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UNIT 1: Introduction to
People and the Earth’s Ecosystem
1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
a. Describe the nature of ecosystem;
b. Illustrate the interaction between biotic and abiotic factors in ecosystem;
c. Enumerate and describe the different biomes;
d. Relate one’s habitat to the concept of ecosystem;
e. Cite the importance of the types of ecosystem.

1.1. Introduction
Modular and online classes could have been
hard for you. You are learning at your own pace that
doesn’t really require you to wake up early just to go to
school. You can lie on your bed, do your things, and
study whenever you want. And now, here you are,
reading this packet trying your very best to understand
every word you’ll read because you were just from
your pretty good sleep. Well, do not be bothered about
that- most of the students understand you, and so this
snail.
Snails are slow, seems like they’re always lost
and wandering. It may be crazy to think that they do
not have much things to do, but just like you, they too
have unique sleeping patterns. Guess what? They can
sleep not just for two-three days long but can insanely
sleep up to three years! So if you think you sleep too
Photo by João Costa on Unsplash
long, you might want to do some research about snails.
In this chapter, we will be discussing the environmental factors that affect the sleeping
patterns of various organisms. We’ll be focusing on ecosystem- the community of organisms
in an area and the physical factors with which those organisms interact. How do organisms
survive in cold or hot environment? In what type of ecosystem will they thrive better? What
necessary interactions do they have to make with other organisms? Questions that will
introduce us to ecology- the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and the
environment, which will lead us to understanding the people and the earth’s ecosystem.

1.2 Introduction to People and the Earth’s Ecosystem

Before we discuss the important matters about the ecosystem, let us explore first the
Levels of Biological Organization. Each level is necessary for you to understand the next
lessons better.
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LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (Urry et al., 2017)

The Biosphere
Consists of all life on Earth and all the places where life exists: most regions of land, most bodies
of water, the atmosphere to an altitude of several kilometers, and even sediments far below the
ocean floor.

Biome
large group of ecosystems that share the same climate and have similar
types of communities

Ecosystem
Consists of all the living things in a particular area, along with all the nonliving components of
the environment with which life interacts, such as soil, water, atmospheric gases, and light.

Community
Includes many kinds of plants, various animals, mushrooms and other fungi, and enormous
numbers of diverse microorganisms, such as bacteria, that are too small to see without a
microscope. Each of these forms of life belongs to a species—a group whose members can only
reproduce with other members of the group.

Population
consists of all the individuals of a species living within the bounds of a specified area.

Organism
Individual living things

1.2.1 What is Ecosystem?

In the 19th century, Ernst Haeckel, a German biologist developed the concept ecology
and devised its name -eco from the Greek word for ‘house’ and -logy from the Greek word for
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‘study’ (the study of one’s
house). The environment consists of two parts: the biotic (living) environment, which
includes all organisms, and the abiotic (nonliving, or physical) environment, which includes
living space, temperature, sunlight, soil, wind, and precipitation (Hassenzahl et al., 2017).
Ecologists are most interested in the levels of biological organization including and above the
level of the individual organism. Below are the different levels of the biological hierarchy,
presented by Urry et al. (2017):
 Organismal Ecology
Organismal ecology includes the sub disciplines of physiological, evolutionary, and
behavioral ecology, is concerned with how an organism’s structure, physiology, and
behavior meet the challenges posed by its environment.
 Population Ecology
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in an area.
Population ecology analyzes factors that affect population size and how and why it
changes through time.
 Community Ecology
A community is a group of populations of different species in an area. Community
ecology examines how interactions between species, such as predation and competition,
affect community structure and organization.
 Ecosystem Ecology
An ecosystem is the community of organisms in an area and the physical factors
with which those organisms interact. Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and
chemical cycling between organisms and the environment.
 Landscape Ecology
A landscape (or seascape) is a mosaic of connected ecosystems. Research in
landscape ecology focuses on the factors controlling exchanges of energy, materials, and
organisms across multiple ecosystems.
 Global Ecology
The biosphere is the global ecosystem—the sum of all the planet’s ecosystems and
landscapes. Global ecology examines how the regional exchange of energy and materials
influences the functioning and distribution of organisms across the biosphere.
In this chapter, we will be focusing on the ecosystem ecology. According to
Friedland et al. (2011), ecosystem ecology examines interactions between the living and
nonliving world. An ecosystem, a location on Earth is distinguished by its particular mix of
interacting biotic and abiotic components. For example, a forest contains many interacting
biotic components, such as trees, wildflowers, birds, mammals, insects, fungi, and bacteria,
with an interaction with abiotic components such as sunlight, temperature, soil, water, pH,
and nutrients. The abiotic components of the ecosystem determine which organisms can live
there.

