Notes on fundamental of architecture

Chapter one
introduction
1.1 Introduction of architecture
The word “ARCHITECTURE” derives from the Greek word “architekton” (in Latin
“architecton”) which means “construction master”.
According to Neologisms dictionary architecture is the science and art of constructing buildings,
according to some proportions and rules determined by the character and destination of the buildings.
Architecture is the art of science and designing and constructing functionally graceful structure to
serve the user well and satisfy his varying and complex needs. It is scientific and art of designing built
spaces. It involves conceptual study, design & visualization of the site before it is constructed. Art &
aesthetics, form and function, material and technology all melt together in architecture.

1.2 Bases for Development of Architecture:

HIstory shows that following are the bases for the development of Architecture.
 FEAR:-From primitive times the man has been trying to protect himself from the attacks of wild
animals and rigorous of wealth. For this he created his dwelling which kept on changing with time
and need. With advancement in his intelligence desires for safety, comfort and luxury increased
which resulted in varied structures for various purposes.
 LOVE:-Instinct of love gave birth to many monumental works e.g:Taj Mahal (Delh i. india), Rani
Mahal (Palpa, Nepal) etc.
 DEATH:- Death also has been responsible for many architectural constructions. So many historical
Tombs and Makbaras are the examples of these category monuments.
 HOPE:-Pyramids, temples, churches and other places of worship, religious buiiding have come up
out of shear hopes of the man.

1.3 Factor influencing Architecture

The reason to construct a building in particular form or shape are called influences. Following factors
influence the architecture.
 Topography: Topography means the general terrian of the surface. A small country having uniform
topography will generally have similarity of character in its architecture. On the contrary, a very
large country having varied topography and culture in different regions will have varied character in
its architecture, A mountainous. region requires an architectural treatment entirely· different from
that in a level terrian. In mountainous region building plans are adopted without much consideration
to secure a picturesque effect.

 Building materials: Avialable building materials in the area also influence the architeture of the
building. If timber is locally available in abundance and is cheap it will be found that most of
constructions will be using timber as building material. Easy availability of bamboos will lead to
the construction of bamboo houses · Locally available stone is used as building material in most of
the constructions. Size of available building material also leads to varied styles of building
construction. Larger blocks of building material lead to post and lintel, construction. Post and lintel
construction is also know n as "Trabeated construction''

 Climate . Climate of the region influences the architecture significantly

 lnfluence on plans: In warmer climates the plans are more open and often include a court yard.
Milder climates propagate construction of detached buildings. In cold climates Plans are more
compact as every effort is made to avoid wintry winds and snow from entering the building

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
 Influence on walls:The ·walls of a building are the most important structural element and it is
interesting to notice how climate has in past influenced these ar'chitictural. members. In hot
climates walls were made thick with minimum openings to provide light. Today, however, walls
can be made as thin as.material would permit and heat and cold can be keep out by providing
insultion
 Influence on roof: Heavy rainfall regions require steeper slopes to roofs to drain away ram water
easily. In Heavy snow fall regions even steeper slopes are provided so that snow may slip away
from the roof. In dry and hot regions flat roofs are used. Terrace is also used for sleeping in
summer
 Social structure and history: Because of its most permanent nature, the architecture reflects the
social structure of the period in which it was developed. The interest of the people indicates the
type and appearance of its buildings. War and peace, desires and disappointments, retrenchment
and expansion, are such, things which slowly give birth to social order. These environments may
influence the entire architectural movement. In early times there used to be frequent invasions
from outside and naturally in such a time fortified cities, thick and heavy frequent invasions from
outside and naturally in such a time fortified cities, thick and heavy walled houses with strong and
minimum number of doors were the need of the time. Once stable conditions were created by
effective Governments the social conditions automatically improved which eliminate the necessity
of many protective features. In such stable conditions ·comfort and convenience control the
architecture.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Chapter Two
Buildings and their types
2.1 Functional Classification of the Building
Human being requires various buildings for his necessities to be fulfilled. Such as the house, bungalows,
flats to live in, hospitals. Health centers for his health, school. Colleges for the education etc. So, the
building is classified as per the function of that building. So the various buildings and the activities of
the building remain as the important aspect of the social progress of the society.
On the basis of the functional activities buildings are classified as follows.
a) Residential Building: These are those types of building which accommodation is provided for normal
residential purposes with or without looking, dining or both the facilities. Eg: lodges. Guest houses,
Hotels, Rooming Houses Private Dwelling’s tor a single or a double family. Dormitories/Hostels,
Apartments, flats

b) Educational Building: These are those building used for the education facilities in the form of
school, college or day care proposes involving the assembly space for instruction, education and
recreation.

c) Institutional buildings: These are those building used for certain purposes such as medical or other
treatment or care of persons suffering from physical or mental illness or diseases. Institutional
buildings ordinarily provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants. E.g
i. Hospitals and sanitaria’s: It includes a building or a group of buildings which is used for housing
persons suffering from physical limitations, fitness health or age etc. Eg. Hospitals, Nursing Homes,
Clinics.
ii. Custodial institutions: These include any buildings or a group of buildings used for the custody and
care of persons such as children disables and the aged persons. E.g. Old age home, Orphanages Child
Care Home etc.
iii. Penal Institutional Buildings: These include any building or a group of buildings which is used for
housing persons under restraint or who are detained for penal or corrective purposes in which the
liberty of the inmates is restricted. For eg. Jails, prisons Mental hospitals etc.

d) Assembly Buildings: This include any building or group of building where group of people
assembled for amusement , recreations, patriotic, travel, social, religious and similar such purposes.
E.g. theaters, assembly building, exhibition halls, museums, auditorium, clubs, hotels, places of
worship, airport, railways and bus terminals and marine public transportation services etc.

e) Business building: These include a building or part of a building which is used for the business
transactions, records, account keeping and a similar other purposes, such as clinics, banks, beauty
parlors etc. The principal function of these building is to keep the records and transactions of the
public.

f) Mercentiles buildings: These include a part of any building or a building used as shops, stores,
markets for display and sale of merchandise either in the form of retail or wholesale. Eg:
Departmental stores, shopping plaza, commercial complexes

g) Industrial buildings: These are those buildings or structures in which the products are produced,
fabricated, assembled or processed. Eg: Laboratories, Power plants, diary factory

h) Storage buildings: These are the structures used primarily for the storage or sheltering including
repairing, servicing, processing of goods, merchandise, vehicles. etc. Eg: Warehouses, cold storage,
store houses, truck and marine terminals, garages etc.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
i) Hazardous Building: These include any structure used for the storage, handling, and manufacture or
processing of highly combustible or explosive material or products liable to burn with extreme
rapidity or which produce poisonous fumes or explosions.

