Project:

A project is a temporary work plan devised to achieve a specific objective within a specified period of
time to bring about beneficial change or added value. So, it is an initiative to bring about change in
product or services. Its purpose is to perform a task with well defined objectives, schedules and
budgets.

According to Project Management Institute a project as “A temporary endeavour undertaken to create a

unique product or service”

Project Objectives:
The objectives (or goals) of any project will be,
➢ To complete the project within the allotted (or budgeted) funds.
➢ To complete the project within the scheduled time limit.
➢ To execute the project in such a way that the project meets the quality
➢ standards.
➢ To ensure that the project is completed to the satisfaction of the end users.
➢ Avoiding unproven equipments

Attributes or Characteristics of a Project :

From the above definitions, it can be inferred that, each project is different in itself.
Projects are not homogeneous, may be their purpose is similar. The distinctive
characteristics of a project are thus:
1. Projects have clear objectives: projects have a clearly-defined objective
stated in terms of scope, schedule, and costs.
2. Projects are realistic: their aims must be achievable, and this means taking
account both of requirements and of the financial and human resources
available.
3. Projects are limited in time and space: A project has a definite time limit.
It cannot continue forever and are implemented in a specific place and
context.
4. Projects are collective: projects are the product of collective effort. They
are run by teams, involve various partners and cater for the needs of others.
5. Projects are unique: Every project is unique and no two projects are
similar.
6. Single- time activity: No project is often repeated. It will performed only
once.
7. Projects Includes risk and uncertainty: every project is different and they
always involve some uncertainty and risk. The degree of risk and uncertainty
will depend on how a project has passed through its various life-cycle
phases.
8. Projects require evaluation – the criteria for evaluation need to be
established from the beginning
9. Projects have life-cycle: Project will also be reflected and influenced by the
life-cycle phases and to which the success or failure in the project can be
ascribed.
10. Projects involve people, (project manager and project team), not the
procedures and techniques, that are critical to accomplishing the project
objective.
11. Customer specific nature: A project is always customer specific. It is the
customer who decides upon the product to be produced or services to be
offered.
12. Optimality: A project is always aimed at optimum utilization of resources
for the overall development of the organization.
13.Complexity: A project is a complex set of activities relating to diverted
areas. Technology survey, choosing the, appropriate technology, arranging
for financial resources, and execution of the project in time contribute to the
complexity of the project.
14.Flexibility: Change and project are synonymous. Always a project
witnesses multiples of modifications and changes in its original plans,
programmes and budgets.
15. Response to Environments: Projects take shape in response to
environments.

PROJECT CLASSIFICATION
Projects can be classified under different heads, some of which are explained below.
➢ Based on the Type of Activity
i. industrial projects
ii. non- industrial projects

➢ Based on the Location of the Project

i. national projects
ii. international projects

➢ Based on Project Completion Time

i. normal projects
ii. crash projects

➢ Based on Ownership
i. private sector projects
ii. public sector projects
iii. joint sector projects

➢ Based on Size
i. small projects
ii. medium sized projects
iii. large projects

1. Based on the Type of Activity:

Under this category, projects can be classified as industrial projects and non-industrial projects.
Industrial projects are set up for the production of some goods.
Projects like health care projects, educational projects, irrigation projects, soil
conservation projects, pollution control projects; highway projects, water supply
projects etc. come under the category of non-industrial projects.
Investments in non-industrial projects are made by the Government and the
benefits from such projects are enjoyed by the entire society of people. It is
difficult to quantify the benefits enjoyed by the society out of non-industrial
projects.

2. Based on the Location of the Project:

 Under the category, projects can be classified as national projects and international
projects. National projects are those set up within the national boundaries of a
country, while international projects are set up in other countries. International
projects may be either projects set up by the Government or by the private sector.
The following are the major forms of international projects.
_ setting up of fully owned subsidiaries abroad
_ setting up of joint ventures abroad
_ setting up of projects abroad by way of mergers & acquisitions

3. Based on Project Completion Time

Based on the constraints on project completion time, projects can be classified into
two types, viz., normal projects and crash projects. Normal projects are those for
which there is no constraint on time. Crash projects are those which are to be
completed within a stipulated time, even at the cost of ending up with a higher
project cost. For example, construction of canal lining with the condition that the
work should be completed before the monsoon starts is a crash project.

4. Based on Ownership:

Based on ownership, projects can be classified into private sector projects, public
sector projects and joint sector projects. A private sector project is one in which
the ownership is completely in the hands of the project promoters and investors.
Profit maximisation is the prime objective of private sector projects since the
investors invest their money in such projects only with the sole idea of earning
better returns.
Public sector projects are those that are owned by the state. The evolution and
growth of public sector enterprises is the natural consequences of the efforts of
Governments for undertaking development in a country. The growth of public
sector enterprises varies from country to country. In a country that follows only the
system of private enterprises (USA, for example) there is hardly any public sector
enterprise except for essential sectors like defense sectors, public utility services
etc.
Joint sector projects are those in which the ownership is shared by the
Government and by private entrepreneurs. The main consideration for the
Government’s investment in joint sector projects is to make use of the managerial
talents, entrepreneurial capabilities and marketing skills of the private
entrepreneurs. Joint sector offers hope to the private entrepreneurs since the
Government shares the investment required for the project.

