Database Concepts Nonprocedural: which requires a user to specify what data is needed without

specifying how to get it, for example, Fourth Generation Language

Self Check Exercise
1) What is DML? How many types of DML are there?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................

4.5 ELEMENTS OF A DATABASE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
RDBMS comprises different components which are basically the software
inbuilt into the system. Fig.4.4 shows these components and the connection
between them. The major components of a DBMS and their functioning are
explained below:

Fig. 4.4: DBMS Structure

(Source : IGNOU, MCA, CS-06, Block -1, Unit-1 )

DML Precompiler
A DML precomplier or processor deals with the data manipulation language
(DML). This allows DBMS to retrieve, update or modify existing data in the
68 database or to add new data to the database.
DDL Compiler Database Management
Systems
The DDL compiler converts the data definition statements into a set of tables.
These tables contain information concerning the database and are in a form
that can be used by other components of the DBMS. Thus, it helps to deal with
various data definition languages.
File Manager
File manager is that component of the underlying operating system that manages
stored files. File manager manages the allocation of space on disk storage and
the data structure used to represent information stored on disk.
Database Manager
Databases typically require a large amount of storage space. Corporate databases
are usually measured in terms of gigabytes of data. Since the main memory of
computers cannot store this information, it is stored on disks. Data is moved
between disk storage and main memory as needed. Since the movement of
data to and from disk is slow relative to the speed of control processing unit of
computers, it is imperative that database system structure data so as to minimise
the need to move data between disk and main memory. A database manager is
a program module which provides the interface between the low level data
stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to
the system. It is responsible for interfacing with file system.
One of the functions of database manager is to convert user’s queries coming
directly via the query processor or indirectly via an application program from
the user’s logical view to the physical file system. In addition, the tasks of
enforcing constraints to maintain the consistency and integrity of the data as
well as its security are also performed by database manager. Synchronising
the simultaneous operations performed by concurrent users is under the control
of the database manager. It also performs backup and recovery operations.
Some of the important responsibilities of Database Manager are:
Interaction with file manager: The raw data is stored on the disk using the
file system which is usually provided by a conventional operating system. The
database manager translates the various DML statements into low-level file
system commands. Thus the database manager is responsible for the actual
storing, retrieving and updating of data in the database.
Integrity enforcement: The data values stored in the database must satisfy
certain types of consistency constraints. For example, the balance of a bank
account may never fall below a prescribed amount (for example Rs. 500).
Similarly the number of holidays per year an employee may be having should
not exceed 25 days. These constraints must be specified explicitly by the DBA.
If such constraints are specified, then the database manager can check whether
updates to the database result in the violation of any of these constraints and if
so appropriate action may be imposed.
Security enforcement: As discussed above, not every user of the database
needs to have access to the entire content of the database. It is the job of the
database manager to enforce these security requirements.
Backup and recovery: A computer system like any other mechanical or
electrical device, is subject to failure. There are a variety of causes of such 69
Database Concepts failure, including disk crash, power failure and software errors. In each of
these cases, information concerning the database is lost. It is the responsibility
of database manager to detect such failures and restore the database to a state
that existed prior to the occurrence of the failure. This is usually accomplished
through the backup and recovery procedures.
Concurrency control: When several users update the database concurrently,
the consistency of data may no longer be preserved. It is necessary for the
system to control the interaction among the concurrent users, and achieving
such a control is one of the responsibilities of database manager.
Query Processor
The database user retrieves data by formulating a query in the data manipulation
language provided with the database. The query processor is used to interpret
the online user’s query and convert it into an efficient series of operations in a
form capable of being sent to the data manager for execution. The query
processor uses the data dictionary to find the structure of the relevant portion
of the database and uses this information in modifying the query and preparing
an optimal plan to access the database.
Data Dictionary
It is seen that when a program become somewhat large in size, keeping a track
of all the available names that are used and the purpose for which they were
used becomes more and more difficult. Of course, it is possible for a
programmer who has coined the available names to bear them in mind, but
should the same author come back to his/her program after a significant time
or should another programmer have to modify the program, it would be found
that it is extremely difficult to make a reliable account of what purpose the
data files were used for.
The problem becomes even more difficult when the number of data types that
an organisation has in its database increases. It is also now perceived that the
data of an organisation is a valuable corporate resource and therefore some
kind of an inventory and catalogue of it must be maintained so as to assist in
for both the utilisation and management of the resource.
It is for this purpose that a data dictionary or dictionary/directory is emerging
as a major tool. An inventory provides definitions of things. A directory tells
you where to find them. A data dictionary/directory contains information (or
data) about the data.
A comprehensive data dictionary would provide the definition of data item,
how they fit into the data structure and how they relate to other entities in the
database. With the comprehensive base of information the data dictionary can
serve several useful purposes connecting across the whole spectrum of planning,
determining information requirement, designing and implementation operation
and revision. There is now a greater emphasis on having an integrated system
in which the data dictionary is part of the DBMS. In such a case the data
dictionary would store the information concerning the external, conceptual
and internal levels of the databases. It would combine the source of each data
field value that is from where the authenticate value is obtained, the frequency
70
of its use and audit trail regarding the updates including user identification Database Management
Systems
with the time of each update.
The greater acceptance and proliferation of relational databases have encouraged
the evolution of data dictionary to “information resource dictionary system”
(IRDS) for such facilities, as is the suggestion from ANSI (American National
Standards Institute).
The DBA uses the data dictionary in every phase of a database life cycle,
starting from the embryonic data gathering phase to the design, implementation
and maintenance phases. Documentation provided by a data dictionary is as
valuable to the end users and managers as it is essential for the programmers.
Users can plan their applications with the database only if they know exactly
what is stored in it. You could consider a data dictionary to be a road map
which guides users to access information within a large database.
An ideal data dictionary should include everything a DBA wants to know
about the database.
a) external, conceptual and internal database descriptions
b) descriptions of entities (record types), attributes (fields), as well as cross-
references, origin and meaning of data elements
c) synonyms, authorisation and security codes
d) which external schemas are used by which programs, who the users are,
and what their authorisations are.
The data dictionary is one of the most important tools for the database
administrator. It is used to maintain information relating to the various resources
used in information systems (hence sometimes called an information resource
dictionary)—data, input transactions, output reports, programs, application
systems, and users. It can:
a) assist the process of system analysis and design.
b) provide a more complete definition of the data stored in the database (than
is maintained by the DBMS).
c) enable an organisation to assess the impact of a suggested change within
the information system or the database.
d) help in establishing and maintaining standards for example, of data names.
e) facilitate human communication through more complete and accurate
documentation.
Several data dictionary software packages are commercially available.
The DBA should also have tools to monitor the performance of the database
system to indicate the need for reorganisation or revision of the database.

