NATURE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The word science comes from the Latin word “scientia”, which means knowledge. Science then is a body of
knowledge that uses observations, research and experimentation to describe and explain the natural phenomena.

 The goal of science is to understand the world around us and use that understanding to our benefit. Science
presumes that the world is understandable but it cannot provide all the answers to all our questions.
 Products of science are:
 Scientific facts – general truth about nature
 Scientific concepts – combined facts or observations of regularity in events or objects
 Scientific theories – proven hypotheses that explain observed regularities
 Scientific laws – always proven to be true and universal

Technology is the application of scientific theories, laws, concepts and principles. It is the means by which humans
control and modify their environment. It is the use of scientific knowledge for practical purposes.

 All technologies involve control thus all technologies can fail.

 Technology can be both helpful and harmful. In addition to its intended benefits, every technological design is
likely to have some unintended side effects in its applications and production.
 The purpose of technology is to make life simpler and easier. Wise application of technology can lead to a better
world.
 Advances of technology are measured in terms of human factor.

Scientific Method and Attitudes

There is no one scientific method but there are common features

on how scientists carry out their work to solve a particular problem or
simply to do research. These features are illustrated on the right.

The success of science rests more on the attitudes common on

scientists than on some particular methods. These attitudes include
honesty, objectivity, resourcefulness, creativity, curiosity, persistence,
open mindedness, humility and willingness to admit error, critical mindedness and social responsibility.

Designing an Experiment

Experimental designs generally follow the features of the scientific method.

Types of variables in an experiment

 Independent Variable or input variable – the thing that you decide to change or manipulate in order to find out
its effect to another variable called dependent variable.
 Dependent Variable or outcome variable - the variable that changes as a result. It is the variable that you
measure or observe in the experiment.
 Control Variables – these are the variables that must stay constant or that

Observations and data in experiments are usually written down and presented in tables, graphs or charts. In a table,
the independent quantity is usually written in the first column and the dependent variable/s in the succeeding columns.

Different types of graphs are appropriate for different experiments depending on the data. The most common types
of graphs used in presenting experimental data are

 Bar graph – appropriate for comparing different trials or different experimental groups and for presenting
independent variables that are not numerical in nature.
 Pie graph – used to represent a part to whole relationship.
 Line graph – used to show the relationship of two variables: the dependent and the independent variables must
be numerical. The dependent variable must be plotted in the Y axis and the independent variable in the X axis

Types of relationships between variables

 Direct relationship – the variables change together. When the independent variable increases the dependent
variable also increases and vice versa. The line graph is a straight line.
 Inverse relationship – When the independent variable increases the dependent variable decreases and vice
versa. The line graph is a hyperbola.
Measurement

The measurement of any quantity is made relative to a particular standard or unit that must be specified along
with the numerical value of the quantity.

Physical quantities can be divided into two types – fundamental quantities and derived quantities.

Fundamental Quantity Description Name of SI Unit Symbol

Mass Amount of substance in a body kilogram kg
Length Distance between two points meter m
Time Duration of two events second s
Electric Current Flow of charges or electrons ampere A
Temperature Degree of hotness or coldness of a body kelvin K
Luminous intensity Measure of light intensity candela cd
Amount of Substance Amount of particles in a body mole mol

CONCEPTS IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Physics is the study of the interaction of matter and energy

Energy, though an abstract idea, is generally defined as the capacity of an object to do work. Work is done when an
object applies a force on another object and this force displaces the other object. Energy is always transformed from
one form to another.

Sources of energy

 Renewable sources – energy source that is not permanently depleted when used. Includes biomass,
geothermal, hydropower, solar and wind energy
 Non-renewable sources – energy source that is permanently depleted when used. Includes coal,
petroleum, natural gas, propane and nuclear energy.

Forms of energy

 Kinetic energy – energy related to the motion of particles

 Thermal energy – movement of molecules
 Electrical energy – movement of charges
 Mechanical energy – movement of systems of objects
 Radiant energy – accelerated charged particles producing electromagnetic waves. All objects at any
temperature emit radiant energy.

Evidences of Energy

 Motion – a change in the position of an object relative to a reference point

 Heat – energy that is transferred due to a difference in temperature between two systems
 Sound – vibrations that can travel through the air or through another medium and can be heard when
they reach a person’s or an animal’s ears
 Light - an electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength falls within the range to which the human retina
responds

Law of conservation of energy – energy cannot be created nor destroyed but can only be transformed from one form to
another. The total energy of a system is constant.