Construction system of the building.

Construction system of a building usually means the system of the construction of the building. Such as
the timber construction, R.C.C construction, steel construction etc. Building comprises of the amorphous
materials such as the clay. There are basically two system of construction & they are Massive and Skeleton
system.

Massive System I Elementary Building Construction

This style is simple and easily adapted since early days & still today most of the developing countries
are adapting it. In this system, the elements itself acts as the bonding as well as the supporting elements. For
example Stone or brick walls. Due to the massiveness of the wall system, the space planning & the design is
rather rigid. Here the elements such as walls not only enclose the space but also support the structure. There
are certain limitations in the construction in the mass ive System i.e. the openings are restricted to the small
size.
Large openings create the structure to weaker
Massive system is rather limited in application because tall buildings more than 3 storey cannot be
constructed using this method of construction, due to its heaviness.
Characteristics
• Massive System is a rigid system.
• The wall masonry not only encloses the space but also supports the structure.
• Due to the lacking of repetitions of the elements in the structure, the building looks more sculptural.
• Openings have limitations in shape and size.
• Tall buildings cannot be constructed.
• The building contains of a very good thermal and sound insulation in the extreme climatic area.
E.g. Multi- tierd Temples, Residential Buildings,

Skeleton System/Advanced Building construction:

As the name suggests, frame structure, it referred to the creation of the framed like structure with the proper
use of column and beam. This system consists of the different bonding as well as the supporting systems of
the constructions. This skeleton system consists of the repetition of the elements we can get the flexibility in
the interior space as well as the aesthetical beauty in the exterior pan. The system is architectural rather than
sculptural. This system also allows the building to have a wider openings & transparency. So these large &
wider openings not only help to lighten the interior space but the interior can also be exposed to the outside.
Skeleton system is the result of the continuous grids, which are followed very carefully as per the design &
the strength of the structure. Using these scientific system tall structures can be constructed. For e.g. Multi-
storied building & Skyscrapers. ·
Characteristics
• The bonding members as a wall & structure member are different from each other.
• Primary system includes of column and beam whereas the walls from the secondary system.
• Consists of the repetition of the elements.
• It forms the system articulation i.e. connected by the joint in a flexible manner.
• It is architectural rather than sculptural due to the flexibility & repetition
• E.g. Reinforced Concrete System
• Steel Construction system.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Chapter three
Basic principles of architectural design
3.1 Design Process:
Design process is the set of continuous actions to arrive at the form of wholesome object. To
overcome a whole, the part have to be indemnities and understand and each part should be continued to
form as a whole object. For Eg: In the case of the design of a residence. The first process the designer
has to do is to carry out the site investigations and find out the requirement of the client which forms the
Analysis. Eg: Bedroom, Living room. Dining room, kitchen, and bathroom washing space. Scores etc.
are the requirement of residential building.
The exercise of identification of the forms is the act of analysis. Now , these rooms have to be
placed with respect to one another, as some front and some in the back, while some have to be kept in
the middle in usual practice the living room has to be kept in the front dining should be kept middle. In
usual practice the living has to be kept in the front, dining should be kept in between the kitchen as well
as the living room whereas the washing space should be kept at back. This process is known as
synthesis. At the end, it is evaluated whether it is fit for functional planning or not. so this process is
known as Evaluation
Design method=Analysic+ Aynthetic+Evaluation

Design Method is also based on Physical. Social and Cultural Aspects.

 Physical Aspect: Physical aspects of the design process reflect to the type of structure usable space,
building materials used in the construction. Similarly the physical aspect also relates to the area of the
space which must be related to the human proportions/ anthropometric data. Eg: Room lesser than 6' is
not practicable.!
 Social Aspect: The social aspect determines the components of the building. For example: The
entrance of the residence should be in front of the building with a portico above the entrance, similarly
the living room. kitchen, dining room, common toilet should be in the ground floor whereas the
private bedroom should be in the first floor. So each spaces in the residence should be designed
accordingly as per the social aspects. ·
 Cultural Aspects: Culture provides the psychological meaning. For eg: Hindu Culture recommend a
Tulsi Math in front of the main entrance but this case might not be true with other religious culture
too. So the cultural aspect guides about the placement of the components in front, near or far. It also
gives idea about the general outlook of the building to identify whether it is the residential building or
school etc.

Modern Technology of designing:

After 19th century, due to the rapid growth in the population, in the World, development procedure also
progressed rapidly. Similarly new materials, technologies and design were introduced to cater the necessities
of the modern aged people.
As per the building materials stone, brick, timber, tiles, clay, cement has been the greatly used
materials in the construction of the buildings. From the preceding information, we are now been able to
know that it is the material and technology adopted in the building that shape the architecture to express its
style. So the basic material used in architecture has always followed the past.
It is also the human mind that has made possible to develop new material and technology. Industrial
Revolution brought forth advances in material and technology which is responsible for large scale changes
in living, working etc demanding large working, entertainment shaping stores, which is made possible only
with the use of modem materials and technology.
The rapid growth and invention of modem material and technology considerably improved and
superceded the materials, styles and design of the past old architecture. Most of the modem architecture was
originated in the United States and Europe and spread o the rest of the World. Massive load bearing
structures are being now repiaced by thin and skeleton RCC curtain walls, producing slender structure with
large interior space.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
The extensive use of a reinforced cement concrete and steel beams and I- Section has resulted for the new
form of taller buiiding in the form of the skyscrapers and high rise building.
A part from the foundation and the structure the wider ranges of roofs has started to cover the
architecture in the form of flat, slope. barrel vaults, shell roofs including various forms of Domes.
Pre-stressed concrete and steel sections are widely used in the construction of the wider bridges with
innovative architectural and engineering details. Eg: Kamali bridges, Ho,Hab bridges etc.
Besides this traditional form of stained glass has been replaced to the new form of glass in the doors and
windows like
Transparent Glass (way glass)
Frosted Glass
One-way Glass (One can see out but outsiders cannot view in)