5. Based on Size:

Projects can be classified based on the size into three categories, viz., small
projects, medium sized projects and large projects. The size is normally expressed
in terms of the amount of investment required. The investment limit for the
different categories of projects are announced by the Government and this
undergoes periodical changes keeping in view the inflation, the decision to offer
certain incentives to projects categorized as ‘small’ scale projects etc.

As per the directives of the Govt. of India, projects with investment on plant and machinery up
to Rs. 1 crore are categorized as ‘small scale projects’ while those with investment in plant and
machinery above Rs. 100 crores are categorized as ‘large scale projects’. Projects with
investment limit between these two categories are ‘medium scale projects’.
 Project Manager
A successful Project Manager must simultaneously manage the four basic elements of a project:
resources, time, money, and most importantly, scope.
A person with a diverse set of skills – management, leadership, technical, conflict management, and
customer relationship – who is responsible for: – initiating, – planning, – executing, – controlling, –
monitoring, – and closing down a project.
They must make sure that everything keeps to task, that potential issues are quickly eliminated and the
project is delivered on time, all the while making sure everyone knows what is happening and the
project quality and budget are acceptable.
Specifically they:

• direct all activities required to successfully meet the project objectives

• manage risk – scanning ahead for potential issues and resolving them before they become a
problem
• solve problems - recommending alternative approaches to problems that arise and providing
guidance to the Project Sponsor
• track and report project progress
• communicate to all stakeholders in the project
Attributes or Skills of a good Project Manager:
An effective project manager is one who should have the following
skills/capacities.
1. Planning and organizational skills
2. Personnel management skills
3. Communication skills
4. Ability to solve problems in their totality
5. Ambition for achievement
6. Ability to take suggestion
7. Understanding the views of project team members and having a sympathetic
attitude towards them
8. Ability to develop alternative actions quickly
9. Ability to make self-evaluation
10. Effective time management
11. Initiative and risk taking ability
12. Conflict resolving capacity
13. Team building skills
14. Resource allocation skills
15. Entrepreneurial skills
 Project Charter:

A project charter is a short document that explains the project in clear, concise wording for high level
management. Project charters outline the entirety of projects to help teams quickly understand the
goals, tasks, timelines, and stakeholders.
The document provides key information about a project, and also provides approval to start the project.
Therefore, it serves as a formal announcement that a new approved project is about to commence.
Contained also in the project charter is the appointment of the project manager, the person who is
overall responsible for the project.
What does the project charter contain?
When preparing the project charter, utilize the SMART method. Be Specific, ensure your goals are
Measurable, Attainable, Relevant to the project, and Timely. The project charter includes:

• Purpose and objectives of the project in clear, concise language

• Requirements of the project at a very high level and without much detail
• Project description in a paragraph or two that explains the project
• Known high-level, major categories of risks for the project
• Schedule of events with the start and end dates
• Major events or milestones along the path.
• Budget or summary of how much the project will cost
• Requirements from the organization for approval, including what to approve, who will approve,
and how to get the approval
• Key players or stakeholders in charge of which parts of the project and who will approve the
plans to go through
• An introduction of the project manager, project sponsor, and their authority level

Why are project charters useful?

A project charter also provides several benefits:

• Formally authorizes the project to commence

• Creates a common vision and shared understanding of the project
• Empowers the project manager to lead the project
• Identifies the high-level objectives and scope of the project
• Defines what success will look like at the end of the project
• Gains support for the project by announcing it to the whole organization
• Ensures that key stakeholders are aware of the project
• Secures budget and resources for the project
• Serves as the point of reference for the project team
PROJECT SPONSOR
The project sponsor is a person or group who owns the project and provides resources and support for
the project, program or portfolio in order to enable its success.

Every project has at least one project sponsor. They are the reason for the project. While they don’t
manage the day-to-day operations of a project, they are above the project manager in terms of project
hierarchy. Most likely, the project sponsor has been involved with the project from the very beginning.
They were the one who helped conceive it and advocated for it.

• The major responsibilities and activities of a project sponsor include:

• Negotiate funding for the project and be a spokesperson to the senior management
• Provide direction and guidance for project empowerment, key business strategies and project
initiatives
• Identify and qualify project benefits and manage project benefits realization
• Participate in initial project planning, including developing the project chart and the project
scope
• Review changes to the project environment, including schedules, priorities, tasks, etc.
• Identify project critical success factors and approve deliverables
• Negotiate with stakeholders to gain consensus when differences of opinion take place
• Involve stakeholders in the project and maintain their ongoing commitment to the project
through using communication strategies and project management planning methods
• Evaluate the project’s success on completion.
PROJECT CONTEXT

Project context is the internal and external environment that a project operates in. The
influences within the environment will have an effect on the project and this needs to be
understood by the project manager.

All these influences are neatly encapsulated by the acronym PESTLE, which stands for

• Political

• Economic

• Social

• Technical

• Legal

• Environmental
Projects are influenced by a multitude of factors which can be external or internal to the organization
responsible for its management and execution. The important thing for the project manager is to
recognize what these factors are and how they impact on the project during the various phases from
inception to final handover, or even disposal.