THE FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH ECOSYSTEMS

Energy is the capacity or ability to do work. In order for organisms to grow, move,
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reproduce, and maintain and
repair damaged tissues, they are required to have energy. Energy that exists as stored
energy is called potential energy while kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Example of a
potential energy is an arrow on a drawn bow. When the string is released, this potential
energy is converted to kinetic energy as the motion of the bow propels the arrow
(Hassenzahl et al., 2017).
Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its transformations. Two laws about
energy apply to all things in the universe: the first and second laws of thermodynamics as
defined by Hassenzahl et al. (2017):
First law of thermodynamics
A physical law which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, although it can
change from one form to another. In photosynthesis, for example, plants absorb the radiant
energy of the sun and convert it into the chemical energy contained in the bonds of sugar
molecules.
Second law of thermodynamics
A physical law which states that when energy is converted from one form to another, some of
it is degraded into heat, a less usable form that disperses into the environment. Less usable energy is
more disorganized than more usable energy. We call this measure of randomness or disorder
as entropy. Energy that is organized and is usable has low entropy whereas disorganized
energy such as low-temperature heat has high entropy. Another way to explain the second
law of thermodynamics is that entropy, or disorder, tends to increase over time. As a result of
the second law of thermodynamics, no process that requires an energy conversion is ever 100
percent efficient because much of the energy is dispersed as heat, resulting in an increase in
entropy. For example, in an automobile engine, which converts the energy stored in the
chemical bonds of gasoline molecules to mechanical energy, only 20 to 30 percent of the
original chemical energy is actually transformed into mechanical energy, or work.

1.2.2 Biotic and Abiotic Factors in Ecosystem

BIOTIC FACTORS
Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers
The organisms of an ecosystem are divided into three categories (Hassenzahl et al., 2017):
 Producers- also called autotrophs, are plants and other photosynthetic organisms that
manufacture large organic molecules from simple inorganic substances, generally carbon
dioxide and water, typically using the energy of sunlight. Plants are the most significant
producers on land, and algae and certain types of bacteria are important producers in
aquatic environments.
 Consumers- are animals and they consume other organisms as a source of food energy and
body building materials. Consumers that eat producers are primary consumers, or
herbivores. Secondary consumers eat primary consumers, whereas tertiary consumers
eat secondary consumers. Both secondary and tertiary consumers are carnivores that eat
other animals. Lions, spiders, lizards, and some birds are examples of carnivores. Other
consumers, called omnivores, eat a variety of organisms. You are a perfect example of this
type of organism.
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Detritus- are also consumers.
They are usually called as detritus feeders that consume organic matter that includes
animal carcasses, leaf litter, and feces. In aquatic environments, snails, crabs, clams, and
worms are also known as detritus feeders. Earthworms, termites, beetles, snails, and
millipedes are terrestrial (land-dwelling) detritus feeders. Detritus feeders work together
with microbial decomposers to destroy dead organisms and waste products.
 Decomposers- are bacteria and fungi, they are organisms that break down dead organisms
and waste products. Decomposers release simple inorganic molecules, such as carbon
dioxide and mineral salts, which producers can then reuse.

Producers provide both food and oxygen for the rest of the community. Consumers
play an important role by maintaining a balance between producers and decomposers.
Detritus feeders and decomposers are necessary for the long-term survival of any ecosystem
because, without them, dead organisms and waste products would accumulate indefinitely
(Hassenzahl et al., 2017).

Food Chains
Energy flow occurs in food chains, in which energy from food passes from one
organism to the next in a sequence. A food chain diagram consists of a series of arrows, each
of which points from the species that is consumed to the species that uses it as food ( see
figure 1.1). Each level, or “link,” in a food chain is a trophic level. (The Greek tropho means
“nourishment.”) An organism is assigned a trophic level based on the number of energy
transfer steps from the source of energy to that level.
Producers form the first trophic level, primary consumers make up the second
trophic level, secondary consumers form the third trophic level, and so on. At every step in a
food chain are decomposers, which respire organic molecules in the carcasses and body
wastes of all members of the food chain. To understand this more, study the figure below:

Hassenzahl et al., 2017

Figure 1.1. The energy flow through a food chain. Producers form the first trophic level, primary
consumers make up the second trophic level and so on.
Food Web
A food web is an interconnected food chains in an ecosystem that shows a more
realistic model of the flow of energy and materials through ecosystems. This helps us
visualize feeding relationships that indicate how a community is organized
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(Hassenzahl et al., 2017).
Below is an example of a food web:

Friedland et al., 2011

Figure 1.2. A simplified food web. A more realistic representation of trophic relationships than
simple food chains. They include scavengers, detritivores, and decomposers, and they
recognize that some species feed at multiple trophic levels.