DESIGN PROCESS:
 Design is catering to a particular requirement in satisfactory manner. In architecture and in other fields
too it is considered as the creative activity.
 Creation is to generate and come across something which is statistically different. Creation is considered
as to be original. But a purely original ideas cannot be acceptable, it should somewhat be in some
aspects or should reflect the familiarity. Eg: Building entrance should be on the Ground floor, not in
other floor.
 Design is an activity which has a starting point and ending point which also helps to take gradual steps
involved in design.
 Design involves different steps and those steps are helpful to find out the proper solution of the
problem. So design is a problem solving act.
 •Design has two basic points “Points of departure and point of distination”
 Design cannot be solved using any formulas and derivations.
 Design is perceived and realized only after understanding the existing set of conditions.
 "Art is the problem solving which cannot be formulated before they are solved' . - Denish Poet" Piet
Hein"
 Initially design process was considered as un-teachable, later it is the Architects who tried to define
Design Process.
 The basic requirement before Designing requires the following two stages.
 The mind should be let free to produce and generate new ideas.
 A system should be developed to make the presence of creative output to be logical.
As a conclusion "Design is a Creative Activity, but it should be logical"

Design Process For any Building

1) Establishment of a program
a) Requirement of a client
b) Survey and detailing
c) Necessity of a site
d) Bye-laws and regulations
e) Objectives and fitness of the building in that site.
2) Set up a bubble diagram
a) Spaces
b) Circulation
c) Special Relationship
d) Hierarchy/ levels ofthe positioning of the spaces
3) Conduct a Site Analysis
a. Sub surface features and top soil.
b. Existing natural features if any( Tree, Stone, river, pond)
c. Cultural and man made features if any(Temple, stupa)
d. Aesthetic features (View, river, Stream, pond)
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Notes on fundamental of architecture
e. Develop Design Concepts
f. Design Method ( Conception – Realisation Communication)
OR
Design Method (Analysis - Synthesis - Evaluation)
4) Choose a Design Approach

BUBBLE DIAGRAM
Bubble diagram represents the circular diagram like bubbles, which help to set up a relation of one space to
another in a systematic and hierarchical way. It has been an international practice to set up a bubble diagram
before setting up a goal or a design. Size of a bubble should vary as per the size of the room. The bubbles
are connected by the straight lines, whereas the arrow head shows the relationship between the spaces.

Kit garden

Septic tank

Building

Garden Paved area Garden

Entry

Fig: Bubble Diagram of a Site

Site Analysis and Investigation.

Physical Aspect: (Location , Zoning, orientation of Existing Property along E, W. N, S, Main Road,
Service Road, Nature and Types of the surrounding, Area of the Site, Bye-Laws, Orientation, Topography(
Nature of Ground, Climate, Size of the Plot, Frontage, Depth, Desirable View, Soil Condition)
1) Social, Cultural and Religious Aspect: ·
 Existence of any temples, churches, mosques, stupas, meditation center nearby,
 Religion of the client.
2) Requirements of the Owner
 No. of persons
 Age of the persons
 Profession of the owner
 Hobby/ Personal interests of the Owner

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
3) Types of Planning
 Open/ Compact/Mixed/ C1osed Planning
 Style of the building
 Building Material
 Construction Technology
4) Building Bye- laws
 Set- backs
 Ground Coverage
 Building Heights
 Light Plame
 F.A.R(Floor Area Ratio)
 Location

Bubble Diagram
One Line Diagram
Two Line/Walled Diagram (Present a design Solution)
• Floor plans/Site Plan
• Elevations
• Sections,
• Rendering/ Coloring
• Model/ Perspective Driving’s

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Chapter four
Basic principles of Urban Planning
DEFINITION
PLANNING
Any type of design activities which include pre-thinking and pre-arrangement before any physical
developments take place needs to: a) analyze the requirement of good city or town and b) synthesize them as
a result to get planned city or town.
Planning is a systematic management overtime to make everything in order and easy to implement, which
should be durable, convenient, beautiful and efficient. Planning at urban scale includes the land zoning,
transportation, infrastructure and built environment. It combines design community, social economical
physical and political issues which effect and impact on human living environment built environment for the
present and future.
Planning is basically carried out so as to achieve and acquire better results in terms of health, convenience,
comfort and happiness of all living beings. From the effective planning the possible errors can be eliminated
in future.
Planning can be equally carried out in the new town and city on virgin land for the creation of the better
environment whereas the planning on existing towns, cities and the extensions can be planned for the
development and improvement for the betterment of the existing wins. Hence, the practice of Urban
Planning has indeed the great demand for the betterment of the city. Most of the developed countries had
been following the method for the better environment by the effective planning.

URBAN ZONE AND URBANIZATION

Urban means area generated independently movement of the people from one place to the other which is
gradually reducing the rural character. Urbanization is focused on concentrated or denser setting of areas for
the varieties of activities, services, facilities etc. In other words, it is trade based economy where as rural
area signifies the primary production area and human activities.

REGIONAL PLANNING
It is an attempt to bring about balanced development of the region by promoting growth in the backward
region. Examples in Nepal are Eastern Development Region, Central Development Region etc. It includes
planning of land in general but extends to planning of government, economic activities, and socio-economic
activities in the context of socio-cultural practice.

URBAN PLANNING
It is the study and application of urban design and development with response to social aesthetic and
environmental issues, which has provision of required facilities to the people living in urban areas to
achieve the goals considering the socio-cultural values and physical structures of the surrounding from the
past experience, exercises and maintaining the future. E.g. Kathmandu valley, Chandhigardh city etc.
Urban structure is composite of settlements, neighborhoods, community, different types of buildings,
landscape; open spaces, transport network, infrastructure services, and economic activities interlinked each
other. The urban form is the composition of size of the urban area, its geography and its land use.

CITY
The core space of the urban area is city. It is specialized in trading activities which is complex network of
interrelated elements. Population growth is main factor for the expansion of the city and people shift towards
the country’s ide due to environmental degradation. Examples in our case are Kathmandu metropolitan city,
Patan sub-metropo litan city, Bhaktapur sub-metropolitan city, Chitwan city etc.

TOWN
It is smaller area than city, more widely specialized centres for specific purpose that serves a particular area
and acts as a local centre. It includes the commerce, industry, culture, education, health, recreation,
administration etc. and are influenced from economic; social and political situation.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture

RURAL PLANNING
It deals with the planning of any rural region, so as to get the better environment. Examples – arrangement
of crop fields, haat bazaar, health posts, community centre, security posts etc.

