AQA Computer Science A-Level

4.1.1 Programming
Advanced Notes

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Specification:

4.1.1.1 Data types:

Understand the concept of a data type.
Understand and use the following appropriately:
● integer
● real/float
● Boolean
● character
● string
● date/time
● pointer/reference
● records (or equivalent)
● arrays (or equivalent)
Define and use user-defined data types based on language-defined
(built-in) data types.

4.1.1.2 Programming concepts:

Use, understand and know how the following statement types can be
combined in programs:
● variable declaration
● constant declaration
● assignment
● iteration
● selection
● subroutine (procedure / function)
Use definite and indefinite iteration, including indefinite iteration with the
condition(s) at the start or the end of the iterative structure. A theoretical
understanding of condition(s) at either end of an iterative structure is required,
regardless of whether they are supported by the language being used.
Use nested selection and nested iteration structures.
Use meaningful identifier names and know why it is important to use
them

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4.1.1.3 Arithmetic operations
Be familiar with and be able to use:
● addition
● subtraction
● multiplication
● real/float division
● integer division, including remainders
● exponentiation
● rounding
● truncation

4.1.1.4 Relational operations in a programming language

Be familiar with and be able to use:
● equal to
● not equal to
● less than
● greater than
● less than or equal to
● greater than or equal to

4.1.1.5 Boolean operations in a programming language

Be familiar with and be able to use:
● NOT
● AND
● OR
● XOR

4.1.1.6 Constants and variables in a programming language

Be able to explain the differences between a variable and a constant.
Be able to explain the advantages of using named constants.

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4.1.1.7 String-handling operations in a programming language
Be familiar with and be able to use:
● length
● position
● substring
● concatenation
● character → character code
● character code → character
● string conversion operations

4.1.1.8 Random number generation in a programming language

Be familiar with, and be able to use, random number generation.

4.1.1.9 Exception handling

Be familiar with the concept of exception handling.
Know how to use exception handling in a programming language with
which students are familiar.

4.1.1.10 Subroutines (procedures/functions)

Be familiar with subroutines and their uses.
Know that a subroutine is a named ‘out of line’ block of code that may
be executed (called) by simply writing its name in a program statement.
Be able to explain the advantages of using subroutines in programs.

4.1.1.11 Parameters of subroutines

Be able to describe the use of parameters to pass data within
programs.
Be able to use subroutines with interfaces.

4.1.1.12 Returning a value/values from a subroutine

Be able to use subroutines that return values to the calling routine.

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4.1.1.13 Local variables in subroutines
Know that subroutines may declare their own variables, called local
variables, and that local variables:
● exist only while the subroutine is executing
● are accessible only within the subroutine
Be able to use local variables and explain why it is good practice to do
so.

4.1.1.14 Global variables in a programming language

Be able to contrast local variables with global variables.

4.1.1.15 Role of stack frames in subroutine calls

Be able to explain how a stack frame is used with subroutine calls to
store:
● return addresses
● parameters
● local variables

4.1.1.16 Recursive techniques

Be familiar with the use of recursive techniques in programming
languages (general and base cases and the mechanism for implementation).
Be able to solve simple problems using recursion.

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 Data Types

The way in which data is stored depends on what the data is. A ​data type​ is defined by the
values it can take​ or the​ operations which can be performed on it​.

In some situations, it might be possible to store one piece of data using various ​different
data types. In this case, the programmer must decide which option is the ​best suited​ to
solving a particular problem or which is the ​most memory-efficient​.

For example, if a programmer needs to store a user’s age in years, they could use a ​string
or an ​integer​. In this situation, using an integer would be the best option, because a
person’s age is only ever going to contain numerical digits.

Data type Description

Integer A whole number, positive or negative, including zero.

Real / Float A positive or negative number which can have a

fractional part.

Boolean A value which is either true or false.

Character A single number, letter or symbol.

String A collection of characters.

Data / Time A way of storing a point in time, many different formats

are used.

Pointer / Reference A way of storing memory addresses.