ABIOTIC FACTORS
Abiotic factors include temperature, water, oxygen, salinity, sunlight, or soil, might
be limiting a species’ distribution. They are discussed thoroughly below by Urry et al. (2017).
Throughout this discussion, take note that most abiotic factors may still vary over space and
time. Daily and annual fluctuations of abiotic factors may either blur or accentuate regional
distinctions. Furthermore, organisms can avoid some stressful conditions temporarily
through behaviors such as dormancy or hibernation.
 Temperature
One of the important factor in the distribution of organisms is the environmental
temperature of its effect on biological processes. Say cells may rupture if the water they
contain freezes (below 0°C), and the proteins of most organisms denature at temperatures
above 45°C. Organisms typically function best within a specific range of environmental
temperature. This means that there are organisms who cannot function if their standard
environmental temperature is not met. However, temperatures outside that range may force
some animals to expend energy regulating their internal temperature, as mammals and birds
do. Extraordinary adaptations enable certain organisms, such as thermophilic prokaryotes, to
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live outside the temperature
range habitable by other life. Climate change has already caused hundreds of species to alter
their geographic ranges. A shift in the range of one species can also have profound effects on
the distribution of other species.
 Water and Oxygen
Variation in water availability among habitats is another important factor in species
distribution. Species living at the seashore or in tidal wetlands can desiccate (dry out) as the
tide recedes. Terrestrial organisms face a nearly constant threat of desiccation, and the
distribution of terrestrial species reflects their ability to obtain and conserve water. Many
amphibians are particularly vulnerable to drying because they use their moist, delicate skin
for gas exchange. Desert organisms exhibit a variety of adaptations for acquiring and
conserving water in dry environments.
Water affects oxygen availability in aquatic environments and in flooded soils, where
the slow diffusion of oxygen in water can limit cellular respiration and other physiological
processes. Oxygen concentrations can be particularly low in Deep Ocean and deep lake
waters as well as in sediments where organic matter is abundant. Flooded wetland soils may
also have low oxygen content. Mangroves and other trees have specialized roots that project
above the water and help the root system obtain oxygen.
Water affects oxygen availability in aquatic environments and in flooded soils, where
the slow diffusion of oxygen in water can limit cellular respiration and other physiological
processes. Oxygen concentrations can be particularly low in deep ocean and deep lake
waters as well as in sediments where organic matter is abundant. Flooded wetland soils may
also have low oxygen content. Mangroves and other trees have specialized roots that project
above the water and help the root system obtain oxygen. Unlike many flooded wetlands, the
surface waters of streams and rivers tend to be well oxygenated because of rapid exchange of
gases with the atmosphere.
 Salinity
Another abiotic factor is the salt concentration of water in the environment tha affects
the water balance of organisms through osmosis. Most aquatic organisms are restricted to
either freshwater or saltwater habitats by their limited ability to osmoregulate. Although
most terrestrial organisms can excrete excess salts from specialized glands or in feces or
urine, high-salinity habitats typically have few species of plants or animals.
 Sunlight
Sunlight provides the energy that drives most ecosystems, and too little sunlight can
limit the distribution of photosynthetic species. In forests, shading by leaves makes
competition for light especially intense, particularly for seedlings growing on the forest floor.
In aquatic environments, every meter of water depth absorbs about 45% of the red light and
about 2% of the blue light passing through it. As a result, most photosynthesis occurs
relatively near the water surface. Too much light can also limit the survival of organisms. In
some ecosystems, such as deserts, high light levels can increase temperature stress if animals
and plants are unable to avoid the light or to cool themselves through evaporation. At high
elevations, the sun’s rays are more likely to damage DNA and proteins because the
atmosphere is thinner, absorbing less ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Damage from UV radiation,
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combined with other abiotic
stresses, prevents trees from surviving above a certain elevation, resulting in the appearance
of a tree line on mountain slopes.
 Rocks and Soil
In terrestrial environments, the pH, mineral composition, and physical structure of
rocks and soil limit the distribution of plants and thus of the animals that feed on them,
contributing to the patchiness of terrestrial ecosystems. The pH of soil can limit the
distribution of organisms directly, through extreme acidic or basic conditions, or indirectly,
by affecting the solubility of toxins and nutrients. Soil phosphorus, for instance, is relatively
insoluble in basic soils and precipitates into forms unavailable to plants.
In a river, the composition of rocks and soil that make up the substrate (riverbed) can affect
water chemistry, which in turn influences the resident organisms. In freshwater and marine
environments, the structure of the substrate determines the organisms that can attach to it or
burrow into it.
The Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems
Matter, the material of which organisms are composed of, moves in numerous cycles
from one part of an ecosystem to another—from one organism to another and from living
organisms to the abiotic environment and back again (Hassenzahl et al., 2017). Since these
nutrient cycles are both biotic and abiotic components, they are called biogeochemical cycles
(Urry et al., 2017). They added that these cycles are recognized into two general scales: local
and global. Gaseous forms of carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen occur in the atmosphere,
and cycles of these elements are essentially global. For example, some of the carbon and
oxygen atoms a plant acquires from the air as CO 2 may have been released into the
atmosphere by the respiration of an organism in a distant locale. Other elements, including
phosphorus, potassium, and calcium, are too heavy to occur as gases at Earth’s surface,
although they are transported in dust. Let us examine each of these in the next pages as
presented by Urry et al. (2017):
Biological importance. Water is essential to all organisms, and its
availability influences the rates of ecosystem processes, particularly primary
production and decomposition in terrestrial ecosystems.
Forms available to life. All organisms are capable of exchanging water
directly with their environment. Liquid water is the primary physical phase
in which water is used, though some organisms can harvest water vapor.
Freezing of soil water can limit water availability to terrestrial plants.
Reservoirs. The oceans contain 97% of the water in the biosphere.
Approximately 2% is bound in glaciers and polar ice caps, and the
remaining 1% is in lakes, rivers, and groundwater, with a negligible amount
in the atmosphere.
Key processes. The main processes driving the water cycle are evaporation
of liquid water by solar energy, condensation of water vapor into clouds,
and precipitation. Transpiration by terrestrial plants also moves large
Urry et al., 2017 volumes of importance.
water into theCarbon
atmosphere.
Biological forms Surface and groundwater
the framework of the flow can
organic
Figure 1.3a. The Water Cycle return water
molecules to the oceans,
essential completing the water cycle.
to all organisms.
Forms available to life. Photosynthetic organisms utilize CO 2 during
photosynthesis and convert the carbon to organic forms that are used by
consumers, including animals, fungi, and heterotrophic protists and
prokaryotes.
Reservoirs. The major reservoirs of carbon include fossil fuels, soils, the
sediments of aquatic ecosystems, the oceans (dissolved carbon compounds),
plant and animal biomass, and the atmosphere (CO 2). The largest reservoir
is sedimentary rocks such as limestone; however, carbon remains in this
pool for long periods of time. All organisms are capable of returning carbon
directly to their environment in its original form (CO2) through respiration.
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Urry et al., 2017