 The ratio of the input and output energy in a system is the efficiency of the system in converting the input
energy into useful work.
 In an ideal situation (absence of frictional force): input energy is always equal to output energy. Efficiency is
100%.
 In a real life situation (presence of frictional force): input energy is always greater than output energy. Some of
the energy is transformed to other forms such as thermal energy. Efficiency is always less than 100%

Work – Energy Theorem: “The work done on an object is equal to the energy gained by the object. The unit of work is
joules (J) or calories (cal).

Power is the rate of doing work or the rate at which an object or machine expends energy. The unit of power is watts
(W) or horsepower (hp).
DESCRIPTION OF MOTION

 Displacement – the change in the position of an object relative to a reference point

 Speed – a measure of how fast something is moving
 Instantaneous speed – speed in an instant i.e. speed indicated in a speedometer
 Average speed – the ratio of the total distance covered by an object and the total time of travel
 Velocity – speed in a given direction
 Acceleration – measure of how fast the velocity changes with respect to time

Force is described as a push or a pull. It is present only when objects interact.

Classification of forces

 Contact forces – includes friction, tension, applied force and normal force.
 Non-contact forces – includes gravitational force, electrostatic force, magnetic force and strong and
weak nuclear forces.

Effects of force

 Acceleration
 Rotation
 Deformation

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Law of inertia (1st Law) – an object that is at rest will remain at rest and an object that is in motion will continue moving
in a straight line at a constant speed unless acted upon by an outside force.

 Explains the use of seatbelts, why overloading in buses are prohibited and various behaviors of materials when
there are changes in its motion.
 Inertia is the property of a material to resist changes in its state of rest or state of motion. Greater mass means
greater inertia. Smaller mass, smaller inertia

Law of Acceleration (2nd Law) – the acceleration of an object is in the same direction and is directly proportional to the
net force applied. The acceleration is also inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

Law of Interaction (3rd Law) – in every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.

 Tells that forces come in pairs – action force and reaction force
 Action and reaction force are equal in magnitude, are directed in opposite directions and are acting on different
bodies
 Explains what happens when we walk, how rockets, airplanes and the like are propelled, and a lot more

PRINCIPLE OF FLOATATION/BUOYANCY

 An object immersed in water will displace a volume of water that

is equal to the volume of the immersed object.
 Buoyant force is equal to the weight of the displaced object
 If buoyant force is greater than the weight of the object, the object
floats. If the buoyant force is lesser than the weight of the object,
the object sinks. If the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the
object, the object neither sinks nor floats
 If the density of the object is lesser than the density of the water, the object floats in water. If the density of the
object is greater than the density of the water, the object sinks in water. If the density of the object and the
density of water are equal, the object neither sinks nor floats.

Heat is energy in transit. It is transferred from a system with a high temperature to a system with a low temperature.

Effects of heat loss or heat gained

 Change in temperature – when heat is absorbed, temperature of system increases, when heat is
released, temperature of system decreases
 Expansion when heat is absorbed by system and contraction when heat is released by system
 Change in phase – an object needs to reach a certain temperature in order to change its phase. When
this temperature is reached, the energy absorbed is used to break the bond between molecules or the
energy is released so bonds between molecules can form again. During phase change, the temperature
of the substance does NOT change.
 Ways of transferring heat

 Conduction – transfer of heat molecule by molecule. Usually happens in solids.

 Different materials conduct heat at different rates. Conductors, such as metals, transmit heat
very easily. Insulators, such as plastics, do not readily transmit heat.
 Convection – transfer of heat through convection currents. Usually happens in fluids. Local and global
wind patterns are greatly affected by convection currents of heated masses of air.
 Natural convection – Movement is due to the difference in densities. Hot air is less dense than
cold air thus hot air rises and cold air sinks.
 Forced convection – movement of heated substance is due to the use of a fan or a pump.
 Radiation – transfer of heat through space via electromagnetic waves.

Sound waves are mechanical in nature. They are produced from vibrating sources placed in a material media thus they
need a material medium to propagate.