These external or internal influences are known as the project context or project environment.

The external factors making up this environment are the client or customer, various external consultants,
contractors, suppliers, competitors, politicians, national and local government agencies, public utilities,
pressure groups, the end users, and even the general public.

Internal influences include the organization’s management, the project team, internal departments,
(technical and financial), and possibly the shareholders.

Political

Here, two types of politics have to be considered.

First, there are the internal politics that inevitably occur in all organizations whether governmental,
commercial, industrial, or academic and which manifest themselves in the opinions and attitudes of the
different stakeholders in these organizations. The relationships to the project by these stakeholders can
vary from the very supportive to the downright antagonistic, but depending on their field of influence,
they must be considered and managed. Even within an apparently cohesive project, team jealousies and
personal vested interests can have a disruptive influence the project manager has to recognize and diffuse.

The fact that a project relies on clients, consultants, contractors (with their numerous subcontractors),
material and service suppliers, statutory authorities, and, of course, the end user, all of which may have
their own agenda and preferences, gives some idea of the potential political problems that may occur.

Second, there are the external politics, over which neither the sponsor nor the project manager may have
much, if any, control. Any project that has international ramifications is potentially subject to disruption
due to the national or international political situation. In the middle of a project, the government may
change and impose additional import, export, or exchange restrictions, impose penal working conditions,
or even cancel contracts altogether. For overseas construction contracts in countries with inherently
unstable economies or governments, sudden coups or revolutions may require the whole construction
team to be evacuated at short notice. Such a situation should have been envisaged, evaluated, and planned
for as part of the political risk assessment when the project was first considered.

Even on a less dramatic level, the political interplay between national and local government, lobbyists,
and pressure groups has to be taken into consideration as can be appreciated when the project consists of
a road by-pass, reservoir, power station, or airport extension.
Economic

Here again there are two levels of influence: internal or micro-economic, and external or macro-
economic.

The internal economics relate to the viability of the project and the soundness of the business case.
Unless there is a net gain, whether financial or non-financial, such as required by prestige, environmental,
social service, or national security considerations, there is no point in even considering embarking on a
project. It is vital therefore that financial models and proven accountancy techniques are applied during
the evaluation phase to ensure the economic viability of the project. These tests must be applied at regular
intervals throughout the life of a project to check that with the inevitable changes that may be required, it
is still worthwhile to proceed. The decision to abort the whole project at any stage after the design stage
is clearly not taken lightly, but once the economic argument has been lost, it may in the end be the better
option.

A typical example is the case of an oil-fired power station that had to be mothballed over halfway
through construction, when the price of fuel oil rose above the level at which power generation was no
longer economic. It is not uncommon for projects to be shelved when the cost of financing the work has
to be increased and the resulting interest payments exceed the foreseeable revenues.

The external economics, often related to the political climate, can have a serious influence on the project.
Higher interest rates or exchange rates, and additional taxes on labour, materials, or the end product, can
seriously affect the viability of the project. A manufacturer may abandon the construction of a factory in
its home country and transfer the project abroad if just one of these factors changes enough to make such
a move economically desirable. Again, changes to fiscal and interest movements must be constantly
monitored so that representations can be made to government or the project curtailed. Other factors that
can affect a project are tariff barriers, interstate taxes, temporary embargoes, shipping restrictions such as
only being permitted to use conference line vessels, and special licenses.

Social (or Sociological)

Many projects and indeed most construction projects inevitably affect the community in whose area they
are carried out. It is vital therefore to inform the residents in the affected areas as early as possible of the
intent, purpose, and benefits to the organization and community of the project.

This may require a public relations campaign to be initiated, which includes meetings, exploratory
discussions, consultations at various levels, and possible trade-offs.

This is particularly important when public funding from central or local government is involved or when
public spaces and access facilities are affected.

A typical example of a trade-off is when a developer wishes to build a shopping centre, the local
authority may demand that it include a recreation area or leisure park for free use by the public.
Some projects cannot even be started without first being subjected to a public enquiry, environmental
impact assessment, route surveys, or lengthy planning procedures. There are always pressure groups who
have a special interest in a particular project, and it is vital that they are given the opportunity to state
their case while at the same time informing them of the positive and often less desirable implications. The
ability to listen to their points of view and give sympathetic attention to their grievances is essential, but
as it is almost impossible to satisfy all the parties, compromises may be necessary. The last thing a
project manager wants are constant demonstrations and disruptions while the project is being carried out.

On another level, the whole object of the project may be to enhance the environment and facilities of the
community, in which case the involvement of local organizations can be very helpful in focusing on areas
which give the maximum benefit and avoiding pitfalls which only people with local knowledge are aware
of. A useful method to ensure local involvement is to set up advisory committees or even invite a local
representative to be part of the project management team.

Technical

It goes without saying that unless the project is technically sound, it will end in failure. Whether the
project involves rolling out a new financial service product or building a power station, the technology
must be in place or be developed as the work proceeds. The mechanisms by which these technical
requirements are implemented have to be firmed up at a very early stage after a rigorous risk assessment
of all the realistically available options. Each option may then be subjected to a separate feasibility study
and investment appraisal. Alternatives to be considered may include:

• Should in-house or external design, manufacture, or installation be used?

