CATEGORICAL

PREPOSITIONS
Categorical Prepositions
Is a simplest form of proposition. It is
described as any proposition that makes
assertion about the relation between two
classes of terms, either a relation of
inclusion or exclusion, complete of
partial.
Ex. All criminals are lawbreakers
 Basic Parts of Categorical
Prepositions
Subject Term the subject is that about which the
assertion is made whether that something is affirmed
or denied.
Ex. Priest are good homilists
Predicate Term is affirmed or denied of the subject
term. It is that class of term that gives a description
about the subject term.
Ex. Birds are animal that fly
 Basic Parts of Categorical
Prepositions
Copula is what has always been known as
linking verb. It is the part of preposition that
reveals the quality and quantity.
Ex. Some students are individuals who
will become doctors.
 QUALITY AND QUANTITY
Quality is an element that is found in categorical
proposition. It provides the information as to whether
the subject is included or excluded from the
predicate.
Ex. All dogs are animals.
Ex. Some logicians are not mathematicians
 QUALITY AND QUANTITY
Quantity indicates how many/much of the subject
term is included/excluded with/from the class of the
predicate term.
Ex. All tables are not chairs
Ex. Some flowers are roses
Quantifier for universal proposition: are, all, every,
any, whatever, whoever, wherever,
Particular proposition: some, many, several, few,
the article “a”.
 FOUR BASIC TYPES OF
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
Universal Affirmative All S are P

Universal Negative All S are not P

Particular Affirmative Some S are P

Particular Negative Some S are not P

TYPES OF CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITION WITH
SYMBOLS
SYMBOLS TYPE OF PREPOSITION
A Universal Affirmative

E Universal Negative

I Particular Affirmative

O Particular Negative
 STANDARD FORM OF
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
TYPE QUANTIFIER SUBJECT COPULA PREDICAT
E
A All Dogs are animals
E All Angels are not mortals
I Some Logicians Are mathematicia
ns
O Some Politicians Are not lawyers

Note that we only use two standard quantifiers. The quantifiers all is used
for universal and quantifier some is used for particular propositions.
Judgment and Propositions
Judgment is defined as a process whereby
the mind sees the relationship of two
concepts and pronouncement of agreement or
disagreement between them.