 The diagram below shows how sound waves are propagated in air by a vibrating diaphragm of a loud speaker

 The vibrating source of a sound sets the particles of a medium in vibration such that sound travels outward in
the form of longitudinal waves. The vibration of the particles is parallel to the direction of the sound wave.
 Sound cannot travel in vacuum because there are no molecules to pass on the vibration.
 Sound can be transmitted through solids, liquids and gases. Sound travels fastest in solids and travels slowest in
gases. The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
 The speed of sound waves is also affected by temperature and humidity. Generally, the speed of sound
increases with increasing temperature in air. Sound travels slightly faster when humidity rises.
 Sound waves are audible to the human ears within the frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Sound waves of
frequency lower than 20 Hz are called infrasound and sound waves of frequency higher than 20 000 Hz are
called ultrasound.

Light waves are electromagnetic in nature. Light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be detected
by the human eye. The electromagnetic spectrum is shown below

 Light of different frequencies is seen as different colors. If all the colors of the visible spectrum are mixed
together it produces white light.
 Humans see things because white light is reflected from the object and the reflected light enters the
human eye.
 When exposed to a white light, a green object looks green. This is because the green object absorbed
other colors but reflects green light into the observer’s eye.
 When exposed to a white light, a white object looks white because it reflects all light colors falling on it.
 When exposed to a white light, a black object looks black because it absorbs all light colors falling on it
and none is reflected to the observer’s eye.
 Light exhibits the properties of waves such as reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.
 Images are formed in mirrors by the reflection of light.
 Materials that allow light to pass through them are called transparent material. Materials that do not allow light
to pass through them are called opaque.
 Light bends (refraction) as it travels from one medium to another such as water and air. This is the reason why a
swimming pool full of water seems to look shallow. Refraction also causes the dispersion of light into different
colors when it pass through a prism.

Moving charges constitute an electric current and electric current carries electrical energy as it flows through a circuit. In
a closed circuit, the electric current is the flow of electrons along the wires.

Types of circuits

 Series circuit – there is only one path for current to flow. One switch will turn the whole circuit on and
off.
 Parallel circuit – there are several paths for current to flow. Switches can be used to turn the whole or
just part of the circuit on and off.
 Charges like electrons need energy to flow around a circuit. They receive this energy from a source of
electromotive force (emf) such as a battery or a power supply. The amount of energy given to the charges is
determined by the emf of the source (measured in volts). An emf source is any device that converts other forms
of energy into electrical energy.
  Energy carried by charges is consumed in components in a circuit such as resistors and lamps. For example,
when current flows through a lamp in a circuit, electrical energy is converted to other forms of energy, the
evidence of which is light and heat.
 The ability of a substance to resist the flow of charges through it is called electrical resistance. Resistance is
measured in ohms. Electrical devices having this characteristic are called resistors.
 Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage applied
across it, provided that physical conditions such as temperature, length and cross sectional area of the
conductor etc, remains constant.
 Current flowing through a resistor with very large resistance converts electrical energy to thermal energy. This is
the heating effect is used in all household appliances that generate heat such as electric kettles, eclectic iron,
cookers, hair dryers and the like.
 Electric motors are based on the magnetic effect of a current. The magnetic field of a current is used to interact
with other magnetic fields or magnetic materials in order to produce mechanical movements.

Chemistry is the study of the composition, properties and changes that matter undergoes. Matter is anything that
occupies space and has mass.

Properties of matter

 Physical properties – can be perceived by physical senses. Physical properties are either extensive
(depends on the mass of the substance) or intensive (does not depend on the mass of the substance)
 Chemical properties – properties that are only observable when the substance reacts with another
substance thereby causing a change in the chemical composition of the substance

Changes that matter undergoes

 Physical change – changes in the physical properties of matter and takes place without changing the
chemical composition.
 Chemical change – changes in the chemical properties of matter; chemical composition is altered
producing a new substance
 Nuclear changes – changes in the nuclear properties of matter

Classification matter

 Homogenous matter – matter which is observed to exhibit one phase

 Pure substance – a single, pure type matter which is either a compound or an element; is
homogenous
 Elements – a substance that cannot be separated into simpler components
 Metals – conductors, malleable, ductile, lustrous
 Non-metals – insulators, non-malleable, brittle, non-lustrous
 Metalloids – can exhibit the properties of a metal or a non-metal
 Compounds – a combination of elements that can be separated by chemical means. Elements
combine to form compounds to attain stability.
 Acids – has pH of less than 7
 Base – has a pH of more than 7
 Salt – product of a reaction of an acid and a base
 Solution – a homogenous mixture
 Heterogeneous matter – matter which is usually observed with different phases
 Colloid – a mixture that exhibits Tyndall effect
 Suspension – a mixture in which the particles are big enough to be seen by the naked eye and are
suspended through the mixture

Methods of separating mixtures – filtration, sedimentation, decantation, centrifugation, use of magnets, use of
separatory funnel, evaporation

MATTER is composed of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms consist of a tiny, dense, positively charged nucleus that is
made up of protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutrally charged). Electrons (negatively charged) surround the
nucleus of the atom.

