Motivation

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Learning Objectives slide 1 of 2

1. Explain the basic motivation process.

2. Describe the different approaches to
motivation.
3. Define need-based approaches of
employee motivation.
4. Explain the process approaches to
employee motivation.
5. Outline how goal setting is used as a tool
for motivating individuals.
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 Learning Objectives slide 2 of 2

6. Explain how reinforcement theory can be used

to increase and decrease behavior in an
organizational setting.
7. Address the application of participative
management in contemporary organizations.
8. Clarify the use of money as a motivator.
9. Explain how to reward team performance.
10. Account for the importance of motivation from
an international perspective.
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 Rewarding “A”
While Hoping For “B” slide 1 of 2
• Steven Kerr’s classic article that argued that
many organizations and managers want one
thing but reward other things instead.
• Why do they do this?
– Managers have not clearly identified what is
necessary for good performance.
– Managers have not determined how to
measure successful performance.

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 Rewarding “A”
While Hoping For “B” slide 2 of 2
– Employees do not see clear links between
their performance and achievement of the
goals.
– Employees may not have the right abilities to
carry out the job.
– Employees want rewards different from what
their supervisors think they want.
– Employees have different levels of motivation
to do the job.

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 Motivation Defined
• The forces acting upon or within a person
that cause that person to expend to behave
in a specific, goal-directed manner.
• It is a psychological process that gives
purpose and direction to behavior.

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 The Relationship
Between Motivation and
Performance

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 Motivation Approaches
• Need-Based Models
– Emphasize specific human needs or the
factors within a person that energize, direct,
and stop behavior.
• Process Models
– Take a more dynamic view of motivation. They
focus on understanding the thought or
cognitive processes that take place within the
individual’s mind influence behavior.
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 Need-Based Models of
Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model

Acquired-Needs Model

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 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
slide 1 of 3
• According to Maslow, individuals have
various needs and try to satisfy these
needs using a priority system or hierarchy.
• Maslow specified five fundamental needs
people have.

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
slide 2 of 3

Self-actualization

Esteem

Affiliation

Security

Physiological
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
slide 3 of 3
• Physiological needs
– Food, water, air and shelter.
• Security needs
– Safe physical and emotional environment.
• Affiliation needs
– Friendship, love and a feeling of belong.
• Esteem needs
– Feelings of achievement and self worth
through recognition, respect and prestige
from others.
• Self-Actualization needs
– Self-fulfillment and achievement. 12
 McGregor’s Theory X and
Theory Y
• Theory X
• Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike
work, avoid responsibility, and require close
supervision.
• Theory Y
• Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction,
desire responsibility, and like to work.
• Motivation is maximized by participative
decision making, interesting jobs, and good
group relations.
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 Need-Based Models of
Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model

Acquired-Needs Model

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 Two-Factor Model slide 1 of 2
• Herzberg found that the factors leading
to job satisfaction were separate and
distinct from those that lead to job
dissatisfaction.
– Motivator factors
• Related to job content or what people
actually do in their work.
– Hygiene factors
• Associated with the job context in
which the job is performed. 15
Two-Factor Model

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 Need-Based Models of
Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model

Acquired-Needs Model

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Acquired-Needs Model slide 1 of
2
• The acquired-needs model focuses on
three particularly important or relevant
needs in the work environment:
– Need for achievement
– Need for affiliation
– Need for power
• The model proposes that when a need is
strong, it will motivate the person to
engage in behavior to satisfy that need.
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Acquired-Needs Model slide 2 of
2
• Need for Achievement
– The drive to excel, to accomplish
challenging tasks, and to achieve a
standard of excellence.
• Need for Power
– The desire to influence and control one’s
environment.
• Need for Affiliation
– The desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships.
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Process-Based Models of
Motivation
• Expectancy Model

• Equity Model

• Goal Setting

• Reinforcement Theory

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 Expectancy Model
• The expectancy model suggests that
motivation to expend effort to do
something is determined by three basic
individual perceptions.
– The perception that effort will lead to
performance.
– The perception that rewards are
attached to performance.
– The perception that the outcomes, or
rewards, are valuable to the individual.
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 Components of Expectancy
• Expectancy
Model
– The belief that a particular level of effort
will be followed by a particular level of
performance.
• Instrumentality
– The probability assigned by the
individual that a specific level of
achieved task performance will lead to
various work outcomes.
• Valence
– The value or importance that the
individual attaches to various work
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outcomes.
 Expectancy Model
Effort

Expectancy

Performance

Instrumentality

Outcomes: Rewards

Valence
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Process-Based Models of
Motivation
• Expectancy Model

• Equity Model

• Goal Setting

• Reinforcement Theory

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 Equity Model
• Equity model focuses on an individual’s
feelings about how fairly he or she is
treated in comparison with others.
– People have a perception of the ratio of
their inputs compared to their own
outcomes in a situation.
– They also have a perception of the ratio
of everyone else’s inputs to outcomes.
– Then, each person compares his or her
own ration to that of everyone else.
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Equity Model