TOWN PLANNING
Urban environment deals with the environment in which the natural features dominates and replaced
by the man made physical structures. For example: building constructed as residence for living, office for
working likewise recreational centre for entertainment and refreshment. As per the data a place becomes
urban if it has more than 5000 population. Similarly. More than 75% of the total population should be
engaged in non-agricultural occupation and density more than 1000 persons per sq. km. however there can
be exceptions
Town planning is considered as an art of shaping, remodeling and guiding the physical growth of the
town. Planning also helps to prevent the haphazard growth creating livelihood of building environment and
other physical infrastructures to meet the various needs such as social cultural, economic facilities to provide
the safe and healthy conditions for all type of people to live, work and play.
As Aristotle says, ‘A city should be built to give its inhabitants security and happiness’ while Plato
describes it as a place where man had a common life for noble end.
Urban planning is concerned with the ordering and design of settlements. From the smallest towns to
the world's largest cities. Urban, city, or town planning is the discipline of land use planning which explores
several aspects of the built and social environments of municipalities and communities. Other professions
deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development namely architecture, landscape architecture and
urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed level.
Another key role of urban planning is urban renewal and re-generation of inner cities by adapting
urban planning methods to existing cities suffering from long-term infrastructure l decay.

OBJECTIVES & AIMS OF URBAN PLANNING

Planning is always the forethought method, so the planner before taking up any planning works, must
have to have definite aims & objectives with regard to the efficient town planning. According to town
planning act the main objectives of the tov-m planning may be summarized in three words as Health,
Convenience and Beauty.
1) Health: Health is the prime factor for the citizens of any city/ town. So the planning should be carried
out such that: The planning should overall be focused to create & promote the healthy conditions &
environments for all the people i.e. rich, medium or poor to live, work, play or to relax. The land use
plan should be effective by making the right use of the land for the right purpose by proper division of
land also known as zoning. Zoning refers to the functional allocation of the different functional
building as per the necessity, convenience & proximity. Zoning deals with the residential, commercial,
Industrial, Institutional & Recreational etc., in order to avoid & prevent the haphazard development
and encroachment of one zone to another for the smooth & orderly development of the town or city
without any future disturbance dis-balance & conflict.

2) Convenience: The level of convenience is not measurable, & it differs radically. So the level of
convenience differs in the form of various needs of the community such as social, economic, cultural
& recreational amenities etc. Public amenities of any city is required for the proper environment &
upkeep of the citizens including better water supply drainage, transportation, electricity,
communication , gases. Foods etc. Similarly sample of working space industrial, communication, and
business enterprises should be promoted to be established to encourage the citizens in trade & work.
In the similar way Recreational amenities for everyone include open spaces, parks greeneries,
and gardens. Whereas the recreational facilities for children refer to playground & town halls,
stadiums, community centers, cinema halls, theaters refers to the recreational amenities for the adults.

3) Beauty: A part from the functional aspects. The beauty of any city or town also plays a vital role in the
planning & beautification of the city.
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• To preserve the individuality; of the urban area/ town by developing it on its most suitable natural
conditions. That is why the Beauty also provides the identity of the city with the proper use &
maintain of the natural features.
• To preserve the elements of aesthetics in the design elements of town or city planning, which include
the preservation of natural as well as artificial elements. Natural elements include preservation of
trees, natural greenery, water bodies etc. Artificial Elements include buildings, monuments of dignity
& aesthetic beauty. Such as public, semipublic building, traditional architecture, temples, churches,
mosques including the building of culture & historical importance.

Principles of Urban Planning

The main principles of Urban Planning are as below:
a) Planning is a rethinking process. So there should not be any haphazard method in planning process.
b) As per the housing facilities, the housing accommodation should be classified & distinguished, which
should be in accordance to the variation in the income groups. Income group basically defines as HIG,
MIG, and LIG. Besides this in case of the presence of the slums the housing arrangement should be
allocated in the respective places as per the housing, rules of the city or country.
c) The private, public & semi public buildings should be properly distributed & grouped throughout the
city.
d) The facility of shopping centers, health post, hospital , schools, nurseries & recreation centers etc
should be provided to all the residents
e) Adequate open spaces should be allocated for public recreation & open play spaces. Also as per the
efficient planning open spaces shou ld be reserved for the future expansion also.
f) The system of efficient planning should follow the principles of Zoning So the Zoning or the
allocation of the suitable zones such as residemial, commercial, industrial zone should be allocated in a
proper location.
g) The urban growth of the town should be controlled by the green belt along the street side. Green belt is
usually an open strip of land all around the street side of the City or town which also acts as the
reserved land generally used for special purpose of limiting the growth of the City. So the Green belt
also falls on the provision for the future expansion Green belt also falls under the reserved land for
special purpose of limiting the growth of city.
Planning at urban scale includes
 Land zoning
 Transportation
 Infrastructural facilities
o Electricity
o Drainage
o Water supply etc.
 Built environment

Architectural Conservation
(Restoration & Reconstruction of Architectural object)
"Past is the Gateway to the future". As per the saying, architecture has the clear influence from the
past. So architecture is not only to create for the present & for the future but it should completely has to obey
and respect the past. Every architecture has its own value, so the traditional architecture possessing the
historical and cultural value do not reflect & represent the time of evolution but these structures also inspire
the present and future architecture by allowing to use for the current purpose. So building structure
possessing the value should be conserved
The term conservation seeks to retain the existing state of the objects. It is the action taken to prevent
the decay & damage of the objects so as to prolong the life of the structure. Building serving & standing for
more than 100 years, besides the changes that had been taken place during the time period falls under the
historical building. So such historical buildings should be preserved.

Historical buildings are the heritage of the nation.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Values in Conservation: The objects are to be conserved possess certain respects or values, which are
categorized as three values of conservation.
Emotional Value
Use Value
Cultural Value

Restoration: The act or process of accurately recovering the form & details of a heritage resource & its
setting as it appeared at a panicle period of time by means of removal or later work or by the replacement of
missing historic features, or in other words, preserving & restoring the old architectural objects for the same
use as they were constructed is called restoration.
Restoration of an architectural object is to understand & respect its value at present for the same use
as they were constructed in the past. But in order to conserve the architectural objects, all architectural
objects may not need restoration.