 Each element consists of atoms that possess a characteristic number of protons. The atomic number of an
element tells the number of protons in the element. The sum of the number of protons and the number of
neutrons is equal to the atomic mass of the element.
 An isotope of an elements has the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
 A neutral atom has equal number of protons and electrons.
 An atom that has a net electric charged is called an ion. Cations are positively charged atoms (number of
electrons is less than number of protons). Anions are negatively charged atoms (number of electrons is greater
than number of protons).
Earth Science is the study of the physical structure of the earth and its atmosphere.

The earth is the 3rd planet from the Sun in the solar system. Its shape is oblate-spheroid. About 3⁄4 of its surface
is covered with water.

The earth rotates on its axis in a day (24 hours) and revolves around the Sun in a year (365.25 days). The point
where the Earth is nearest the Sun during its revolution is called perihelion and the point where the Earth is farthest
from the Sun is called aphelion.

Revolving around the Earth is the moon called as Luna. The moon revolves around the Earth for 27 and 1/3 days.
The location of the moon and the Earth relative to the Sun during its revolution gives rise to the different phases of the
moon and eclipses.

 Full Moon – the Earth is in between the Sun and the Moon
 New Moon – the Moon is in between the Sun and the Earth
 Solar eclipse – the Moon casts a shadow on Earth; occurs during New Moon
 Lunar eclipse – the Moon moves into the shadow of the earth; occurs during Full Moon

The earth is made up of four different spheres; the atmosphere (the air surrounding the Earth); the
hydrosphere (the water on Earth); the lithosphere (the rocky surface of the Earth and the biosphere (the area on Earth
where life exist)

The earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 23.50. Seasons occur because of this tilting. Each part of the Earth’s
surface receives varying amounts of the Sun’s energy throughout the year. When the North Pole is tilted towards the
Sun, the northern hemisphere receives more of the Sun’s energy and temperatures there are higher. When the North
Pole is tilted away from the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives more of the Sun’s energy and has higher
temperature.

 Solstice – either one of the two times of the year, summer solstice and winter solstice, when the earth’s
axis is tilted at its greatest angle toward or away from the sun. Days are shorter and nights are longer or
days are longer and nights are shorter during a solstice. The summer solstice (around June 21) signifies
the beginning of summer and the winter solstice (around December 21) signifies the start of winter.
 Equinox – times of the year when both northern and southern hemispheres receive an equal amount of
sunlight. Day and night are of equal lengths. Spring equinox (around March 21) signifies the start of
spring and fall equinox (around September 21) signifies the start of fall.

Gases in the Earth’s atmosphere – Nitrogen (78%); Oxygen (21%); Argon (0.9%); Carbon dioxide and other gases (0.1%)
 Layers of the atmosphere

 Troposphere: where all weather occurs. It is the layer where the temperature decreases with increasing
altitude.
 Stratosphere: layer above the troposphere, which contains the ozone layer. The ozone layer filters the
UV rays of the Sun and prevents most of it from reaching the Earth’s surface.
 Mesosphere: layer where the temperature decreases with height. Merges with ionosphere.
 Thermosphere: layer where the temperature increases with height. Auroras form in this layer. Auroras
are natural electrical phenomena that are characterized by the appearance of streams of reddish or
greenish lights in the sky, usually near the poles. This is caused by the interaction of charged particles
from the Sun with the magnetic field of the earth and the particles in the thermosphere.
 Exosphere: a region of rarefied helium and hydrogen gases; outermost layer

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere at any given time and place. Climate is the average condition of the
atmosphere based on weather observations over a long period of time.

Elements of weather include temperature, pressure, humidity, velocity and direction of wind, cloudiness and
precipitation.

Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor in air. Relative humidity is a ratio of the air’s actual water-vapor
content compared with the amount of water vapor air can hold at a given temperature and pressure. A relative humidity
of 100% means that the air is saturated, that is, air contains the maximum amount of water vapor that it can hold at a
given temperature and pressure.

Factors that affect climate

 Latitude – as latitude increase, the intensity of solar energy decreases. Temperature decreases as
latitude increase
 Elevation or Altitude – the higher the elevation is, the colder the climate
 Topography – topographic features such as mountains and valleys play an important role in the amount
of precipitation that falls in an area
 Bodies of water – large bodies of water affect the temperature of an area. The temperature of water
affects the temperature of the air above it.
 Atmospheric circulation – global wind patterns influences climate since they distribute heat and
moisture around the Earth.

Natural processes that affect climate

 Ocean circulation – also known as the thermohaline circulation. Changes in the circulation affects the
temperature of the air above the ocean causing short term fluctuations in climate like El Nino or La Nina.
 Volcanic eruptions – the presence of volcanic ash, dust and other sulfur based aerosols increases the
amount of solar radiation that is reflected back to space causing the lower atmosphere to cool.
 Solar activity
 Earth’s motion

Human impact on climate changes

 Greenhouse effect – warming of Earth’s lower atmosphere and surface due to solar radiation being
absorbed and emitted by the atmosphere
Primary pollutants in the atmosphere
 Global warming – an increase in global temperatures due to increased levels of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

Classification of Tropical Cyclones

 Tropical Depression - up to 62 km/h

 Tropical Storm - 63 to 87 km/h
 Severe Tropical Storm - 88 to 117 km/h
 Typhoon - 118 to 149 km/h
 Severe Typhoon - 150 to 184 km/h
 Super Typhoon - 185 km/h or above

The solid portion of the earth is divided into several layers

 Lithosphere – composed of the crust and the uppermost mantle. Cool, rigid, solid layer.
 Asthenosphere – below the lithosphere. Composed of the upper mantle. It is a soft and weak layer that is easily
deformed
 Lower mantle – more rigid layer than the asthenosphere but the rocks in this layer are very hot and is capable of
gradual flow
  Outer Core – liquid layer composed of molten rocks. The convective flow of the metallic ions in this layer
generates the Earth’s magnetic field
 Inner core – solid sphere made mostly of nickel and iron.

Types of rocks

Sedimentary rocks

Metamorphic rocks

Igneous rocks

Mechanical weathering occurs when physical forces break a rock into smaller pieces without changing the chemical
composition of the rock. Causes of mechanical weathering are

 Frost wedging – the break up of a rock due to the expansion of freezing water in the cracks and crevices of the
rock
 Biological activity – activity of organisms such as plants, burrowing animals and humans
 Unloading – expansion of igneous rocks due to reduced pressures causing slabs of outer rocks to break off

Chemical weathering – the transformation of a rock into one or more new compounds

Soil is part of the layer of rock and mineral fragments that covers the Earth’s land surface that supports the growth of
plants. Soil is composed of weathered rocks, decayed remains of organisms (humus), water and air.

The plate tectonic theory states that the Earth’s outer layer (lithosphere) is made up of plates, which moves as a unit
over the material of the asthenosphere. The different types of plate boundaries are

 Divergent boundaries – also called spreading centers are where two plates move away from each other.
Oceanic ridges, rift valleys, continental rifts and seafloor spreading are formed in this boundaries
 Convergent boundaries – where two plates converge or move toward each other. Continental volcanic arcs,
volcanoes on the ocean floor and mountain ranges are results of this boundaries
 Transform fault boundaries – where two plates grind past each other without the production or destruction of
the lithosphere. Transform faults aids in the movement of oceanic crustal materials

An earthquake is the shaking and trembling that results from the release of energy along faults. Faults are fractures in
Earth where movements occur.

 Focus is the point within Earth where the earthquake starts

 Epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface that is directly above the focus.
 An aftershock is a small earthquake that follows after the main earthquake
 Seismographs are instruments that records earthquake waves.
 Damage caused by earthquake waves to buildings and other structures depends on several factors. These
factors include the intensity and duration of the vibration, the nature of material in which the structure is built
and the design of the structure.
 Tsunami is the Japanese word for “seismic sea waves”. Tsunami is triggered by an earthquake caused by a slab
of the ocean floor that is displaced vertically along a fault. It can also happen when the earthquake sets an
underwater landline into motion.