Figure 1.3b. The Carbon Cycle

Biological importance. Nitrogen is part of amino acids, proteins, and

nucleic acids and is often a limiting plant nutrient.
Forms available to life. Plants can assimilate (use) two inorganic forms of
nitrogen—ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3–)—and some organic
forms, such as amino acids. Various bacteria can use all of these forms as
well as nitrite (NO2–). Animals can use only organic forms of nitrogen.
Reservoirs. The main reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere, which is 80%
free nitrogen gas (N2).
Key processes. The major pathway for nitrogen to enter an ecosystem is
via nitrogen fixation, the conversion of N2 to forms that can be used to
synthesize
organic nitrogen compounds. Certain bacteria, as
well as lightning and volcanic activity, fix
nitrogen naturally. Nitrogen inputs from human
activities now outpace natural inputs on land.
Two major contributors are industrially produced
fertilizers and legume crops that fix nitrogen via
bacteria in their root nodules. Other bacteria in
Urry et al., 2017 soil convert nitrogen to different forms. Examples
include nitrifying bacteria, which convert
Figure 1.3c. The Nitrogen Cycle ammonium to nitrate, and denitrifying bacteria,
which convert nitrate to nitrogen gas. Human
activities also release large quantities of reactive
nitrogen gases, such as nitrogen oxides, to the
Biological importance.atmosphere.
Organisms require phosphorus as a major
constituent of nucleic acids, phospholipids, and ATP and other energy-
storing molecules and as a mineral constituent of bones and teeth.
Forms available to life. The most biologically important inorganic form of
phosphorus is phosphate (PO43–), which plants absorb and use in the
synthesis of organic compounds.
Reservoirs. The largest accumulations of phosphorus are in sedimentary
rocks of marine origin. There are also large quantities of phosphorus in soil,
in the oceans (in dissolved form), and in organisms. Because soil particles
bind PO43–, the recycling of phosphorus tends to be quite localized in
ecosystems.
Key processes. Weathering of rocks gradually adds PO43– to soil; some
leaches into groundwater and surface water and may eventually reach the
sea. Phosphate taken up by producers and incorporated into biological
molecules may be eaten by consumers. Phosphate is returned to soil or
water by either decomposition of biomass or excretion by consumers.
Urry et al., 2017
Because there are no significant phosphorus-containing gases, only
Figure 1.3d. The Phosphorus Cycle relatively small amounts of phosphorus move through the atmosphere,
usually in the forms of dust and sea spray.
Ecological Niche
Every organism has its own role in the ecosystem. We call this role as their ecological
niche. Ecological niche is the totality of an organism’s adaptations, its use of resources, and
the lifestyle to which it is fitted (Hassenzahl et al., 2017). Recognizing an organism’s
ecological niche is a difficult aspect in ecology because it doesn’t just simply takes an account
of an organism’s way of living but it also considers all of the biological, chemical, and
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physical factors the an organism
needs to survive, remain healthy, and reproduce. Niche is sometimes misunderstood as a
habitat- the local environment in which an organism lives. Hassenzahl et al. (2017) added
that an organism’s niche also encompasses what it eats, what organisms eat it, what
organisms it competes with, and how the abiotic components of its environment, such as
light, temperature, and moisture, interact with and influence it. A complete description of an
organism’s ecological niche involves numerous dimensions to explain when, where, and how
an organism makes its living. There are two types of niches:
o Fundamental niche is the potential, idealized ecological niche of an organism
(Hassenzahl et al., 2017). As defined by Botkin and Keller (2011), this is all the
conditions under which a species can persist in the absence of competition.
o Realized niche is the lifestyle an organism actually pursues and the resources it actually
uses (Hassenzahl et al., 2017). As defined by Botkin and Keller (2011), this is the set of
conditions as they occur in the real world with competitors.
When two species are similar, their ecological niches may appear to overlap.
However, many ecologists think no two species indefinitely occupy the same niche in the same
community. Resource partitioning is one way some species avoid or at least reduce niche
overlap. Resource partitioning is the reduction in competition for environmental resources
such as food among coexisting species as a result of the niche of each species differing from
the niches of others in one or more ways (Hassenzahl et al., 2017). This means that organisms
may reduce their competition with regards to the food they eat or what eats them. See the
figure in the next page to understand this.