Reconstruction
Sometimes the use & demand may alter. So these objects are modified & functionally used for different
purpose as per the necessity of alteration. So this process of conservation of any architectural objects, by
necessary modification is known as Reconstruction The necessity of reconstruction may be changed as per
the necessity of the modification, they are:
The Dattatraya Temple at Tapachal
The Lokeshwor Temple

Reconstruction:
The act or process of reproducing by new construction the exact form & detail of a vanished building,
structure or object as it appeared during a specific period of time. Construction of new structure built to
resemble old ones based on historic, archeological or similar evidence using new materials.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Chapter five
Architectural composition
5.1 Form & Function & Spatial Composition of buildings
Form:Form is considered as the three dimensional element formed by the enclosure of space, by a plane or a
number of planes. Form is the thing we see by our naked eyes. That is the reason that comment on any
architectural object is the outcome of the form, it holds, therefore if the architecture holds a good form, then
it looks beautiful.
A form is constituted by different elements, relationship between those elements, formal structure and at the
end the style. Form is also a point of contact between mass & space or whenever we use line to enclose an
area the form is created. "It is the architectural form which gives shapes to the architecture. So Architectural
form, texture, material, light, shade, color etc. combine together to form a shape. The quality of architecture
will be evaluated by the skill of designers in using & relating these elements, both in interior spaces around
the buildings. "Edmund. N. Bacon.

Visual Properties of Form

Shape Color
Size Texture
Form refers to the shape of the building arrived as a result of the functional requirements of the
object. Various units with different forms of spaces are connected to each other horizontally & vertically.
The structure is required to create & maintain the desired form.

Function
Function is the efficient arrangement of the spaces, circulations of any buildings. When certain form
& size is used for Architectural purposes, it always reflects that function for which it was created. Therefore
it is said that form is best which governs with "Form Follows the .Function". "Form Follows the Function" is
the slogan by L. Sullivan., the famous Architect which reflects the optimum efficiency of the form we can
say "Function follows the form".
So if any building composition consists of the Principle ''Form Follows the Function" it will give
better appearance, utility, economy, physical comfort structurally fit & sustainable to the man or users.
Therefore while we design any graphical solution, we must have to think not once but ·several times to
select a suitable form for particular topics of design. For example if we design a Stadium the chosen form
will be like Circular, Parabolic, Polygonal or so but we cannot choose square form, because it will not
provide desired space for the play lots & also it will not give any aesthetical value as the above chosen form
Therefore it suits the statement, "The Form remains, the function never dies." Function is the term
related with "use" concept of the form. So a Form designed ignoring its function may become "Sculpture"

Conclusion
"Form Follows Function" - frist used by sculptor Horatio Greenough, more popularly by Louis Sullivan·
"Form follows function”: that has been misunderstood. Form and function should be one, joined in a
spiritual union" –Fran k Lloyd Wright.

Spatial Composition of buildings

Sigfried Giedien (Architecture and the phenomenon of the Transitior and space, Time and Architecture) has
proposed the building of the past and present in terms of the nature of built environment they create may
be classified into three basic concepts .
First Concepts: -Architecture as a space is radiating volume
Building as a sculpture.
Building form spaces outside for the use of man.
Some Examples:-Egyptian architecture: Pyramids, Temples
The Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens,
Nepalese Architecture: Stupa and temples.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
These types of buildings are vast in scale and cover the large space and have limited interior space, so these
types of buildings are designated for viewing from outside and often from some calculated distances. The
Egyptian temples were roughly finished because they were designed for viewing from the long distance but
the external finishing of Greek temples were so refined and extremely fine, as its viewing distance was very
close . It is treated as a sculpture form in space. The Parthenon had even perspective corrections applied so
that it "looked perfect". Exterior column form distance viewing the layout of other building in the Acropolis
also indicates the use of the concept of a complex of building creating external space. E.g. "The great temple
of Amon at Karnak" in Egypt. The temple covers more space than any other temple in the world, 54000 sq
ft. The construction of hypostyle halls with 134 columns, with 12 feet (3.6m) thick and 69ft (21m) high are
crowned with the capitals, holding the capacity of the entire group of the buildings. If we look at the
Nepalese temples and stupas we can see the same concept as they create external spaces through their
volumes.
E.g:- Swayambhu Nath Stupa, Bouddha nath Stupa, and the Pashupati Nath Temple. The detailing
indicates exterior viewing of these buildings. Use of space inside is minimum in temples & none in the
Stupa & Chaityas. Even the Malla Palaces / dwellings are closer to this concept as external and semi
external space(courtyards) creation are intended with interior bare(scanty) in comparison to the volume of
exteriors impression these Palaces create. However the impression of the exterior volumes, the preliminary
purpose of the palaces was to get enclosed space for residential purpose.

Second Concept:- Architecture as interior space.

Building hollowed out and opened by means of windows:
Elaboration of interiors, lighting etc.
Building form spaces inside for the use of man
Some examples:The Pantheon, Rome
Gothic Cathedrals
The Pantheon is one of the early buildings forming this space concept through the departure from the
first space concept which can be seen in other areas in earlier times in Rome. The temple has a circular plan
with its strong room and stepped coffer dome. Both the diameter and the height of the building are 43.3m in
dimension. The temple has one door and one opening. And its hall was lit by the unglazed openings, in the
form of Oculus which can also be termed as the eye of the dome. The man entrance /approach to the hall
was made through the colonnaded porch. Inside the dome structure, if we look up it gives like a feeling of
being in sphere or in a spherical space with interior space itself being so mysterious. As the eye of the dome
was used for obtaining the various form of lighting one can feel the mystical changes taking place as the sun
moved in the sky outside. From outside it was plain cylinder with a porch like those of the Greeks. The
Gothic Cathedrals are the early examples of this group. Here the load bearing walls were avoided/removed
as a structural system by using the arches and counter weights forming the concrete vaulted construction and
thus were profusely punctured with large windows to bring the lights in. There use of stained glass in the
openings considerably highlighted their intentions in the nature of interior. 'The cathedrals also used spires
and height to stand but in the low profiles of medieval European towns

E.g.:- Notre Dame Cathedral, France.

 Stained glass windows consist the image of God( Jesus , Mary)
 Pointed arch
I am not able to find a good example of Nepalese context in this concept. May be the 55 windowed palace
was starting the trend but could not flourish due to historical changes. Building mass is hollowed or wall is
perforated by providing window in order to soften the impact of the wall.
E.g.- Villa Savaoye(l930 's/1940 's).
• Building is hollowed out by long length of windows known as Ribbon Windows.
• Building is airy or free because ground floor there is only a pilots and carporch.

E.g.- Glass House- Designed by Philip Johnson (New Caanan,Connecticut).

• Building is totally with steel frame and glass.
• Building has a total relationship with exterior as well as interior.
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Third Concept: Architecture as both volume and interior space.