• Should existing facilities be used or should new ones be acquired?

• Should one’s own management team be used or should specialist project managers be appointed?

• Should existing components (or documents) be incorporated?

• What is the anticipated life of the end product (deliverable) and how soon must it be updated?

• Are materials available on a long-term basis and what alternatives can be substituted?

• What is the nature and size of the market and can this market be expanded?

These and many more technical questions have to be asked and assessed before a decision can be made to
proceed with the project. The financial implications of these factors can then be fed into the overall
investment appraisal, which includes the commercial and financing and environmental considerations.

Legal

One of the fundamental requirements of a contract, and by implication a project, is that it is legal. In other
words, if it is illegal in a certain country to build a brewery, little protection can be expected from the
law.
The relationships between the contracting parties must be confirmed in a legally binding contract that
complies with the laws (and preferably customs) of the participating organizations. The documents
themselves have to be legally acceptable and equitable, and unfair and unreasonable clauses must be
eliminated.

Where suppliers of materials, equipment, or services are based in countries other than the main
contracting parties, the laws of those countries have to be complied with in order to minimize future
problems regarding deliveries and payments.

In the event of disputes, the law under which the contract is administered and adjudicated must be written
into the contract together with the location of the court for litigation.

Generally, project managers are strongly advised always to take legal advice from specialists in contract
law and especially, where applicable, in international law.

The project context includes the established conditions of contract and other standard forms and
documents used by industry, and can also include all the legal, political, and commercial requirements
stipulated by international bodies as well as national and local governments in their project management
procedures and procurement practices.

Environmental

Some of the environmental aspects of a project have already been alluded to under ‘Social’, from which it
became apparent that environmental impact assessments are highly desirable where they are not already
mandatory.

The location of the project clearly has an enormous influence on the cost and completion time. The same
type of plant or factory can be constructed in the UK, in the Sahara desert, in China, or even on an
offshore platform, but the problems, costs, and construction times can be very different. The following
considerations must therefore be taken into account when deciding to carry out a project in a particular
area of the world:

• Temperature (daytime and night time) in different seasons

• Rainy seasons (monsoon)

• Tornado or typhoon seasons

• Access by road, rail, water, or air

• Ground conditions and earthquake zones

• Possible ground contamination

• Nearby rivers and lakes

• Is the project onshore or offshore?

• Tides and storm conditions

• Nearby quarries for raw materials

• Does the project involve the use of radioactive materials?

Most countries now have strict legislation to prevent or restrict emissions of polluting substances whether
solids, liquids, or gases. In addition noise restrictions may apply at various times and cultural or religious
laws may prohibit work at specified times or on special days in the year.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Project management is the scientific application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project
activities to meet project requirements. It is an organized venture for managing projects. In other
words, project management is the facilitation of the planning, scheduling and controlling of all activities
that must be done to achieve project objectives within constraints of time and cost. Project
management is essentially involved in executing the projects. It involves applying a systematic approach
to achieve the objectives of the project, and when project management is done properly, the
probability of a successful outcome to the project is increased. According to Herold Kerzner, project
management is “planning, directing and controlling of company resources for a relatively short-term
project which has been established for the completion of specific goals”.

Characteristics of Project Management:

Successful project management has several significant characteristics. To understand the value of project
management, it is necessary to understand the fundamental nature and the core characteristics of project
management processes.

1. The undertaking ends with a specific accomplishment.

2. The required activity has a beginning, an end, and a schedule for completion.

3. Resources are limited.

4. People are involved.

5. Phases and activities are sequenced

Objectives of Project Management:

• define the project
• reduce it to a set of manageable tasks
• obtain appropriate and necessary resources
• build a team or teams to perform the project work
• plan the work and allocate the resources to the tasks
• monitor and control the work
• report progress to senior management and/or the project sponsor
• close down the project when completed
• review it to ensure the lessons are learnt and widely understood
Benefits/ Needs / Importance of project Management:
Project management provides techniques for making trade-offs between conflicting goals and
enterprise priorities besides experiencing a better control and coordination. It also helps in reducing
developmental time lowering costs, and produces higher order results. Other major benefits of project
management techniques include the following:
1. Better efficiency in delivering services: Project management provides a “roadmap” that is easily
followed and leads to project completion.
2. Application and use of set tools and Techniques: It provides a set of tools and techniques at will
set out possible mechanisms for the management of project through the various stages of its
life-cycle.
3. Better Flexibility: It is one of the greatest benefits of project management is that it allows for
flexibility. Project management allows mapping out the strategy. For many small-to-midsize
companies, this alone is worth the price of admission.
4. Reducing risks: The project management team can identify the potential risks, take their time to
rectify them and help the company save valuable resources.
5. Highlight the role of project Manager: It is useful to highlight the role of project manager in the
organization and management of people.
6. Performance Evaluation: It is useful to specify world class performance and to take generic
lesson from these.
7. Excellent product quality: The project management plans the allocated budget, resources and
testing methods that keep the pace of production high, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
8. Fast track: Bring a new product to the market quickly before your competitors.
9. Project office: Offers a centre for project management excellence.
PROJECT LIFE CYCLE
A). Conceptual phase
B). Definition phase
C. Planning and organising phase
D. Perform the project
E. Terminate the project

PROJECT LIFE CYCLE:

Each project is a unique entity. “It has a beginning, a life, and an end”. Thus it is born, it develops, and it
dies. Like human beings, projects are taken to living organisms blessed with life cycles. Companies
performing projects will generally subdivide their projects into several phases or stages to provide
better management control. Collectively these project phases are called the project life cycle. The
period between the beginning and end of a project is usually referred to as the project life cycle. Project
life cycles generally define:

• What technical work should be done in each phase?

