the next check dam up stream. See the following picture that will help in
determining the spacing in this case.
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August, 2019
100 H
HD = , Where
S
HD and H are same as above, but S is in %
Spacing by the Pythagoras formula is almost > 70% than the spacing estimated by Rule of
Thumb. The choice between the two methods is mainly dependent on the availability of
materials. In the above example what would be the spacing if the land slope is 20% & height of
check dam above the gully floor, H= 1m?
Solution: tan θ = slope = H/HD ⇒ 20/100 =1/HD ⇒ HD = 1/0.2 = 5m,
Spacing, GD (Ground Distance) = √ 12 + 52=5.1m

Total gully length of hom ogeneous type , Lt
Number of checkdam =
Spacing between checkdams , GD
Lt
=
√ H 2 + HD 2 (36)
HD, calculated either by Rule of Thumb or Pythagoras method, can be used in this formula.
Once the number of check dams are known, the quantity of construction materials can be
determined by working out the volume of each part of the check dam (foundation and super
structure) for materials, like stone, cement, sand, volume or number of wood or gabion as the
case may be.
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August, 2019
Table 10. Comparison between biological and physical measures
Physical measures Biological measures

1. Upon completion have immediate effect 1. Their immediate effect is smaller but the
vegetation becomes stronger and more effective with
age
2. Operate at max design 2. Simple design is required
3. Application is justified only in 3. Applicable everywhere in rural areas, where
circumstance where a high producing fertile natural recovery of vegetation does not occur or is
area are threatened extremely low
4. Relatively expensive 4. More economic means of rehabilitation
5. Only help in sediment trapping 5. Play multipurpose role
- provide a ground cover
- enrich the soil by nitrogen fixation
- plays role in the stabilization & rehabilitation of
eroded hill
6. Need maintenance from time to time 6. Once established no maintenance is needed
73
August, 2019

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Advanced SWC Hassen Mohammed

Arable farming, or cultivation of crops on tracts of agricultural land, first appeared

Sustainability is getting forfeited or disappeared as a result of significant concerns or ignorance

2. Soil Erosion Processes

2.1. Soil erosion

Soil erosion occurs in two forms

2.2. Effects of soil erosion

2.3. Agents of soil erosion

The primary agents of soil erosion are:

2.4. Mechanics of soil erosion

Mechanics of soil erosion consists of three processes:

2.4.1.1. Causes of detachment

2.4.1.2. Factors affection detachment

2.4.2.1. Factors affecting transportation

The transportation of particles mainly depends upon the following factors:

2.4.2.2. Types of transportation

3. Methods of Soil Erosion Assessment

3.1. Direct measurements

Structural composition of soil

 Bulk density is the weight of soil in a given volume.

soil 1- (b /s) (3)

3.2. Field experiments

3.3. Mathematical models

Benefits of this approach are:

Significance of soil loss estimation

Sediment transport consists of two components:

4.1. Landscape component

sed=11. 8 ( Q surf⋅q peak⋅areahru ) 0. 56⋅K usle⋅Cusle⋅Pusle⋅LSusle⋅CFRG

where, sed is sediment yield on a given day (metric tons),

USLE cover and management factor,

atc .Q surf . Area

4.2. Channel component

length (m), n is Manning’s coefficient for the channel,

channel velocity (m/s),

 Amount of erosive force of Stream Power,

CONCsed ch mx = f (peak flow velocity) where CONCsed,ch.mx is the maximum concentration of

4.3. Simplified version of Bagnold equation (1977)

length (m), n is Manning’s coefficient for the channel,

channel velocity (m/s),

The peak flow rate is defined as:

The maximum concentration of sediment calculated with equation 4 is compared to the

The amount of sediment transported out of the reach is calculated as:

suspended sediment in the reach (metric tons), and

4.4. Channel characteristics

Figure 2: Trapezoidal channel dimensions.

The cross-sectional area of flow is calculated:

Pch Wbtm · depth ·√ 1+Z ch (21)

The volume of water held in the channel is calculated as:

5. Design of Soil and Water Conservation Structures

5.1. Principles/Strategies employed in erosion control

The most appropriate strategy for conservation depends upon:

5.2. Definition of soil and water conservation (SWC)

5.3. Basic tools for SWC application

C. Soil and water conservation approach

5.4. Choice of method of SWC with respect to amount of annual precipitation

5.5. Classification of SWC technique

This technique is grouped under four headings:

5.5.1. Agronomic techniques