Hassenzahl et al., 2017

Figure 1.4. Resource Partitioning. Although it initially appeared that the niches of the species were
nearly identical, it was determined that individuals of each species spend most of their feeding time
in different portions of spruces and other conifer trees. They also move in different directions
through the canopy, consume different combinations of insects, and nest at slightly different times.

Organisms’ Interactions
“No man is an island”, a saying by John Donne which tells us that no one is self-sufficient
and that everyone relies on others. This is not just true to humans but to all organisms. There is
no way an organism exists independently of other organisms. The producers, consumers,
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and decomposers of an
ecosystem interact with one another in a variety of ways, and each forms associations with
other organisms. There are three main types of interactions occurring among species in an
ecosystem: symbiosis, predation, and competition. Let us briefly discuss them as reported by
Hassenzahl et al. (2017):
 Symbiosis
An intimate relationship or association between members of two or more species. Your
relationships with your family, friends, or even your partner are perfect examples of this
intimate relationship. The partners in a symbiotic relationship may benefit, be unaffected,
or be harmed by the relationship. Symbiosis is the result of coevolution, the interdependent
evolution of two interacting species. Symbiosis includes mutualism, commensalism, and
parasitism
o Mutualism- is an association in which both organisms benefit. Example is the
interaction between acacia ants and the bull’s horn acacia plant. The ants make
hollow nests out of thorns at the base of the plant’s leaves and gain special nutrients
from the leaf tips. In return, the ants protect the plant from invertebrate and
vertebrate herbivores and clear away competing plants. Both ant and acacia depend
on this association for survival.
o Commensalism- is a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the
other is neither harmed nor helped. One example of commensalism is the
relationship between a tropical tree and its epiphytes (smaller plants such as mosses,
orchids, and ferns that live attached to the bark of the tree’s branches). An epiphyte
anchors itself to a tree but typically doesn’t obtain nutrients or water directly from
the tree. Its location enables it to obtain adequate light, water (as rain dripping down
the branches), and required nutrient minerals (which rain washes out of the tree’s
leaves). The epiphyte benefits from the association, whereas the tree is apparently
unaffected.
o Parasitism- is a symbiotic relationship in which one species (the parasite) benefits at
the expense of the other (the host). Parasitism is a successful lifestyle; more than 100
parasites live in or on the human species.
 Predation
The consumption of one species (the prey) by another (the predator). Adaptations related to
predator–prey interactions include predator strategies (pursuit and ambush) and prey
strategies (animal defenses and plant defenses). Keep in mind that such strategies are not
“chosen” by the respective predators or prey. New traits arise randomly in a population as
a result of mutation, and the traits may persist under natural selection. Common examples
for predation are: wolves hunting moose, owls hunting mice, or shrews hunting worms
and insects.
 Competition
The interaction among organisms that vie for the same resources in an ecosystem (such as
food or living space). Resources are often in limited supply in the environment, and their
use by one individual decreases the amount available to others. If a tree in a dense forest
grows taller than surrounding trees, it absorbs more of the incoming sunlight. Less sunlight
is available for nearby trees that the taller tree shades. Competition occurs among
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individuals within a
population (intraspecific competition) and between different species (interspecific competition).
A keystone species is crucial in determining the nature and structure of the entire
ecosystem in which it lives. Though present in relatively small numbers, keystone species
have disproportionate effects on ecosystems (Hassenzahl et al., 2017).
1.2.3 Biomes
Earth has many different climates—long-term weather patterns—based primarily on
temperature and precipitation differences. Characteristic organisms have adapted to each
climate within large regions called biomes. Each biome encompasses many interacting
ecosystems. In terrestrial ecology, a biome is considered the next level of ecological
organization above community, ecosystem, and landscape (Hassenzahl et al., 2017).
Near the poles, temperature is generally the overriding climate factor defining a
biome, whereas in temperate and tropical regions, precipitation is more significant than
temperature. Light is relatively plentiful in biomes, except in certain environments such as
the rainforest floor. Other abiotic factors to which certain biomes are sensitive include
extreme temperatures as well as rapid temperature changes, fires, floods, droughts, and
strong winds (Hassenzahl et al., 2017).
Elevation also affects biomes: Changes in vegetation with increasing elevation
resemble the changes in vegetation observed in going from warmer to colder climates. These
differences across biomes can be further defined by types of vegetation present and land use
patterns.