Both external/internal built environment.
Group design of buildings . .
E.g. -John Utzon 's Sydney Opera House in Sydney is good example of sculptural building with equally
grand intent in the interior space formation.
E.g.:- In the context of Nepal, the good example is Convention Hall with exterior volume as interior spaces.
E.g.- Johnson Wax Building, Wisconsin. (Tall structure lab building)
• Entrance is given emphasis by using sculpture.
• Interior of administration is so encouraging to work in.

E.g.-Falling Water, Kauffman 's House , Bear Run, Pennsylvania

• Buildings fonh like sculpture
• Top of the roof with cantilevered balcony forms as the extension of the structure towards the nature.
• Perfect interior dwelling with open planning concept.

E.g. - Capital Complex (Parliament house) Dhaka, Bangladesh

By Louis .I .Kahn (Group of building)
• Consist of MP HosteL Central Parliament, Assembly building, Cafeteria, Four Pillared !vlosque,
Supreme Court, School, Market.
E.g.- Citadel ofA.ssembly (Group of Building)
• To given law, monitor the !avv and importance it.
E.g. - Citadel of lnstitution
• Bangladesh is too hot and humid so the various buildings like hospitals, schools are separated with water
and grass.

Double wall (When wall is heated by the direct bays, double wall lets only different ray to enter inside).
According to his, philosophy, diffused light is 'Silver light' .
E.g.- In Nepal we may look at the 1CEDA building in TU, Kirtipur to get some ideas of the third space
concept.

5.2 Elements of Aesthetics

ln the subject ot architecture, the human emotional, mental, physical & psychological needs & values
are shed and molded in the building. The Physical needs configure by the forms of art, but the form has no
need in itself. For eg: Visual art help architects producing fine & creative architecture. Therefore the study
of building built for the comfort of man is related to visual art. The various design elements & their
combination, all forms under the terms of "Aesthetics", which is also the most important part of design. Eg:
Taj Mahal is an unforgettable example, decorated with the precious jewels & marbles. One is overwhelmed
by the beauty created by the Artist & when one looks upon the structure, the words of feelings, praise &
appreciation is poured. Hence we can say that aesthetic is the most important part of any architectural
design. The elements of Aesthetics in any architecture are as follows.
• Unity
• Contrast
• Proportion
• Scale
• Balance
• Rhythm
• Character or expression of purpose

Contrast:
Contrast means to create opposition, within the deliberately placed elemented or this means absence of
monotony. Contrast heightens values, interests through comparison in the composition. In architectural
design of any kind, contrast is required, not only for achieving proportion without monotony, but for
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Notes on fundamental of architecture
creating interest & exhibit variety. However in architectural composition, the principle of contrast has to be
used very carefully. A well conceived contrast of form, size, tone & direction may be required for the
effective contrast in architecture. Following may be fe'vV of 'Lhe typical contrasts.
Contrast of Form
Contrast of Line
Contrast of Size
.
Contrast can even be perceived in human behavior. For e.g.: there is contrast between sound & silence,
Light & Shade, Rough & Smooth.

Unity
The meaning of unity is oneness. But, here Unity doesn't mean a single thing, but it means harmony among
the elements which cannot be split from each other. The idea of Unity must not be composed of scanered
elements which are not related to each other. When elements of varying sizes are involved, good proportion
benveen these elements & their group composition as a whole becomes necessary. Without proper
proportion, the unity will be disturbed.

Proportion:
Proportion is largely a matter of relationship. It is not the actual size but the relative size of one form to
another perceivable through comparison which the eye can make between the size, shape, direction & tone
of the various elements of composition.
For e.g. for the same sized photographs of a man & a child, we distinguished the man & a child because of
the proportion in height weight or by other features. Unless the proportion is correct, it would be violation,
not only of conception but mislead the perception & will be harmful to the character of the building.
Similarly, if a giant size door is provided to a residential building, then it would cause confusion & don't fit
the purpose of the building. So according to the abstract principle of aesthetics, the composition of the
building should be well proportioned.

Scale:
In architecture, the scale means the proper relation of several parts to one another & to the whole, from the
aspect of size. Proper scale is not only essential for better result of proportion, but considered as a desirable
quality in architecture. The scales relationship is established with the comparison of the size of the building
with the surrounding objects near the building, about which we have definite conception of their actual size.
For eg. height of brick, course of a brick wall, a man standing near the building are such conceptual figures,
which help in estimating the scale. This scale is referred as an "Intimate Scale" & is mainly used for the
domestic architecture.

Balance:
Balance is the equality of mass about the axis or reference. On the basis of proper balance in composition,
harmony & weighed adjustment of different masses can develop & satisfy the viewers with reference to
relative importance of various elements of the design. The balance may be symmetrical or asymmetrical.
a) The Symmetrical Balance is one of the easiest & simpiest kinds. It is the result of axial planning in
symmetrical ways.In this elements are arranged precisely in the same manner on the either side of the
central axis. It not only forms the similar arrangement, but each object is exactly like the one occupying
the corresponding position on the other side. The elements in symmetrical balance are duplicate in terms
of shape. size, tone etc.
b) Asymmetrical Balance is the grouping of the masses in formal manner of elements of varying sizes &
shapes. In this arrangement one feels or senses rather than a state of equilibrium.

Rhythm:
Rhythm is essentially a repetition. The repetition of the elements might not be spaced at an equal interval,
but there may be a gradual decrement or increment in spacing, with showing up or down. The flow of music
is rhythm, which makes human being more appealing to human senses.The flow of water, the beats of heart,
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Notes on fundamental of architecture
also fa lls in these criteria. But in case of building, being a static body & always rests on its base foundation.
If equally spaced windows are introduced with regular repetition, the rhythmic flow is formed. Similarly if
the openin gs and detail are so arranged as per their importance to reflect in the facade, then the appeal of
the building becomes even more impressive

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Chapter Six
Basic Building Science
6.1) THERMAL INSULATION & ITS IMPORTANCES
Thermal Comfort - Our daily life cycle is comprises of different activities,fatigue and recovery. So that it
is essential to recovers the mind and body through rest recreation and sleep to counterbalance, The mental
and physical fatigue. Thus it is essential to create favorable climatic conditions or human thermal comfort in
the built environment. The total comfort defined as the sensation of complete phvsical and mental well-
being or least extra effort is required to maintain the human body' s thermal. balance. Criteria of total
comfort depend upon each of human senses because of geographical locations and habits of . individual
person. Human thermal comfort is the dominant problem in tropical climates Air temperature, temperature
of the surrounding surfaces [radiant heat], relative humidity, air velocity and besides many other
psychological factors determine the comfort zone.