Whether or not the cost of acquiring a data dictionary system is justifiable

depends on the size and complexity of the information system. The cost
effectiveness of a data dictionary increases as the complexity of an information
system increases. A data dictionary can be a great asset not only to the DBA 71
Database Concepts for database design, implementation and maintenance, but also to managers or
end users in their project planning.

4.6 DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR

The Database Administrator (DBA) is the person who provides the necessary
technical support for implementing the strategic and policy decisions regarding
the data of an enterprise. The DBA is also responsible for ensuring that the
system operates adequately. He/she is also responsible for providing a variety
of other technical services. The DBA administers the three levels of the database
and, in consultation with the overall user community, sets up the definition of
the global view or conceptual level of the database. The DBA further specifies
the external view of the various users and applications and is responsible for
the definition and implementation of the internal level, including the storage
structure and access methods to be used for the optimum performance of the
DBMS. Changes to any of the three levels necessitated by changes or growth
in the organisation and/or emerging technology are under the control of the
DBA.

Mappings between the internal and the conceptual levels, as well as between
the conceptual and external levels, are also defined by the DBA. Ensuring that
appropriate measures are in place to maintain the integrity of the database and
that the database is not accessible to unauthorised users is another responsibility.
The DBA is responsible for granting permission to the users of the database
and stores the profile of each user in the database. The DBA is also responsible
for defining procedures to recover the database from failures due to human,
natural, or hardware causes with minimal loss of data. Thus, the DBA is
responsible for the overall control of the system.