Records A collection of fields, each of which could have a

different data type. You can think of a record as a row
from a table.

Arrays A finite, indexed set of related elements each of which

has the same data type.

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User-defined data types

User-defined data types​ are derived from ​existing data

types​ in order to create a ​customised data structure​.
Creating and using user-defined data types allows a
programmer to ensure that a solution is ​as memory
efficient as possible​.

For example, a shop might use a user-defined data

type called ​Customer​to store information about their
customers. The user-defined data type might have
attributes ​like ​Forename​
, ​Surname​and ​EmailAddress​.

The way in which you use user-defined data types ​differs between programming
languages​. It’s important that you know how to use them in your chosen language.

Programming Concepts

Programming languages support a ​variety of different statement types​, some of which are
explained in the table below.

Statement type Description

Variable declaration Creating a variable for the first time, giving it a ​name
and sometimes a ​data type​. This allocates a portion of
the computer’s memory to the variable.

Constant declaration The same as variable declaration, but when creating a

constant​. The value of a constant ​does not change
while the program is running.

Assignment Giving a constant or variable a value.

Iteration Repeating ​an instruction, this could be ​definite ​or

indefinite ​(see below).

Selection Comparing values​ and ​choosing an action​ based on

those values.

Subroutine A named ​block of code​ containing a ​set of instructions

designed to perform a ​frequently used​ operation.

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Definite and indefinite iteration
Iteration is the process of ​repeating a block of code​. Examples of iteration include ​for 
loops and ​while​loops.

Definite iteration is a type of iteration in which the ​number of repetitions​ required is ​known
before the loop starts.

In contrast to definite iteration, indefinite iteration is used when the number of repetitions
required is ​not known​ before the loop starts.

FOR Count ← 0 TO 63  WHILE Temperature = 18 

OUTPUT Count  Temperature = GetTemp() 
ENDFOR  ENDWHILE 
   
This is an example of ​definite ​iteration. The The ​while​loop above uses ​indefinite
for​loop will run​ 64 times​ before finishing. iteration. The number of repetitions is ​not
known​ before the loop begins.

Nested Structures
Selection structures and iteration structures can be ​nested​.

This means that one structure is ​placed within another​ and

can easily be identified by different levels of ​indentation ​in
code.

For example, the pseudocode below consists of an ​if

structure, containing further selection and iteration structures. 

Whenever a new IF Colour = “RED” THEN 

selection or iteration WHILE Colour = “RED” 
structure begins, the Colour ← UpdateColour() 
code moves to a ENDWHILE 
higher level of ELSE 
indentation​, making IF Colour = “GREEN” THEN 
the code ​easier for WHILE Colour = “GREEN” 
humans to Colour ← UpdateColour() 
understand​.  ENDWHILE 
ELSE 
Colour ← “RED” 
ENDIF 
ENDIF 

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Meaningful Identifier Names
When declaring a constant, variable or subroutine, it’s
important to give it a ​sensible ​and ​meaningful​ identifier name.
This makes it ​easier for others to understand​ what the
purpose of the named object is within the program.

If a different programmer, who was ​unfamiliar ​with your

program, were to read the code, they should be able to work
out the purpose of a constant, variable or subroutine from its
name.
Arithmetic Operations

The following operations can be applied to operands by your programming language.

Different languages notate these operations differently, so ensure that you’re familiar with
your chosen language’s approach.

Operation Description Example

Addition When two values are added, the result is 128 + 42 = 170
the ​sum ​of the two values.

Subtraction When one value is subtracted from another, 34 - 13 = 21

the result is the ​difference ​between the two
numbers.

Multiplication The ​product ​of two numbers is returned 64 * 2 = 128

when multiplied.

Real / Float When one value is divided by another, both 12 / 8 = 1.5

Division a quotient and a remainder are returned.

Integer Division Integer division returns just the ​whole 12 \ 8 = 1

number part​ of a division. Or​ 12 DIV 8 = 1

Modulo Returns the remainder of an integer 12 MOD 8 = 4

division.