• Who should be involved in each phase?

A particular project receives is not uniformly distributed throughout its life span but varies from phase
to phase. At a particular phase of project life, depending on the requirement of that phase, appropriate
attention has to be paid. We, therefore, need to know the various phases in the life of a project.

A). Conceptual phase:

This is the first phase of the project life cycle. This phase involves the identification of a need, idea,
problem, or opportunity. The idea may first come to the mind when one is seriously trying overcome
certain problems. The problems may be non-utilisation of either the availability of funds, plant capacity
etc. Many projects are facing difficulties in this phase because the concept phase is truncated (or cut
off) before it is finished and attention is prematurely turned towards the means of accomplishing
objectives. Therefore, project objectives need to be fully explored and developed in the conceptual
phase. The major activities of this phase is:
i) Determine existing needs or potential requirement of current projects.
ii) Provide initial answers to the question on cost, availability, performance levels and its
compatibility to other project programmes.
iii) Identify all the resources essential for the effective management.
iv) Determine initial project interface.
v) Design an appropriate organisation structure for the project

B). Definition phase:

In this phase, solutions to business opportunity are evaluated and the preferred approach is defined.
This phase includes initial preparation of all documentation necessary to support the project such as.,
policies, procedures, job description, budget and funding papers, letters etc. Thus the definition phase
represents a beginning-to-end thinking through the project but does not accomplish the project in and
of itself. The project definition produces a plainly written, unambiguous description of the project in
sufficient detail to support a proposal or request the customer for undertaking the overall project. This
phase includes following activities:
i) Preparing of the detailed plans required to support the project.
ii) Estimation of realistic cost, schedule and performance requirements
iii) Spotting out those areas of the project where high risk and uncertainty exist.
iv) Defining, interfacing and of project activities.
v) Ascertaining other necessary sub-systems of the projects.

C. Planning and organising phase:

In this phase, the detailed plans are prepared and tasks are identified, with appropriate milestones,
budgets and resources. Planning consists of defining all the works required to be carried out so that all
the project participants will understand their role in the project team and carry out the work assigned to
them.
Some organisation however, prepare documents such as project execution plan to mark this phase
Organizing is the process of defining and analysing the activities of the enterprise, grouping the
activities into distinct areas / departments and establishing the authority-responsibility relationships
among them. It also involves organizing the resources required for the accomplishment of
organizational objectives. In project environment, organizing consists of the following sub processes.
Following activities are of major concern in this phase:
i) Defining the scope of the project in terms of the product/services to be delivered by the
project.
ii) Forecasting and estimating the resources (men, material, money, machines etc.,) required
for the project.
iii) Arriving at an appropriate organisational structure to implement the project.
iv) Identification and management of the resources in order to facilitates the production
processes such as inventory, supplies, labour, funds, etc.
v) Preparing detailed cost estimates for all the activities.
vi) Determining the required resources for all the activities.

D. Perform the project:

This is the third phase where the project plan is carried out. It is being concerned with operations; it
integrates the project’s product or services into existing organizational system. Project management
activity during this phase involves:

• Keeping people informed about progress of the project, ensuring project priorities are
understood and translated into which activities are "in progress."
• Monitoring the environment, anticipating problems and taking action to counter any issues
affecting the project scope, schedule or budget.
• Reviewing change requests with the project team and recommending whether they will be done
within the project or not.
• Evaluation of the technical, social and economic sufficiency of the project to meet actual
operating conditions.

E. Terminate the project:

The project process is completed and documented, and the finished product is transferred to the care
and control of the owner. In this phase project will shut down in a controlled manner. The major
activities of the project in this phase are:

• Demonstrate that the project is complete

• Arranging relevant project files in proper form so that they can be referred for future projects.
• Assess the success of the project
• Ensuring that project accounts are maintained up-to-date, amply audited and closed out.
• Assisting project staff in being reassigned.
 • Discharging any outstanding dues on behalf of project.
• Collecting dues of fees or payments from the clientele and clearing the account.
• Support departing staff
This phase is quite relevant under multi-project environment. When one project gets completed the
resources can be put to use in other subsequent project. This final phase has an impact on other
ongoing projects with regard to priority identification.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGIES

1. Waterfall methodology
The Waterfall method is a traditional approach to project management. In it, tasks and phases are
completed in a linear, sequential manner, and each stage of the project must be completed before the next
begins.