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 Maintaining Equity
• To reduce a perceived inequity, a person
may take one of the following actions:
– Change work inputs either upward or
downward to an equitable level.
– Change outcomes to restore equity.
– Psychologically distort comparisons.
– Change the comparison person he or
she is using to another person.
– Leave the situation (e.g., quit the job or
transfer to another department).
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Process-Based Models of
Motivation
• Expectancy Model

• Equity Model

• Goal Setting

• Reinforcement Theory

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 Goal Setting
• A process intended to increase efficiency
and effectiveness by specifying the desired
outcomes toward which individuals, groups,
departments, and organizations work.
• Goals setting serves three purposes:
– Guide and direct behavior toward overall
organizational goals and strategies.
– Provide challenges and standards
against which the individual can be
assessed.
– Define what is important and provide a
framework for planning. 29
SMART Goal Setting
• Effective goal setting
should be:
– S pecific
– M easurable
– A chievable
– R esults oriented
– T ime related

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Process-Based Models of
Motivation
• Expectancy Model

• Equity Model

• Goal Setting

• Reinforcement Theory

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 Reinforcement Theory
• Based on the idea that people learn to repeat
behaviors that are positively rewarded
(reinforced) and avoid behaviors that are
punished (not reinforced).
• The application of reinforcement theory is
frequently called behavior modification because
it involves changing one’s own behavior or the
behavior of someone else.

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 Increasing Desired Behavior
• Positive Reinforcement
– The administration of positive and rewarding
consequences following a desired behavior.
• Negative Reinforcement
– Also called avoidance learning, strengthens
desired behavior by allowing escape from an
undesirable consequence.

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 Decreasing Desired Behavior
• Extinction
– The withdrawal of the positive reward or
reinforcing consequences for an undesirable
behavior.

• Punishment
– The administration of negative consequences
following undesirable behavior.

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Reinforcement Strategies

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 Reinforcement: Interval and
Time
• Interval
– Reinforcement is based on time.
• Ratio
– Reinforcement is based on exhibiting the
desired behavior.

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 Reinforcement: Fixed and
Variable
• Fixed reinforcement
– Reinforcement is administered at each
interval or for each desired behavior.
• Variable reinforcement
– The reinforcer is given at essentially a
random time or random occurrence of
the desired behavior.

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 Schedules of Reinforcement
slide 1 of 2
• Fixed Interval Schedule
– Rewards employees at specific time intervals,
assuming that the desired behaviors have
continued at an appropriate level.
• Fixed Ratio Schedule
– Provides a reinforcement after a fixed number
of occurrences of the desired behavior.

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 Schedules of Reinforcement
slide 2 of 2
• Variable Interval Schedule
– When reinforcement is administered at
random or varying times that cannot be
predicted by the employee.
• Variable Ratio Schedule
– Reinforcement administered after a varying or
random number of occurrences.

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 Using Behavior Modification
• The application of Reinforcement Theory is
called behavior modification.
• The reason is that the intent of applying the
concepts is to change or modify, one’s own, or
someone else’s behavior.
• Hopefully, managers reward behavior of
employees that is desirable for the organization
(high performance) and ignore behavior that is
not, or even punish it.

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Contemporary Motivational
Approaches
• Participative management

• Money

• Employee ownership

• Rewarding team
performance

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 Participative Management
• Encompasses various activities in which
subordinates share a significant degree of
decision-making power with their
immediate superiors.
• Involves any process where power,
knowledge, information, and rewards are
moved downward in the organization.
• When companies increase the amount of
control and discretion workers have over
their jobs, they empower employees and
can improve the motivation of both
employees and management. 42
Money as a Motivator slide 1 of 2
• As a medium of exchange, money should
motivate to the degree that people
perceive it as a means to acquire other
things they want.
• Research does show that money is a
motivator when a “significant amount of
money” is clearly tied to a desired
behavior.
• Money has to be desired by the person
engaging in the behavior.
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Money as a Motivator slide 2 of 2
• However, overall, money tends to not be
associated with productive behavior, and
may even motivate unwanted behavior.
Reasons include:
– Proper (productive) behavior has not been
defined.
– There are poor measures, or no measures or
productive behavior.
– The amount of money is too small to make a
difference.
• These same reasons explain why profit-
sharing, or gain-sharing programs frequently
do not motivate individual performance. 44
 Employee Ownership
• Assumes that if a person owned part of a
company, that he or she would be more
highly motivated to contribute to make the
company more successful and more
profitable.
• Research shows that using ownership,
including stock options, works to motivate
behavior only:
– When productive behavior and goals
have been defined.
– Good performance can be measured.
– The awards of stock or stock options are
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tied directly to performance.
Rewarding Team Performance
• How do you reward team performance?
– A significant part of the reward given to
team members must be based on total
team performance.
– Individual rewards probably should be
given.
– However, individuals should be rewarded
for contributing to the team success,
effort, and function… not for individual
performance itself.
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 Implications for Leaders:
Motivation
• Find out what motivates each person.
• Tie rewards to the behavior you want.
• Help people see what the right behavior
and performance is.

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 Prescription for Greater
Motivation
• Tell people what you expect them to do.
• Make the work valuable.
• Make the work doable.
• Give feedback.
• Reward successful performance.

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