Exponentiation Raising one value to the power of another. 2 ^ 6 = 64

Rounding Limiting the​ degree of accuracy​ of a 3.14159 = 3.14

number, for example, to a set number of to 3 significant figures
significant figures.

Truncation Removing the decimal part​ of a number. 3.14159 truncated = 3

Truncation always returns the whole part of
the number and never rounds up.

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 Relational Operations

You can make use of relational operators whenever you need to compare two values.
They are used in iterative and selection structures as well as for ​base cases​ in ​recursion​.

Operation Example

Equal to 12 = 12

Not equal to 16 <> 413

16 != 413

Less than 75 < 422

Greater than 19 > 18

Less than or equal to 6 >= 22

95 >= 95

Greater than or equal to 20 >= 126

44 >= 44

Boolean Operations

As explained earlier in this document, a Boolean data type is one whose value can ​only
ever be true or false​. There are a series of ​operations ​that can be performed on Boolean
values.

Operation Description Example

NOT The ​opposite ​of a NOT 1 = 0 

Boolean value

AND The ​product ​of two 1 AND 1 = 1 

Boolean values 0 AND 1 = 0 

OR The ​sum ​of two Boolean 1 OR 0 = 1 

values 1 OR 1 = 1 

XOR True if ​strictly one​ of two 1 XOR 1 = 0 

values is true 1 XOR 0 = 1 

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 Constants and Variables

When a program needs to store data, it usually does so using one of two types of data
item: ​constants ​or ​variables​.

As their name suggests, variables can ​change their value​ during the execution of a
program, whereas a constant’s value ​cannot change​ once assigned.

Constants can be used for storing data that ​doesn’t need to

change​ such as a value for ​pi​ or the number of days in a
year. Using constants allows values to be given ​identifier
names ​which makes code ​easier for a human to understand​.

Furthermore, should a constant value be required ​multiple

times​ throughout a program, using a constant makes
changing that value ​much easier ​as it only needs to be updated ​in one place​.

Using hard-coded values Using constants

   
HoursWorked ← USERINPUT  HourlyRate ← 14 
PAY ← 14 * HoursWorked  HoursWorked ← USERINPUT 
OUTPUT PAY  PAY ← HourlyRate * HoursWorked 
OUTPUT PAY 
 

The pseudocode examples above show two different approaches to the same problem.
One approach uses hard-coded values whereas the other uses constants.

The code which makes use of constants is ​easier to understand​ as it clearly specifies that
14​refers to an hourly rate. In the example which uses hard-coded values, it’s ​difficult to
understand ​why ​HoursWorked​is being multiplied by 14.

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 String-handling operations

As discussed earlier in this document, a string is a ​collection of characters​. Thanks to their

composition, strings can have ​various functions​ applied to them.

Function Description

Length Returns the ​number of characters​ in a specified string.

Position Returns the ​position of a specified character ​within a string.

Substring Given a starting position and a length, returns a ​portion of a

string​.

Concatenation Joining two or more strings together​ to form a new, longer

string.

Character to character Returning the ​character code​ which corresponds to a

code specified character.

Character code to Returning the ​character ​represented by a given character

character code.

String to integer Converting a string to an integer.

String to float Converting a string to a float.

Integer to string Converting an integer to a string.

Float to string Converting a float to a string.

Date / time to string Converting a date / time data type to a string.

String to date / time Converting a string to a date / time data type.

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 Random number generation

Most high level programming languages have the ability to

generate random numbers​.

A built-in function takes a ​seed value​ and uses a series of

mathematical operations​ to arrive at a number. However, a
computer can never generate a ​truly ​random number and as
such, computer-generated random numbers are said to be
pseudorandom​.

It’s important that you make yourself familiar with random number generation in your
chosen programming language.

Exception handling

When an error occurs in program code, an “​exception​” is said to be thrown. This could be
caused by using the wrong data type, attempting to divide by zero or attempting to access
a non-existent element in an array to name a few examples.