The stages of Waterfall project management generally follow this sequence:

• Requirements
• Analysis
• Design
• Construction
• Testing
• Deployment & maintenance

Progress flows in one direction, like a real waterfall.

Also like a real waterfall, though, this can quickly get dangerous. Since everything is mapped out at the
beginning, there’s a lot of room for error if expectations don’t match up with reality. And there’s no
going back to a previous stage once it’s completed

Try this project management methodology if:

• The end goal of your project is clearly defined — and isn’t going to change.
• The stakeholders know exactly what they want (and it isn’t going to change).
• Your project is consistent and predictable (i.e. isn’t going to change).
• You’re working in a regulated industry that needs extensive project tracking or documentation.
• You might need to bring new people into the project midway through and get them up to speed
quickly.

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• Your project is liable to change.

• You don’t have a full picture of all the requirements before you start.
• You need to do continuous testing or adapt to feedback during the process.
2. Agile methodology
The agile project management methodology came from a growing dissatisfaction with the linear approach
of traditional project management methodologies.

Frustrated with the limitations of project management methods that couldn’t adapt with a project as it
progressed, the focus began to shift to more iterative models that allowed teams to revise their project as
needed during the process instead of having to wait until the end to review and amend.

The concept of agile project management has gone on to spark several specific sub-frameworks and
methodologies, such as scrum, kanban, and lean. But what do they all have in common? The key
principles of agile project management methodologies are:

• It’s collaborative.
• It’s quick.
• It’s open to data-driven change.

As such, agile project management methodologies usually involve short phases of work with frequent
testing, reassessment, and adaptation throughout.

In many agile methods, all of the work to be done is added to a backlog that teams can work through in
each phase or cycle, with project managers or product owners prioritizing the backlog so teams know
what to focus on first.

Try this project management methodology if:

• Your project is liable to change.

• You’re not sure at the outset what the solution will look like.
• You need to work quickly, and it’s more important that you see speedy progress than perfect
results.
• Your stakeholders or client needs (or wants) to be involved at every stage.

This project management methodology isn’t for you if:

• You need a lot of documentation (for example, if you’ll be bringing new people on-board during
the project).
• You need a predictable deliverable, and you need to be crystal clear about what that looks like
from the outset.
• Your project can’t afford to change during its course.
• You don’t have self-motivated people.
• You have strict deadlines or deliverables that you need to stay on top of.

3. Scrum methodology
Scrum is a form of agile project management. You can think of it more like a framework than as a project
management methodology in itself.

With Scrum, work is split into short cycles known as “sprints”, which usually last about 1-2 weeks. Work
is taken from the backlog (see: Agile project management, above) for each sprint iteration,
Small teams are led by a Scrum Master (who is not the same as the project manager) for the duration of
the sprint, after which they review their performance in a “sprint retrospective” and make any necessary
changes before starting the next sprint.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You’re striving for continuous improvement.

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You don’t have the full commitment from the team needed to make it work.

4. Kanban methodology
Kanban is another method within agile project management.

Originating from the manufacturing industry, the term “kanban” has evolved to denote a framework in
which tasks are visually represented as they progress through columns on a kanban board. Work is pulled
from the predefined backlog on a continuous basis as the team has capacity and moved through the
columns on the board, with each column representing a stage of the process.

Kanban is great for giving everyone an immediate visual overview of where each piece of work stands at
any given time. (You can use kanban boards for everything from your content marketing process to hiring
and recruitment.)

It also helps you to see where bottlenecks are at risk of forming — if you notice one of your columns
getting clogged, for example, you’ll know that that’s a stage of your process that needs to be examined.

When used as part of an agile project management methodology, it’s also common to implement work in
progress (WIP) limits. Work in progress limits restrict the amount of tasks in play at any given time,
meaning that you can only have a certain number of tasks in each column (or on the board overall).

This prevents your team from spreading their energy across too many tasks, and instead ensures that they
can work more productively by focusing on each task individually.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You’re looking for a visual representation of your project’s progress.

• You want at-a-glance status updates.
• You want to encourage using WIP limits so your team can stay focused.
• You prefer to work on a continuous “pull” basis.

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• Your process is super complex or has tons of stages.

• You want a push system instead of a pull system.
5. Scrumban methodology
Scrumban is a hybrid agile project management methodology that has scrum’s nose and kanban’s eyes.

The main benefit of scrumban as a method is that instead of deciding which task from the backlog to
work on in each sprint at the outset (like you would in a “traditional” scrum framework), scrumban
allows teams to continuously “pull” from the backlog based on their capacity (like they would in a
kanban framework).

And using work in progress limits (from kanban) during your sprint cycle (from scrum), you can keep a
continuous flow while still incorporating project planning, reviews and retrospectives as needed.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You’ve ever looked at scrum and kanban and thought “I wish those two crazy kids would get
together”.

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You’ve ever looked wistfully out the window and thought, “Oh, scrum is scrum, and kanban is
kanban, and never the twain shall meet”.

6. eXtreme programming (XP) methodology

The eXtreme Programming (XP) methodology is another form of agile project management that was
designed for software development.