Sentence and Propositions

A proposition is a sentence but a sentence
is not always a proposition. This is because a
proposition essentially has a truth-value,
which means is either truth or false while
other kinds of sentences do not have this
character.
Five Types of Grammatical Sentences
1. Interrogative sentence is a type of
sentence used to express questions.
2. Imperative sentence is used to express a
command, order or request
3. Exclamatory sentence is used to express
intense feelings/emotions.
4. Expletive sentence is used to express
wishes or things that will happen in the
future.
5. Declarative sentence is used to express
relationship of the subject and the predicate
as being affirmed or denied.
Kinds of Prepositions based on how their
truth values are determined
1. Analytic Prepositions the truth-value of
these statements is known through the
application of the “Coherence Theory of
Truth” which states that the statement is
true if there is no inconsistency or
disagreement between the subject and
predicate, and false if there is an
inconsistency or disagreement between
the subject and predicate.
Ex. Triangles have four side
Kinds of Prepositions based on how their
truth values are determined
2. Empirical Proposition – the truth value of
these statement is known through the
application of the “Correspondence Theory
of Truth” which states that the statement is
true if the statement corresponds with the
state of affairs it is referring to, otherwise
false if it does not.
Ex. My dog is barking at my neighbor’s
door.
Kinds of Prepositions based on how their truth
values are determined
3. Evaluative Proposition – the truth value of
these statements are known through application
of the “Pragmatic Criterion of Truth” which states
that the truth or falsity of a statement depends on
the belief of the one asserting it as to whether it
benefit him or not in accepting the statement to be
true or false.
Kinds Of Prepositions Based On Their
Structure
Categorical prepositions these are
assertion about the relationship between two
classes of terms, the subject term and
predicate term.
Ex. All bachelor are unmarried man
Compound prepositions this subject are
assertions about the relationship between two
or more statements thereby involving more
than one subject and predicate.
Kinds Of Prepositions Based On Their
Structure
Compound prepositions this subject are
assertions about the relationship between two
or more statements thereby involving more
than one subject and predicate.
Ex. Conditional Statement
If you pass all the exams, then you pass
the course
Bi-conditional Statement
Ex. You will go to Boracay if and only if
you pass all your subjects.
Kinds Of Prepositions Based On Their
Structure
Compound prepositions this subject are
assertions about the relationship between two
or more statements thereby involving more than
one subject and predicate.
Disjunctive statement
Ex. Either you bring your parents next
meeting or you will be dropped from the class.
Conjunctive statement
Ex. My teacher in Accounting is an
excellent teacher and he is a very good lawyer
too
 Classify the following sentences
1. Are you taking the test?
2. What an awful things to say!
3. Thou shall not steal.
4. Carry your load and follow me.
5. The examination is quite easy
6. I wish I have a million bucks.
7. That’s disgusting!
8. Our professor is six-feet high.
9. Will I get the promotion?
10. I will marry you someday.
11. Please come in.
12. I plan to have a three children
13. How can I help you?
14. This is embarassing!
15. There are black and white marbles in my pocket.
 Classify the following statement as Emperical, Analytic,
or Evaluative and name the theory use to determine
their truth value.
1. Ghost are earth-bound spirits
2. A spinsters in an unmarried old lady
3. Cheating is morally wrong.
4. My professor is 45 year old.
5. Mammals have mammary glands.
6. I have 1000 in my pocket.
7. This water is clean
8. Prayers can heal any sickness.
9. Supernatural beings do exist
10. Clocks tell time
TERMS AND DEFINITION
INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC
 WORDS AND TERMS
Words are used to signify
things, concepts, feelings and
anything we want to express.

When words are used in

arguments, they are called
terms
- is very essential since this are the
basic components that make up an
argument. Terms put together create a
preposition and preposition put together
make up an argument
 THEORIES OF MEANING
Referential theory of meaning
states that the meaning of words lies in
it referent or the actual object pointed out
by the word.

Use theory of meaning

Wittgenstein formulated this theory.
The theory asserts that the meaning of
words simply lies in its use. But word can
be used in many ways and there are many
uses of words.
 THEORIES OF MEANING
Definition – an instrument or technique
used in language in eliminating ambiguities
of meaning of words introduced. This
technique highlights the most important
elements of a term known as intension
and extension.

Intension – (Connotation or
Comprehension) sum total of
thought-elements or note that constitute a
term. It refers to the way the mind
understands what is term.
 THEORIES OF MEANING
Extension – (Denotation or reference) is
the individuals or groups to which a term is
applied. It refers to the way the mind
enumerates the members that fall under
it’s understanding of a term.
Ex. Chair, armchair, rocking chair,
wooden chair, mono-block chair, sala set.
DEFINITION
is a “linguistic device that
provides an explanation or
demonstration about the use of
term. It is quite clear, based on
this description, that when we
attempt to define word, the
word becomes clearer and easier
to understand and not the other
way around.
 KINDS OF DEFINITION
Use of Synonym
This is the most familiar type of
definition which we like to use. This type
defines a term by substituting a not so
familiar term with a more familiar one.
Ex. Obnoxious means repulsive.

Reportive Definition
Define a term by providing information
about the standard use or meaning of the
word.
Ex. Whale is a very large aquatic
mammal.
 KINDS OF DEFINITION
Stipulative Definition
Defines a word by showing how the word is used
in a special way. This definition is used to define
technical words only.
Ex. Toxic means a very busy work in a hospital

Operational Definition
Is used to define terms that are used to signify
dispositional concepts. This definition necessities the
use of performable operations either instrumental
operation or verbal operation to make the meaning
clear.
Ex. Speed is measured by dividing distance
covered by the amount of time spent to cover
distance.
 KINDS OF DEFINITION
Logical Definition
this type of definition was formulated by earlier
linguistic philosophers in an attempt to provide a
more accurate means of defining terms. They have
3 categories