Insulation: Defined as the construction materials or featured which is provided to minimize the flow of
heat/cold between the different spaces. Thermal insulation reduces temperature fluctuations ans make
comfort zone within the encloses spaces, protect building and structural elements from thermal damages and
freezing damage, control surface temperatures of building components for economy in operation comfort of
occupents safety.
Thus in general principle of thermal insulation to provide comfort zone for occupancy or user with in
the enclosed spaces. The thermal insulation should be control for the creation of comfort to the occupants
even from the design phase of the condtruction . insulation of water heat should be provided by using the
different insulating material in the respective place for comfort.

Space : It is enclosed. Captured, molded and organized by the elements of mass. It has visual form,
dimention and field in which objects and events occurred. It has relative position and direction, which used
for particular purpose or required specific forms. It should be flexible and unique.
a) Centralized Organization: Spaces are centrally focused

b) Linear organization: Consists of a series of spaces, which are directly related to another

c) Radical Organization: It combines elements of both centralized and linear organization

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
d) Clustered Organization: It represents the group of elements forming a one integral space.

e) Grid organization: It is the composition of volume & space with regular and equidistance position

Cavity Resonators:consists of a chamber with a narrow opening ( entrance). It is effective for single selected
frequency such as from individual machines air conditions;etc.

Composite type = combine the function of all three types described above. They consists of a perforated
panels fixed over an air space containing porotts absorbents. The panels are from metal, plywood, hard
beard, plaster board etc. mineral wool, glass wool are commonly used.

Sound Insulation- Prevention of transmission of sound.

Construction Measures:
1) Walls/ Partitions: barriers to transmission of sound/ noise
a) Rigid and massive homogeneous patitions walls - well plastered and insulation properties are depend on
weight of partitions per Unit area.
Sound insulation properties increase with increase in thickness. but since increase in insulation is slow/ less
in proportion of thickness of wall it is uneconomical to increase beyond certain limit Sound passeS
through hole cracks in construction or doors windows fittings

b)Partition of portion materials: Maay be rigid, flexible in nature. In case of rigid porous materials such as
porous concrete masonry; increase sound insulation higher than non porous variety of the same weight. In
flexible porous materials such as felt mineral quilt provide very low sound insulation as compare to rigid
materials.

IMPORTANCE OF THERMAL INSULATION:

a) Comfort:thermal insulation keep the room cool in summer and hot in winter as a result in comfortable
living.
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Notes on fundamental of architecture
b) Energy efficiency: since heat transfer is retarded using thermal insulation, lesser amount of fule is
required to maintain the desired temperature in the room. .
c) Prevension of condensation : use of thermal insulating materials inside the room results in prevention
of condensation (moisture deposition) on interior and ceilings.
d) Use of thermal insulating materials prevents the freezing of water taps in extreme winter and heat loss
in case of hot water system.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Chapter seven
Residential building and their types
Residential building:
It is a type of building where people reside with their interest. Hiatorically it was started from cave.
During the process of civilization,people developed their spaces not only to protect from natural calamities
but also express their desire in order to make comfortable with their physical , social and cultural needs. The
overall acculation can be assumed as residence. Thus a residence expresses time in term of people
experiences, social and technological achievements, beliefs and aspirations. Residential building consists of
private and public zones.
Private zone:Bed rooms, attaced toilet, kitchen, store
Public zone:Living room, dining room, verandas
Semi private zone: Staircase,toilet, verandah, family lounge
Generally, residental building consists of bed rooms, living rooms, kitchen, dining, toilet, store etc
some other spaces( music rooms, meeting rooms, family lounge, bar, meditation room, recreation) and other
spaces are designed according to habitant profession , interest and resource capacity.

Requirements of Residential Building. Building bye-laws specify the requirements of residential

buildings whose salient features can be summerised as follows.
 Location: The residential buildings should be located in such a way that freedom from nuisance such as
dust, noise, smoke and smell is guaranteed. Further the location should be near the means of transport,
markets, schools, hospitals etc.
 Height: Height of the building should be in proportion with the width, of road or street.
 Orientation: It should be properly oriented with respect to sun, wind and rain.
 Privacy: The building should afford maximum privacy to its users even at the expense of some
architectural needs
 Parks:Residential building should be located near parks and playground so that children could reach
the parks without crossing main roads.
 Ventilation. Each room of the residential building should get enough light and air;
 Utility services: Basic utility services like water, drainage, electricity should be provided at reasonable
cost. ,
 Security: Residential building should be safe and secure. If possible it should contain a strong room for
storage of valuables.
 Space. The floor space and total cubical contents of the building should be in proportion to the number
of persons likely to use it. Floor area may be taken at the rate of 4.65 m3 and cubical contents at the rate
of 5.50 m3 per person.

Classification of Residential Buildings : The residential buildings may be divided into following
categories:

 Detached House: A house having open land around it, is known as detached house. It has sufficient
margins on sides, front and rear. This house may consist of private swimming pool, garden and even
playgrounds for games 1ike Badminton and Tennis. It is a highest form of residence .This house has all
the amenities which a high class family would like to enjoy. It satisfies the individual requirements of
the family

 Semi-detached houses. It is next in grade to the detached house. Such houses have one wall common
with the adjacent house. Such a house. helps in securing many advantages of the detached houses and
side by side economy is achieved by sharing expenses of common amenities such as water line, drainage
line, electric cables etc.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
 Row of houses: These are the houses for workers and lower middle,class income group of people. They
provide minimum requirements of living such as living room, kitchen, lavatory and verandah. This type
of.housing provides more of residential density and they may be single storeyed or two storeyed.

 Apartments or flats. Tendency of migration of people from villages to cities have caused considerable
rise in price of city land. It has become almost impossible even for the higher class of society to have a
detached house in city areas. This has led to the idea of apariments or flats. An apartment has three to
seven storeys and each floor may have two to four or even more of tenements. In this system, land and
other common amenities to flats are shared by all the occupants and side by side each owner has full
ownership of his flat . The major drawback of this system is that individual flat owner does not have any
future scope either of vertical or horizontal expansion.

 Group Housing: These are the houses having low density residence with semidetached . It have garden
and open spaces surrounded by the houses.

 Skyscrapers: Very high multi-storeyed buildings (more than seven storeyed) are known as skyscrapers.
They usually develop in metropolitan cities where land prices are very ,very high. Skyscrapers come
under the vertcal expansion of the city. Some town planners favour development of skyscrapers while
others do not support this idea.