Hassenzahl et al., 2017

Figure 1.5. The World’s Terrestrial Biomes. A highly simplified map showing the biomes that grade
together at their boundaries. Two climate factors, temperature and
precipitation, have a predominant effect on biome distribution.

The following are the different terrestrial biomes as discussed by Hassenzahl et al. (2017):
 Tundra
Arctic tundra has long, harsh winters and short summers. Although the arctic tundra’s
growing season is short, the days are long. For many days in midsummer, the sun does not
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set above the Arctic Circle. There
is little precipitation, and most of the yearly 10 to 25 c (4 to 10 in) of rain or snow falls during
summer months. Limited precipitation, combined with low temperatures, flat topography
(or surface features), and the layer of permafrost, produces a landscape of broad, shallow
lakes and ponds, sluggish streams, and bogs. Mosses, lichens, grasses, and glasslike sedges
are the dominant plants. Stunted trees and shrubs grow only in sheltered locations. As a rule,
tundra plants seldom grow taller than 30 cm (12 in). Animals adapted to live year-round in
the tundra include lemmings, voles, weasels, arctic foxes, snowshoe hares, ptarmigan, snowy
owls, and musk oxen. In summer, caribou migrate north to the tundra to graze on sedges,
grasses, and dwarf willow. Dozens of bird species also migrate north in summer to nest and
feed on abundant insects. Mosquitoes, blackflies, and deerflies survive winter as eggs or
pupae and appear in great numbers during summer weeks. Tundra recovers slowly from
even small disturbances.