Definiendum refers to the word being defined

while the definiens refers to the defining properties
of the definiendum
The defining properties of the word have 2
sub-categories:
Genus – refers to the wider concept in which
the definiendum is a member.
Differentia – is a characteristics of difiniendum
that distinguishes it from other member of the
genus.
 KINDS OF DEFINITION
Definiendum refers to the word being defined
while the definiens refers to the defining properties
of the definiendum
The defining properties of the word have 2
sub-categories:
Genus – refers to the wider concept in which
the definiendum is a member.
Differentia – is a characteristics of difiniendum
that distinguishes it from other member of the
genus.

Ex. A mammal is an animal that has mammary

glands.
 KINDS OF DEFINITION
Analytic Definition
This is an improvement of the
logical definition. It make use of the
of three categories to define a term:
Difiniendum, definiens, and denotata.
Denotata – a sample of the
members of the extension of the
concept signified by the concept.
Ex. A mammal is like an animal
has mammary glands like human
being
 RULES FOR GOOD ANALYTIC
DEFINITIONS
1. Avoid using metaphor and other figures
of speech.
Ex. Tiger is the king of jungle
2. It must be general enough to include
legitimate members.
3. It must not be good too general to
include non-members.
Ex. Chalk is a writing instrument.
4. Avoid stating the definition in the
negative.
5. Avoid circular definition.
Ex. Honesty is the virtue of being honest
 T
P LO G IC

E
C N TO

ON UC
T IO

C ROT
D

IN
UNDERSTANDING CONCEPT

Concept – is a product of mental act.

Formation of Concept
Plato – assert that concepts or forms
have pre-existed before anything and
these concepts exist in the world of
forms.
FORMATION OF CONCEPTS
Aristotle – believes that
knowledge is not innate. He said
that man’s mind upon birth is a
tabula rasa.
KINDS OF CONCEPTS
Empirical concepts – these are concepts
whose members have observable traits
without the aid of sensory extending
devices and whose member of their
extension are found to exist in space and
time.
Ex: trees, table, chairs, etc.
KINDS OF CONCEPTS

Theoretical Concepts – these concepts whose

member exist in space and time but their
traits become observable only through the use
of sensory extending devices.
Ex. Bacteria, cells, planetary bodies.
KINDS OF CONCEPTS
Metaphysical Concepts – the member of extension of
these concepts exist outside the real of space and time,
in another dimension so to speak.
Ex. God, angels, heaven.

Fictitious Concepts – these concepts are believed to exist

beyond time and space, they are believed to be
creations of people.
Ex. Mermaid, spider man, Pegasus
KINDS OF CONCEPTS
Abstract Concepts – these concepts can be understood
by the mind as they considered mental entities. They
cannot perceived by the senses but the mind can.
Ex. Democracy, quantity, shape, line

Dispositional Concepts – not directly observable by

senses. Their traits become observable only through
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the performance of certain operations and what we
observe are their manifestations.
Ex. Temperature, blood pressure, speed.
Evaluative Concepts – used to signify our understanding
of morality and aesthetics.
Ex. Good, wrong, proper, undesirable, beautiful
 KINDS OF CONCEPTS
A. THEORETICAL
B. Empirical
C. Evaluative
D. fictitious
E. Abstract
F. Dispositional
G. Metaphysical
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INTRODUCTION
to
LOGIC
 Topic Outline
I. The Basic Concepts
• Definition of Logic
• The core of logic
• Logic vs. Psychology
• The three operations of the mind
• The corresponding verbal expressions
• The two types of arguments
• The first logician
II. Logic as an “Organon” of the Mind
towards Truth
• (Logic) As a tool
• (Logic) As a means to attain truth
• Truth is independent from Validity
Objectives
■ At the end of the discussion, the
participants must be able to:
1. Define logic.
2. Understand the fundamental concepts and
principles of logic.
3. Distinguish the two types of logic and their
subdivisions.
4. Understand why and how Logic is an organon
towards truth.
 Part I:
The Basic Concepts

We will discuss in this section the

fundamental concepts in logic.
HOW DO WE DEFINE LOGIC?