Let us summarise the functions of DBA:

a) Schema Definition: Once the content of the database has been decided,
the DBA then creates the corresponding conceptual schema. He/she also
decides how the data is to be represented in the stored database. Thus, he/
she is concerned with the creation of the original database schema and the
process of database design.

b) Storage Structure and Access Method Definition: The creation of

appropriate storage structure and access method are decided. This is
accomplished by writing a set of definitions which are translated by the
data storage and definition language compiler.
c) Liaisoning with Users: The DBA also interacts with the users to ensure
that the data they need is available to them. He/she also writes (or helps
the users write) the necessary external schemas. He/She helps in problem
determination and resolve and similar professional services.
d) Granting of Authorisation for Data Access: DBA grants different types
of authorisation for data access to the various users of the database.
e) Integrity Constraint Specification: DBA is also involved in defining
the security and integrity constraints. These constraints are kept in a special
72
system structure that is consulted by the database manager.
f) Damage Control: In the event of damage to any portion of the database Database Management
Systems
– caused by human error or a failure in the hardware or operating system
– it becomes essential to repair the concerned data with minimum delay
and with as little effect as possible on the rest of the system. The DBA is
responsible for defining and implementing an appropriate damage control
scheme. This could also include taking periodic backups.
g) Monitoring Performance and Making Modifications: The DBA is
responsible for organising the system in such a way so as to get the
performance that is “best for the enterprise” and for making appropriate
adjustments as and when required.
Acquiring a DBMS is not sufficient for successful data management. The
database administrator provides the human focus of responsibility to make it
all happen. The DBA role may be filled by one person or several persons.
Whenever people share the use of a common resource such as data, the
possibility for conflict exists. The database administrator role is fundamentally
a people-oriented function to mediate the conflicts and seek compromise for
the global interest for the organisation.
Within an organisation, database administration generally begins as a support
function within the systems development unit. Sometimes it is in a technical
support unit associated with operations. Eventually, it should be separated
from both development and operations, reporting directly to the director of
information systems. Such a position has some stature, some independence,
and can work directly with users to capture their data requirements. Database
administration works with development, operations, and users to coordinate
the response to data needs. The database administrator is the key link in
establishing and maintaining database management and user confidence in the
database and in the system facilities making available and controlling its
integrity.
While the ‘doing’ of database system design and development can be
decentralised to several development projects in the Data Processing
Department or the user organisations, planning and control of database
development should be centralised. In this way an organisation can provide
more consistent and coherent information to successively higher levels of
management.
Self Check Exercise
2) Give a brief description of the role of a database administrator and list the
various functions of a database administrator?
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
73
Database Concepts
4.7 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM:
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
One of the main advantages of using a database management system is that
the organisation can exert, via the DBA, centralised management and control
over the data. The database administrator is the focus of the centralised control.
Any application requiring a change in the structure of a data record requires an
arrangement with the DBA, who makes the necessary modifications. Such
modifications may not affect other applications or users of the records in
question. Therefore, these changes meet another requirement of the DBMS –
data independence.
Advantages
The following are the important advantages of DBMS :
Reduction of Redundancies
Centralised control of data by the DBA avoids unnecessary duplication of
data and effectively reduces the total amount of data storage required. It also
eliminates the extra processing necessary to trace the required data in a large
mass of data. Another advantage of avoiding duplication is the elimination of
the inconsistencies that tend to be present in redundant data files. Any
redundancies that exist in the DBMS are controlled and the system ensures
that the copies are consistent.
Sharing Data
A database allows the sharing of data under its control by any number of
application programs or users.
Data Integrity
Centralised control can also ensure that adequate checks are incorporated in
the DBMS to provide data integrity. Data integrity means that the data contained
in the database is both accurate and consistent. Therefore, data values being
entered for storage could be checked to ensure that they fall within a specified
range and are of the correct format. For example, the value for the age of an
employee may be in the range of 16 and 75. Another integrity check that should
be incorporated in the database is to ensure that if there is a reference to certain
object. That object, of course, must exist. In the case of an automatic teller
machine, for example, a user is not allowed to transfer funds from a nonexistent
saving account to a checking account.
Data Security
Data is of vital importance to an organisation and may be confidential. Such
confidential data must not be accessed by unauthorised persons. The DBA
who has the ultimate responsibility for the data in the DBMS can ensure that
proper access procedures are followed, including proper authentication schemas
for access to the DBMS and additional checks before permitting access to
sensitive data. Different levels of security could be implemented for various
types of data and operations. The enforcement of security could be data value
74
dependent (e.g., a manager has access to the salary details of employees in his
or her department only), as well as data-type dependent (but the manager cannot Database Management
Systems
access the medical history of any employees, including those in his or her
department).
Conflict Resolution
Since the database is under the control of the DBA, she or he should resolve
the conflicting requirements of various users and applications. In essence, the
DBA chooses the best file structure and access method to get optimal
performance for the response-critical applications, while permitting less critical
applications to continue to use the database, albeit with a relatively slower
response.
Data Independence
Data independence, is usually considered from two points of view: physical
data independence and logical data independence. Physical data independence
allows changes in the physical storage devices or organisation of the files to
be made without requiring changes in the conceptual view or any of the external
views and hence in the application programs using the database. Thus, the
files may migrate from one type of physical media to another or the file structure
may change without any need for changes in the application programs.
Logical data independence implies that application programs need not be
changed if fields are added to an existing record; nor do they have to be changed
if fields not used by application programs are deleted. Logical data
independence indicates that the conceptual schema can be changed without
affecting the existing external schemas. Data independence is advantageous
in the database environment since it allows for changes at one level of the
database without affecting other levels. These changes are absorbed by the
mappings between the levels. Logical data independence is more difficult to
achieve than physical independence, since application programs are heavily
dependent on the logical structure of the data they access.
Disadvantages
A significant disadvantage of the DBMS system is cost. In addition to the cost
of purchasing or developing the software, the hardware has to be upgraded to
allow for the extensive programs and the work spaces required for their
execution and storage. The processing overhead introduced by the DBMS to
implement security, integrity, and sharing of the data causes a degradation of
the response and through-put times. An additional cost involved is that of
migration from a traditionally separate application environment to an integrated
one.
While centralisation reduces duplication, the lack of duplication requires that
the database be adequately backed up so that in case of failure the data can be
recovered. Backup and recovery operations are fairly complex in a DBMS
environment, and this is exacerbated in a concurrent multi-user database system.
Furthermore, a database system requires a certain amount of controlled
redundancies and duplication to enable access to related data items.
Centralisation also means that the data is accessible from a single source namely
the database. This increases the potential severity of security breaches and 75
Database Concepts disruption of the operation of the organisation because of downtimes and
failures. The replacement of a monolithic centralised database by a federation
(combination) of independent and cooperating distributed databases resolves
some of the problems resulting from failures and downtimes.
Self Check Exercise
3) List the advantages of a database management system.
Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................