Once an exception has been thrown, the computer has to

handle the exception​ to avoid crashing. It does this by
pausing execution​ of the program and saving the current
volatile ​state of the program on the ​system stack​ before
running a section of code called a ​catch block​.

This code will ​prevent the program from crashing ​and might ​inform the user​ that an error
has occurred. Once the exception has been handled, the program uses the ​system stack
to restore its previous state before resuming execution.

Subroutines

A subroutine is a ​named block of code​ containing a ​set of

instructions​ designed to perform a ​frequently used​ operation.
Using subroutines ​reduces repetition​ of code and hence
makes code ​more compact​ and ​easier to read​.

Both ​functions ​and ​procedures ​are types of subroutine and

can be ​called by writing their name​ in a program statement.
While both functions and procedures can return a value,
functions are ​required to​ whereas ​procedures may not​.

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 Parameters of subroutines

Parameters are used to ​pass data​ between subroutines within programs. Specified ​within
brackets​ after a subroutine call, parameters hold ​pieces of information​ that the subroutine
requires to run.
 
Length ← USERINPUT 
Width ← USERINPUT 
OUTPUT CalculateArea(Length, Width) 
 
SUBROUTINE CalcualteArea(x, y) 
RETURN x * y 
ENDSUBROUTINE 
 
The subroutine ​CalculareArea​in the pseudocode above takes two parameters,
Length​and ​Width​ . It then returns the product of the two values.

The actual value passed by a parameter is called an ​argument​. If a rectangle with sides of
height 4 and width 6 was input into ​CalculateArea​ , the ​parameters ​Length​and ​Width
would have ​arguments ​4 and 6 respectively.

Returning values from a subroutine

A subroutine can return a value. One that ​always ​returns a value is called a ​function​, but
don’t think that procedures can’t return a value, they can (but don’t always).

Subroutines that return values can ​appear in expressions​ and be ​assigned to a variable or
parameter​.

Length ← USERINPUT 
Width ← USERINPUT 
Area ← CalculateArea(Length, Width) 
OUTPUT Area 
 
SUBROUTINE CalcualteArea(x, y) 
RETURN x * y 
ENDSUBROUTINE

For example, in the pseudocode above, the variable ​Area​is ​assigned ​to the subroutine
CalculateArea​ . The value taken by the variable will be the value returned by the
subroutine.

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 Local variables in subroutines

A local variable is a variable that can ​only be accessed from the subroutine within which it
is declared​. They only exist in the computer’s memory when their parent subroutine is
executing. This makes local variables a ​more memory efficient​ way of storing data than
using global variables, which are discussed below.

Global variables

In contrast to local variables, global variables can be​ accessed from any part​ of a program
and exist in memory for ​the entire duration​ of the program’s execution.

Local variables can be given the ​same​ identifier name as global variables, although this is
generally considered ​bad practice​. When the local variable’s value is changed, the global
variable’s value ​remains the same​.

The role of stack frames in subroutine calls

Stack frames are used by computers to store ​return addresses​, ​parameters ​and ​local
variables​ for each ​subroutine call​ that occurs during the execution of a program.

If one subroutine calls another, ​nesting ​is said to occur. Each subroutine call will be
pushed ​onto the computer’s ​call stack​ in the form of a ​stack frame​ before the subroutine’s
code begins to execute. When the nested subroutine finishes executing, the stack frame is
popped ​from the call stack and the computer uses the information to ​return to execution​ of
the previous subroutine.

1 Name ← USERINPUT 
2 OUTPUT Greeting(Name) 
3  
4 SUBROUTINE Greeting(Name) 
5 TimeOfDay ← GetTimeOfDay() 
6 RETURN “Good “ + TimeOfDay + Name 
7 ENDSUBROUTINE 
8 
9 SUBROUTINE GetTimeOfDay() 
10 IF Time < 12:00 THEN 
11 RETURN “morning” 
12 ELSE 
13 RETURN “afternoon” 
14 ENDIF 
15 ENDSUBROUTINE 

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Stack Frame Example 
 
When the pseudocode above is run, the subroutine ​GetTimeOfDay​is ​called ​from within
the subroutine ​Greeting​and ​nesting ​occurs.
 