It emphasizes teamwork and collaboration across managers, customers, and developers, with teams self-
organizing. It has a defined set of rules that teams should follow, which are based on its five values:
simplicity, communication (face to face is preferred), feedback, respect, and courage.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You want to foster teamwork and collaboration.

• You have a small, co-located team.

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You’re a rulebreaker.
• Your team is spread across different places and time zones.

7. Adaptive project framework (APF) methodology

The adaptive project framework (APF) methodology, also known as adaptive project management
(APM), is a type of agile project management methodology that was designed with the inevitability of
change in mind.
The adaptive project framework knows that, as John Steinbeck might say, even the best-laid projects of
mice and men often go awry. So the fundamental attribute of APF is that teams need to be able to
adaptively respond to change.

That means that using adaptive project framework methods, teams must try to anticipate the risks and
prepare for the unexpected in their project. They need to understand that key components are constantly
in flux, and be able to constantly re-evaluate results and decisions with these moving parts in mind.

This requires lots of communication with all stakeholders and — like other agile project management
methodologies — be able to work collaboratively.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You know your ultimate goals (in project management terms, you’ve outlined your Conditions of
Satisfaction; or, in Beastie Boys terms, you’re clear about you’re clear about whatcha whatcha
whatcha want).

This project management methodology isn’t for you if:

• You need predictability.

• You don’t have the resources to handle the potential negatives of adaptability (e.g. scope creep,
rework, misuse of time)

8. Lean methodology
Lean is another project management methodology that has its origins in manufacturing (and specifically
the Toyota Production System). It’s all about applying lean principles to your project management
methods to maximize value and minimize waste.

While this originally referred to reducing physical waste in the manufacturing process, it now refers to
other wasteful practices in the project management process. These are known as the 3Ms: muda, mura,
and muri.

Muda (wastefulness) consumes resources without adding value for the customer.

Mura (unevenness) occurs when you have overproduction in one area that throws all of your other areas
out of whack, leaving you with too much inventory (wasteful!) or inefficient processes (also wasteful!).

Muri (overburden) occurs when there is too much strain on resources such as equipment and people,
which can often lead to breakdowns — in both machines and humans.

Using the key principles of lean, a project manager can reduce these types of waste to create more
efficient workflows.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You’re looking for a set of principles that will help you cut the fat and optimize your flow.
• You’re always trying to improve and add value for the customer.
• You want to ultimately decrease costs.
This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You can’t afford to run into supply problems (e.g. you don’t have enough inventory in stock) or
lose room for error (e.g. in the case of essential equipment failure).
• You don’t have the budget to invest in it (while lean project management aims to reduce costs
overall, it can be costly to implement).
• You’re a raccoon and you love waste, actually.

9. Critical path method

The critical path method (also known as critical path analysis) is a way of identifying and scheduling all
of the critical tasks that comprise your project, as well as their dependencies.

That means that you need to:

1. Identify all of the essential tasks you need to do to achieve your project goal
2. Estimate how much time each of those tasks will take (bearing in mind that certain tasks will need
to be completed before others can be started)
3. Use all of that information to schedule the “critical path” you’ll need to take in order to get the
project done as quickly as possible without missing any crucial steps.

The longest sequence of critical tasks becomes your critical path, and will define the timeframe for your
project.

Along the path, you’ll have milestones to meet that will signal when one set of tasks (or phase) is over
and you can move on to the next one.

There are lots of ways to visualize the critical path, depending on the complexity of your project, from
flow graphs to Gantt charts.

Try this project management methodology if:

• Your project is large-scale and complex.

• Your project has a lot of dependencies.
• You’re looking for a visual way to map out the sequence of tasks.
• You need to identify which tasks are the most important so you can better allocate your resources.
• You have a strict plan and deadlines, with no room for silly business.
• You love algorithms. Love ‘em!

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You don’t need something with a lot of complexity.

• You’re unsure about deadlines, timings, or durations.
• Your project needs wiggle room to change.

10. Critical chain project management

Critical chain project management (or CCPM) takes the critical path method (CPM) one step further.
While the critical path method defines the length of time needed to get each critical activity done from
the beginning of the project to the end, it can often be, well, unrealistic when the time comes to actually
put it into practice.

Critical chain project management addresses those issues by allowing a bit more time for the human
elements of your project — like delays and resourcing issues.

In critical chain project management, you have a few buffers built in that your critical chain can use
without derailing everything else, so that your entire project doesn’t have to go off track just because life
happens.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You like the sound of the critical path method, but you want something a little more realistic.
• You were already overestimating task durations in CPM to allow for a buffer and you want more
accurate data on how long the work is actually taking compared to your projections.

This project management methodology isn’t for you if:

• You think buffers are just a safety net for people who didn’t plan it right the first time.
• Nothing could possibly go wrong.

11. New product introduction (NPI)

New product introduction is a great project management methodology for when you want to, well,
introduce a new product.

Also known as new product development (NPD), the new product introduction process covers everything
you need to define, develop and launch a new (or improved) product.