4.8 EVALUATION OF DBMS

The evaluation, is not simply a matter of comparison or description of one
system against another independent system, and surveying sometimes available
through publications which describe and compare the features of available
systems. Value of an organisation depends upon its own problem environment.
An organisation must, therefore, look at their own needs for evaluation of the
available systems.
It is worthwhile putting some attention to who should do this. In a small
organisation it is possible that a single individual would be able to do the job,
but larger organisations need to formally establish an evaluation team. Even
this team’s composition would somewhat change as the evaluation process
moves on. A good role in the initial stage would be played by user’s and
management’s focus on the organisational needs. Computers and Information
Technology professionals then evaluate the technical gaps of several candidate
system and finally financial and accounting personnel examine the cost
estimates, payment alternatives, tax consequences, personnel requirements and
contract negotiations.
The reasons which inspire the organisation to acquire a DBMS should be clearly
documented and used to determine the properties and help in making trade
offs between conflicting objectives and in the selection of various features
that the candidate DBMS may have, depending upon the end-user requirements.
The evaluation team should also be aware of technical issues like database
administration, data storage features, programming interface etc. It should also
consider administrative issues like initial cost, documentation, recurring cost
etc.
The greater objectivity and precision obtained must be weighted against the
overall benefits of DBMS acquisition and use. This is important for determining
cost effectiveness.
76
With a cost-effectiveness evaluated for several candidate systems, the Database Management
Systems
organisation would tentatively select the system with the highest cost-
effectiveness ratio.
Of course there may be intangible factors other than the technical and
administrative criteria referred to earlier which may influence the final selection
based upon political judgments of the management or some other
considerations.