The first stack frame to be pushed onto the call stack is for the subroutine ​Greeting 

:
 
​
Call Stack 

 
Subroutine  Return  Parameters  Local 
Name  Address  Variables 

Greeting  Line 2  Name = “Sarah”  Null 

 

When the subroutine ​GetTimeOfDay​is called, ​another stack frame​ is pushed onto the
call stack and is ​placed on top of ​the frame representing ​Greeting: 
 
 
 
​
Call Stack 

 
Subroutine  Return  Parameters  Local 
Name  Address  Variables 

GetTimeOfDay  Line 5  Null  Null 

 

 
Subroutine  Return  Parameters  Local 
Name  Address  Variables 

Greeting  Line 2  Name = “Sarah”  Null 

 

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When the subroutine ​GetTimeOfDay​completes, its corresponding stack frame is ​popped
from the call stack:
 
Call Stack 

 
Subroutine  Return  Parameters  Local 
Name  Address  Variables 

Greeting  Line 2  Name = “Sarah”  Null 

 
 
 
 
The computer now takes the stack frame at the ​top of the stack ​and goes to the ​specified
return address​. Any parameters and local variables are restored.

Once the subroutine ​Greeting​has completed, the final stack frame is popped from the
call stack, leaving it ​empty​.

 
Call Stack 

 
 

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 Recursive techniques

A recursive subroutine is one which is ​defined in terms of itself​. This means that
somewhere within the recursive subroutine, there is a ​call to the subroutine​ itself.

Any recursive subroutine must meet have a ​stopping

condition​ (called a ​base case​) which ​must be met​ at some
point in the execution of the program.

If an algorithm calls itself, but ​doesn’t​ have a base case, it

will ​never terminate​. This will cause a ​stack overflow​ as more
and more stack frames are pushed onto the call stack.

The pseudocode below is an example of a ​recursive

algorithm​ which can be used to calculate the ​factorial ​of a
number, passed to the subroutine as a ​parameter​.

1 SUBROUTINE Factorial(Value) 
2 IF Value = 0 THEN 
3 RETURN 1 
4 ELSE 
5 RETURN Value * F ​actorial(Value - 1) 
6 ENDIF 
7 ENDSUBROUTINE 
 
The algorithm can be called recursive because ​it calls itself​ on line 5 (shown in bold). The
algorithm’s ​base case​ is when ​Value = 0​
. In this case, the algorithm ​doesn’t use
recursion​ to return a result.

When a problem can be solved recursively, it can often ​also be solved using iteration​.
While iterative solutions are often ​easier to program​, recursive solutions can be ​more
compact​ in code.

For example, the two pseudocode algorithms below

represent two possible approaches to the ​binary search
algorithm​. The first approach uses ​iteration ​while the second
uses ​recursion​.

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Iterative Binary Search Example

SUBROUTINE BinarySearch(Array, ToFind) 

Low ← 0 
High ← Length(Array) 
Middle ← 0 
WHILE Low <= High 
Middle ← (Low + High) / 2 
IF Array(Middle) > ToFind THEN 
High ← Middle - 1 
ELSEIF Array(Middle) < ToFind THEN 
Low ← Middle + 1 
ELSE 
RETURN Middle 
ENDIF 
ENDWHILE 
ENDSUBROUTINE 
 

Recursive Binary Search Example

SUBROUTINE BinarySearch(Low, High, Array, ToFind) 

Middle ← (Low + High) / 2 
IF ToFind < Array(Middle) THEN 
RETURN ​
BinarySearch(Low, Middle, Array, ToFind) 
ELSEIF ToFind > Array(Middle) THEN 
RETURN ​
BinarySearch(Middle, High, Array, ToFind) 
ELSEIF ToFind = Array(Middle) THEN 
Return Middle 
ENDIF 
ENDSUBROUTINE 

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