The project follows a single product through the entire development process. This process involves
multiple phases or a stage-gate process, which can vary from organization to organization, but usually
include things like:

1. Defining the product spec and project scope

2. Evaluating the feasibility
3. Developing the prototype
4. Validating the prototype via testing and analysis
5. Manufacturing the product on a larger scale
6. Evaluating the product’s success in the market after launch

As the requirements for a successful new product introduction span a number of departments across an
organization, from leadership to product managers to marketing and more, it requires a lot of cross-
functional collaboration and communication.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You’re bringing a new or improved product to market.

• You’re focusing on a single product.
 • You want to foster key stakeholder and cross-functional alignment right from the beginning.

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You’re not bringing a new or improved product to market.

• You’re looking for a more agile approach to product development (as NPI is usually sequential
rather than iterative).

12. Package enabled reengineering (PER)

Package enabled reengineering (PER) is a project management methodology that aims to help
organizations redesign products or processes with fresh eyes. It focuses on facilitating business
transformations quickly and strategically, whether through redesign of processes or realignment of
people.

Try this project management methodology if:

• Your organization needs an overhaul.

• You need a fresh perspective on your products or processes.

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You’re not trying to improve an existing system.

13. Outcome mapping

Outcome mapping is a project progress measurement system that was designed by the International
Development Research Centre (IDRC). It differs from the other project management methodologies on
this list in that it doesn’t focus on measurable deliverables; instead, it focuses on creating lasting
behavioural change.

It’s a common project management methodology used in charitable projects in developing countries. As a
project management methodology, it’s less about the project itself than the long-term impact of the
project and its ability to effect change in the community. As a result, it measures influence rather than
other (perhaps more “typical”) measures of project progress.

Outcome mapping consists of a lengthy design phase followed by a record-keeping phase to track the
results.

Try this project management methodology if:

• Your project is aimed at changing behaviour rather than producing deliverables.

• Your project is related to change and social transformation (e.g. in the fields of international
development, charity, communications, research).

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• Your project is all about finished products rather than behavioural outcomes.
14. Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a method for improving processes with an emphasis on ensuring consistency in output and
impeccable quality. (And if it’s good enough for Jack Donaghy…)

There are a few different flavors available, such as Lean Six Sigma and Agile Sigma, but ultimately Six
Sigma is a business methodology that aims to eliminate defects and reduce variation by using its defined
methodologies.

Six Sigma methods can be used to optimize and improve existing processes or create new ones.

To improve business processes, you can use the Six Sigma DMAIC process, which stands for the phases
in the project methodology: Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control.

To create new processes or products, you can use the Six Sigma DMADV
process: Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify.

As a set of principles and techniques (sometimes it’s even described as a “philosophy”) rather than a
project management methodology in itself, Six Sigma methods can be applied alongside many other
project management methodologies, like Lean and Agile.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You’re looking for a set of principles and philosophies you can bring with you to almost every
project and organization.

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You don’t have a lot of budget to invest in training — it can be expensive to get trained and
certified.
• You’re looking for a defined process for a particular project rather than a set of guiding rules.

15. PMI’s PMBOK

The Project Management Institute’s Project Management Book of Knowledge (AKA the PMI’s PMBOK)
isn’t a project management methodology in and of itself. However, it is a best practices guide — and it
forms the basis of the PMI’s Project Management Professional (PMP) certification, one of the leading
project management qualifications.

As such, the PMBOK is an industry-standard set of guiding principles that you can use to ensure that
your projects across multiple types of teams and organizations meet the PMI’s high standards and comply
with best practices.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You have (or want to get) a PMP.

• You want to stay up-to-date with industry standards and best practices.
• You live and work in a place where the PMP is the standard project management qualification
(such as the US).
This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You need a solid project management methodology to map your project, rather than general
(albeit helpful) project management knowledge.

16. PRINCE2 methodology

PRINCE2 (PRojects IN Controlled Environments) is a project management methodology and
certification that aims to equip project managers with knowledge of best practices and processes.

Unlike the PMP certification, it doesn’t require a number of prerequisites, making it a good choice for
project managers looking to get both a methodological grounding and a qualification.

Also unlike the PMP, PRINCE2 is a methodology in itself. It’s guided by seven principles, which in turn
dictate the seven processes a project manager needs to use in each project when using PRINCE2.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You’re looking for a certification to give you an edge.

• You live and work in a place where PRINCE2 is the standard project management qualification
(such as the UK).

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You don’t want to commit to full certification.

• The seven-step process doesn’t map to your projects.
• You find yourself tailoring (or outright ignoring) the process stages so much that it becomes
PINO — “PRINCE in name only”.

17. Rapid application development (RAD) methodology

Rapid application development (RAD) is a type of agile project management methodology that aims to
facilitate faster software development.

It uses rapid prototype releases and iterations to gather feedback in a short period of time, and values that
user feedback over strict planning and requirements recording.

Try this project management methodology if:

• You want to be able to give customers/clients/stakeholders a working model much sooner (even if
it’s not perfect).
• You want to create multiple prototypes and work with stakeholders to choose the best one.
• Speed is of the essence.
• You want to encourage code reuse.

This project management methodology might not be for you if:

• You don’t have an experienced team.

• Your clients or stakeholders don’t have the time to commit to such a collaborative process or
can’t give feedback within the necessary timeframes.
• You have a large team.
• You prefer to have a detailed spec that outlines all functional and non-functional requirements.