4.9 SUMMARY
A database system is an integrated collection of related files along with the
details about their definition, interpretation, manipulation and maintenance. A
DBMS is a major software component of database system. It consists of
collection of interrelated data and programs to access that data. The primary
goal of a DBMS is to provide an environment which is both convenient and
efficient to use in retrieving information from a database and storing information
into the database.
The DBMS not only makes the integrated collection of reliable and accurate
data available to multiple applications and users but also controls unauthorised
access to data.
A DBMS is a major software system consisting of a number of elements. It
provides users DDL for defining the external and conceptual view of the data
and DML for manipulating the data stored in the database. The database
manager is the component of DBMS that provides the interface between the
user and the file system. The database administration defines and maintains
the three level of the database as well as the mapping between the levels to
insulate higher levels from changes that take place in the lower levels. The
DBA is responsible for implementing measures for ensuring the security,
integrity and recovery of the database.

4.10 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1) DML is a language which enables users to access and manipulate data. It
enables manipulation of data in a database by applications and/or directly
by end-users. Thus it provides efficient human interaction with the system.
There are two types of DML:

procedural: the user specifies what data is needed and how to get it

nonprocedural: the user only specifies what data is needed.
2) Database Administrator is a person (or a group of persons) centrally
located, with an overall view of the database, to keep the database running
smoothly, maintained and managed properly. Various functions of a
database administrator are:

The creation of the original database schema.

The creation of appropriate storage structure and access method.

The modification of the database schema or the description of the
physical storage organisation. 77
Database Concepts
The granting of different types of authorisation for data access to the
various users of the database.

Integrity constraint specification.

3) A DBMS enables:

reduction of data redundancies.

the sharing of data.

maintaining data integrity and data consistency

data security

conflict resolution

data Independence.

4.11 KEYWORDS
Data Administrator (DA) : A person or organisation responsible for
logical database design. Also called
information resource administrator.
Compare with database administrator.

Data Definition Language (DDL): A language used to describe the logical

structure of a database. Also called
Schema definition language. Compare
with Data manipulation language, Data
storage definition language.

Data Manipulation Language : A language used to retrieve, insert,

delete, and
(DML) modify the contents of database.
Compare with Data definition language,
Data storage definition language.

Mapping : Correspondence; rules that govern

transformations between multiple forms
of something.

Operating System : An operating system (OS) is the system

software responsible for the direct
control and management of hardware
and basic system operations, as well as
running application softwares such as
word processing programs and web
browsers etc.

Programming Language : A programming language is a

standardised communication technique
for expressing instructions to a
78 computer.
Schema : That part of the database definition that Database Management
Systems
describes the entire content and
structure of the database.

4.12 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Bayross, IvanN (2003). Database Concepts and Systems. Navi Mumbai:
Shroff.
Desai, Bipin C. (1994). An Introduction to Database Systems. New Delhi:
Galgotia Publication.
Date, C. J. (2000). An Introduction to Database Systems. 7th Ed. Singapore:
Pearson Education.
Haynes, David (2004). Meta data: for information management and retrieval
London: Facet
Everest, Gorden C. (1986). Database Management : Objectives, System
Functions and Administration. New York : McGraw Hill.
Frank, Lars (1988). Database Theory and Practice. London : Addison-Wesley.
Henery, F. Korth and Silberschatz, Abraham (1986). Database System
Concepts. New York : McGraw Hill.
Post, Gerald V. (2002). Database Management Systems: Designing and
Building. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.
Silberschatz, Abraham, Korth, Henry F. and Sudarshan, S. (2002). Database
System Concepts. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Wielderhold, Gio (1983). Database Design. 2nd Ed. Singapore: Macgraw Hill.

79