 Boreal Forest
A region of coniferous forest (such as pine, spruce, and fir) in the Northern Hemisphere;
located just south of the tundra. Also called taiga. There is no biome in the Southern
Hemisphere comparable to the boreal forest. Winters in the boreal forest are extremely cold
and severe, although not as harsh as those in the tundra. Boreal forest receives little
precipitation, perhaps 50 cm (20 in) per year, and its soil is typically acidic and mineral poor,
with a thick surface layer of partly decomposed pine and spruce needles. Black and white
spruces, balsam fir, eastern larch, and other conifers dominate the boreal forest, although
deciduous trees (trees that shed their leaves in autumn), such as aspen and birch, may form
striking stands. The animal life of the boreal forest consists of some larger species such as
caribou, which migrate from the tundra for winter; wolves; brown and black bears; and
moose. However, most boreal mammals are medium sized to small, including rodents,
rabbits, and smaller predators such as lynx, sable, and mink. Birds are abundant in the
summer but migrate to warmer climates for winter. Insects are plentiful, but few amphibians
and reptiles occur except in the southern boreal forest.
 Temperate rain forest
A coniferous biome with cool weather, dense fog, and high precipitation. A coniferous
temperate rain forest occurs on the northwest coast of North America. Similar vegetation
exists in southeastern Australia and in southern South America. Annual precipitation in this
biome is high—more than 127 cm (50 in)—and is augmented by condensation of water from
dense coastal fogs. The proximity of temperate rain forest to the coastline moderates its
temperature so that the seasonal fluctuation is narrow; winters are mild, and summers are
cool. The dominant vegetation in the North American temperate rain forest is large
evergreen trees such as western hemlock, Douglas fir, western red cedar, Sitka spruce, and
western arborvitae. Temperate rain forests are rich in epiphytes, smaller plants that grow on
the trunks and branches of large trees. Epiphytes in this biome are mainly mosses, club
mosses, lichens, and ferns, all of which also carpet the ground. Squirrels, wood rats, mule
deer, elk, numerous bird species, and several species of amphibians and reptiles are common
temperate rainforest animals.
The temperate rain forest is a rich wood producer, supplying lumber and pulpwood.
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Overharvesting the original old-
growth (never logged) forest can devastate that biome because such an ecosystem takes
hundreds of years to develop. Once harvested, the old-growth forest ecosystem never has a
chance to fully recover.
 Temperate Deciduous Forest
A forest biome that occurs in temperate areas with a moderate amount of precipitation.
Hot summers and cold winters characterize the temperate deciduous forest, which occurs in
temperate areas where precipitation ranges from about 75 to 150 cm (30 to 60 in) annually.
The trees of the temperate deciduous forest form a dense canopy that overlies saplings and
shrubs. Broad-leaved hardwood trees that lose their leaves seasonally, such as oak, hickory,
and beech, dominate the temperate deciduous forests of the northeastern and mideastern
United States. In the southern areas of the temperate deciduous forest, the number of broad-
leaved evergreen trees, such as magnolia, increases. Temperate deciduous forests originally
contained a variety of large mammals, such as puma, wolves, and bison, which are now
absent. Other more common animals include deer, bears, and many small mammals and
birds.
 Temperate Grassland
A grassland with hot summers cold winters, and less rainfall than is found in the
temperate deciduous forest biome. Summers are hot, winters are cold, and rainfall is often
uncertain in temperate grassland. Average annual precipitation ranges from 25 to 75 cm (10
to 30 in). Periodic wildfires help maintain grasses as the dominant vegetation in grasslands.
Moist temperate grasslands, also known as tallgrass prairies, occur in the United States in
parts of Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, and other midwestern states. Several
species of grasses that, under favorable conditions, grow as tall as a person on horseback
dominate tallgrass prairies. The land was originally covered with large herds of grazing
animals, such as bison, pronghorn, and elk. The principal predators were wolves, although in
sparser, drier areas coyotes took their place. Smaller animals included prairie dogs and their
predator (foxes, black-footed ferrets, and various birds of prey), grouse, reptiles such as
snakes and lizards, and great numbers of insects. Shortgrass prairies are temperate
grasslands that receive less precipitation than moist temperate grasslands but more
precipitation than deserts.
 Chaparral
A biome with mild, moist winters and hot, dry summers; vegetation is typically small-
leaved evergreen shrubs and small trees. Some hilly temperate environments have mild
winters with abundant rainfall combined with hot, dry summers. Such Mediterranean
climates, as they are called, occur not only in the area around the Mediterranean Sea but also
in the North American Southwest, southwestern and southern Australia, central Chile, and
southwestern South Africa. On the mountain slopes of southern California, this
Mediterranean-type biome is known as chaparral. A dense thicket of evergreen shrubs—
often short, drought-resistant pine or scrub oak trees that grow 1 to 3 m (3 to 10 ft) tall—
usually dominates chaparral. These plant species have evolved adaptations that equip them
to live where precipitation is seasonal. During the rainy winter season, the environment may
be lush and green, and during the hot, dry summer, the plants lie dormant. The hard, small,
leathery leaves of trees and shrubs resist water loss. Many plants are also specifically fire
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adapted and grow best in the
months following a fire. Such growth is possible because fire releases into the soil the
nutrient minerals present in the aboveground parts of the plants that burned. The seeds and
underground parts of plants that survive fire make use of the newly available nutrient
minerals and sprout vigorously during winter rains. Mule deer, wood rats, chipmunks,
lizards, and many species of birds are common animals of the chaparral.

 Desert
A biome in which the lack of precipitation limits plant growth; deserts are found in both
temperate and tropical regions. Desert consists of dry areas found in both temperate (cold
deserts) and subtropical or tropical regions (warm deserts). The low water vapor content of
the desert atmosphere results in daily temperature extremes of heat and cold, so that a major
change in temperature occurs in each 24-hour period. Deserts vary greatly depending on the
amount of precipitation they receive, which is generally less than 25 cm (10 in) per year.
Plant cover is so sparse in deserts that much of the soil is exposed. Plants in North American
deserts include cacti, yuccas, Joshua trees, and sagebrush. Desert plants are adapted to
conserve water and as a result tend to have few, small, or no leaves. Cactus leaves are
modified into spines, which discourage herbivores. Other desert plants shed their leaves for
most of the year, growing only during the brief moist season. Desert animals are typically
small. During the heat of the day, they remain under cover or return to shelter periodically,
emerging at night to forage or hunt. In addition to desert-adapted insects and arachnids
(such as tarantulas and scorpions), there are a few desert-adapted amphibians (frogs and
toads) and many reptiles, such as the desert tortoise, Gila monster, and Mojave rattlesnake.
Desert mammals in North America include rodents such as kangaroo rats, as well as mule
deer and jackrabbits. Birds of prey, especially owls, live on the rodents and jackrabbits, and
even scorpions. During the driest months of the year, many desert animals tunnel
underground, where they remain inactive.