Advantages of skyscrapers
 Thev are free from noise nuisance.
 They provide pure air andample of natural sunlight to the residents
 More open space around the skyscraper is left which may be used for swimming pool, badminton and
tennis courts and recreation purposes.
 Time of travel is reduced, as a very large population can be accommodated on small piece of land.
 Cost of services like water supply, transport, drainage, electrification etc. is considerably curtailed.
 Land saved may be used for other productive purposes
 Upper floors grant pleasure of scenic views of nearer object and roads, green farms, bills, trees,
rivers, lakes etc. of distant objects.
 Offices, markets can be in the same building.

Disadvantages of skyscrapers
 In case of failure of lift or elevator it becomes very difficult to go up or come down, especially for
old people.
 Children do not have open space to play.
 Skyscrapers cause obstruction to air traffic and micro-wave transmission.
 The costs of construction and maintenance are high
 There is fear of panic in case of emergency such as fire or earthquake. ·
 Skyscrapers further increase land cost as it neccssiates construction of more skys-crapers.
 They may spoil the skyline if improperly located.
 No one can have private garden.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Chapter Eight
Public building and their types

Public building: Building to carry out public activities called public buildings such as administration,
political, entertainment, social, cultural, commercial, institutions, city hall, hospitals, college, etc. This type
of building is more focudes and concentrated on specific function, the number of participates of mentioned
function necessary equipment and environment as a whole. These buildings generally involve substantial
money and thus should be planned beautifully so that besides serving their purpose adequately they add to
the beauty of the city. Town planner should consider fore ground, grouping, parking spaces besides the
object of the building, at time of site selection for public buildings. The public building should have
sufficient fore ground, preferably equal to twice the height of the build-ing, so thatit gives an imposing view.
If sufficient fore ground is not available then public building should be located either at the terminus of a
thorough fare or at an intersection of the street.
The public buildings whose function are interrelated should be located very near to each other. If
possible, such a group of. buildings may have a common site. Sample parking space around the public
buildings should be left. Monumental buildings give the best imposing view if located at the summit of a
grade in hilly terrain. The sites with a park view or river front or sea front are also best for location of public
buildings. Some broad points which a particular building is expected to satisfy are illustrated as follows
1. Educational institutions which provide residential facilities should be located on the outskirts of a city in
park like surroundings. covering snflieient area for future development of playgrounds, buildings etc.
Small educational institutions should be located in the residential areas and away from arterial roads to
avoid risk of accidents, noise, dust etc.
2. Hospital should be readily accessible to all the people and should be located so as to be free from noise
and dust. There should be ample scope for future extension.
3. Central library should be accessible to the whole or part of the city it serves and should be located at
quiet place with ample of open space around it.
4. Main post office should if possible be near the railway station and within easy walking distance from
the business centre.
5. Municipal and Government buildings should be near the main business area of the town. They should be
on the edge and not in, centre of that area.
6. Medical college should be located abutting the hospital.
7. Town hall should be located near the transit facilities

Classification of public buildings

From town planning point of view, the public buildings may be kept under following four
categories
 Dependent buildings: These buildings are dependent upon each other and, therefore, should be grouped
together. Civic centres, recreational and art centres, public markets etc. are the examples of dependent
buildings.
 Independent buildings: These are the. buildings which have to stand alone. They are the monumental
buildings
 Insiltutional buildings: They include schools, collegs, both academic and pro-fessional
 Miscellaneous building: These buildings provide services and amenities to town

Principles of design of public buildings

The broad principles which are to be observed while designing the site and size of the public
building may be as follows.
 Adequate site:. Adequate space keeping in view the appropriate architectural form should be
acquired
 Approaches: Adequate and appropriate approaches to and from the public buildings are of vital
importance and should accordingly be designed.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
 Comprehensive study. The sites should be determined on the basis of comprehensive study of the
city. They should possess qualities necessary for cqnvenience and orderly develop-ment
 Social and cultural centres:Considering the needs and tastes of the community, adequate provision
should be made for various Social and Cultural centres Such as cinemas,, theatres, marriage halls,
clubs,art galleries, churches, temples, etc.
 Refuse disposal: Collection and disposal of refuse should be so regulated and located that it causes
no nuisance to the public.
 Markets: Vegetable and fruit wholesale market should be away from the congested areas. The
number of such markets will depend upon the size of the town.
 Shops: Number of shops should be adequate 7 shops per 1000 population is considered adequate.
 Fire Station: Adequate number of fire stations should be located. It should abut, the streets and
centerally located. One fire station· is considered adequate for a population of about 1· 5 lakh
 Hospitals. Provision of 4 to 5 beds per 1000 population proves adequate. Dispensaries for out
patients should be adequate and well spread out throughout the. town.
 Education:Such instituations should not be placed directly on through. roads and particularly not at
their junctions. Liberal provision with respect to area of land should be provided for future
expansion.
 Business buildings:There is difference between business buildings and public building. .Business
buildings should have frontage on mains through roads where traffic is maximum and land value
high. The public buildings on the other hand, shoidd be near to, but not abutting main roads.
 Town centres: These are the places where whole of the population of the town may meet with
one purpose or the other. Bus terminus, Railway station are supposed to be near them. The town
centres may be of following three types depending upon the purpose
 Business centres. It is the main shoping centre of the town and includes location of offices,
bigshops, ware houses etc.
 Civic centres: They are known as community centres. A civic centre is an assembleage of
public buildings. Town hall, post office, public library, auditorium, museum etc. are the
buildings of this type.
 Light shoping centre. It is centre intended to sell goods of various categories on a smaller
scale than business centre.
 Civice aesthetics. The city should be beautiful. following measures can be adopted for
developing civic aesthetic in the town.
 Entry points to the city by rail, road, water and air should be constructed architecturally.
They create lasting impression on ,the outside~ entering the city or town.
 Focal points such as street intersections or open squares should be linked with public
buildings of beautiful design.
 Buildings like art galleries, museums may be constructed to attract tourists.
 Open squares should be adorned with sculptures, fountains, and designed suiting to the
site and environment.
 Parks and playgrounds should be beautifully and artistically designed. They should also
be well spread out and in good number.

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Chapter Nine
Building for community purpose

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Chapter ten
Airports and railway stations

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Notes on fundamental of architecture
Chapter eleven
Auditorium, theaters and sport complexes

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