 Savanna
A tropical grassland with widely scattered trees or clumps of trees. Savanna, a tropical
grassland, is found in areas of low rainfall or intense seasonal rainfall with prolonged dry
periods. Temperatures in savannas vary little throughout the year. Precipitation is the
overriding climate factor: Annual precipitation is 85 to 150 cm (34 to 60 in). Spectacular herds
of herbivores such as antelope, giraffe, elephants, wildebeest, and zebra occur in the African
savanna. Large predators, such as lions and hyenas, kill and scavenge the herds. In areas of
seasonally varying rainfall, the herds and their predators may migrate annually. Savanna in
many places is being converted into rangeland for cattle and other domesticated animals.
The problem is particularly serious in Africa, where human populations are growing rapidly.

 Tropical Forest
A lush, species-rich forest biome that occurs where the climate is warm and moist
throughout the year. Tropical rain forest occurs where temperatures are warm throughout
the year and precipitation occurs almost daily. The annual precipitation in a tropical rain
forest is typically between 200 and 450 cm (80 to 180 in). A related biome not described here
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is the tropical dry forest, where
temperatures are also warm year round as in tropical rain forests, but annual precipitation is
lower and more seasonal.
Tropical rain forest commonly occurs in areas with ancient, highly weathered,
mineral-poor soil. Little organic matter accumulates in such soils; because temperatures are
high year-round, bacteria, fungi, and detritus-feeding ants and termites decompose organic
litter quite rapidly. Roots quickly absorb nutrient minerals from the decomposing material.
Tropical rain forests are found in Central and South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Of
all biomes, the tropical rain forest is unexcelled in species richness and variety. No single
species dominates this biome. The trees are typically evergreen flowering plants. A fully
developed tropical rain forest has at least three distinct stories, or layers, of vegetation. The
topmost story, or emergent layer, consists of the crowns of very tall trees, some 50 m (164 ft)
or more in height, which are exposed to direct sunlight.
The middle story, or canopy, which reaches a height of 30 to 40 m (100 to 130 ft), forms a
continuous layer of leaves that lets in very little sunlight to support the smaller plants in the
sparse understory. Only 2 to 3 percent of the light bathing the forest canopy reaches the
forest understory. Tropical rainforest trees support thick woody vines and extensive
communities of epiphytic plants such as ferns, mosses, orchids, and bromeliads. Not
counting bacteria and other soil-dwelling organisms, about 90 percent of tropical rainforest
organisms are adapted to live in the canopy. Rain forests shelter the most abundant and
varied insects, birds, reptiles, and amphibians on Earth. Most rainforest mammals, such as
sloths and monkeys, are adapted to live only in the trees and rarely climb down to the
ground, although some large, ground- dwelling mammals, including elephants, are also
found in rain forests.

1.3 References
Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Reece, J. B. (2017). Campbell
biology. Pearson Education, Incorporated.
Friedland, A., Relyea, R., & Courard-Hauri, D. (2011). Environmental science: Foundations and
applications. Macmillan.
Hassenzahl, D. M., Hager, M. C., & Berg, L. R. (2017). Visualizing Environmental
Science. John Wiley & Sons.
Botkin, D. B., & Keller, E. A. (2011). Environmental science: Earth as a living planet. Wiley
Global Education.

1.4 Acknowledgment
 
The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were taken
from the references cited above.
 
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Appendix A
RUBRIC FOR ORAL PRESENTATION
Name: ___________________________________ Year and Section: _____________ Date: _______________
Topic: ______________________________________________________________________________________
Total
Points
Category Scoring Criteria Score

The type of presentation is appropriate for the topic and 5

audience.
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1| People and the Earth’s Ecosystem
Information is 5
Organization presented in a logical sequence.

(15 points) Presentation appropriately cites requisite number of references. 5

Introduction is attention-getting, lays out the problem well, and 5

establishes a framework for the rest of the presentation.

Technical terms are well-defined in language appropriate for 5

the target audience.

Content
Presentation contains accurate information. 10
(45 points)
Material included is relevant to the overall message/purpose. 10

Appropriate amount of material is prepared, and points made 10

reflect well their relative importance.

There is an obvious conclusion summarizing the presentation. 5

Speaker maintains good eye contact with the audience and is 5

appropriately animated (e.g., gestures, moving around, etc.).

Speaker uses a clear, audible voice. 5

Presentation Delivery is poised, controlled, and smooth. 5

(40 points) Good language skills and pronunciation are used. 5

Visual aids are well prepared, informative, effective, and not 5

distracting.

Length of presentation is within the assigned time limits. 5

Information was well communicated. 10

Score Total Points 100

Rater: ANDRES III B. SEQUITO Note: You will provide this copy during your presentation.