■ “Logic is the science of correct reasoning.”

■ It is systematic body of knowledge.
■ It pertains to the study of rules and principles
for making correct arguments.
■ “Logic is a science that serves as a tool for
the mind to reason out correctly.”
HOW DO WE DEFINE LOGIC?

■ Rules should be understood, not

memorized.
■ Understanding means being able to
apply.
WHAT IS THE CORE OF
LOGIC?

■ The core of the science of logic lies in its

collection of universal and eternal rules that
ascertains truth in the flow of man’s
statements.
■ Logic is a discovery of the “norms” of correct
thinking.
■ Logic is primarily concerned with
“arguments.”
WHAT IS THE CORE OF
LOGIC?
PSYCHOLOGIC
AL
PROCESSES

LOGICAL
STAND ANALY
ARD RULES SIS
FORMS
(for OF
OF
PROPO
SITION
LOGIC
making
LANG
UAGE
S
arguments)

ANALYSIS OF
PROPOSITIONS
&
TERMS
WHAT IS THE CORE OF
LOGIC?
PSYCHOLOGIC
AL
PROCESSES

STAND ANALY
ARD
FORMS ARGUME SIS
OF
OF
PROPO
SITION
LOGIC
NTS LANG
UAGE
S

ANALYSIS OF
PROPOSITIONS
&
TERMS
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN LOGIC AND
PSYCHOLOGY?
■ Logic ≠ Psychology

LOGIC
(Logical
Psychology Rules)
 WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN LOGIC AND
PSYCHOLOGY?

Studies the actual

tells what the mind Way the mind
ought to do works, i.e.
what the mind is.

It is a normative
It is an empirical
science; it imposes
science; it studies
rules and norms
actual facts.
for thinking.
WHAT ARE THE OPERATIONS
HAPPENING IN THE REASONING
PROCESS?
■ The three operations of the mind…
1. Simple apprehension is the mental operation
by which the mind knows the meaning of a
term.
2. Judgment is the mental operation that
affirms (or denies) something about anything
whatsoever.
3. Inference is the mental operation that
proves a judgment by using supporting
judgments.
WHAT ARE THE OPERATIONS
HAPPENING IN THE REASONING
PROCESS?
KNOWIN
G
JUDGING
INFERING
WHAT ARE THE OPERATIONS
HAPPENING IN THE REASONING
PROCESS?

BLACK
HAIR

I AM
YOUN YOUN
G G
WHAT ARE THEIR VERBAL
EXPRESSIONS?

Mental Operations Verbal Expression

Simple Apprehension Term

Judgment Proposition

Inference Argument
WHAT ARE THE OPERATIONS
HAPPENING IN THE REASONING
PROCESS?

BLACK
HAIR

I AM
YOUN YOUN
G G
WHAT ARE THE OPERATIONS
HAPPENING IN THE REASONING
PROCESS?

MENTAL
OPERATI
ON

HAVING BLACK HAIR IS

A MANIFESTAION OF
YOUTH,
I HAVE BLACK HAIRS.
I AM YOUNG.
WHAT ARE THE OPERATIONS
HAPPENING IN THE REASONING
PROCESS?

MENTAL
HAVING BLACK OPERATI
HAIRS IS A ON
MANIFESTAION
OF YOUTH,
I HAVE BLACK
HAIRS.
I AM YOUNG.
 WHAT ARE THEIR VERBAL
EXPRESSIONS?

Inference Argument
(Mental Operation) (Verbal Expression)

Supporting Judgment Premise(s)

Inferred Judgment Conclusion

 WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF
ARGUMENTS?
1. Deductive arguments - arguments that
start with a more universal statement and
conclude with a less universal statement.
Ex.
All Filipinos are Asians; (most universal)
All Cagayanos are Filipinos;
Therefore, all Cagayanos are Asians. (least universal)

■ If the premises are true, then the

conclusion is necessarily true.
 WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF
ARGUMENTS?
■ 2. Inductive arguments - arguments that
start with a sufficient list of particular statements
and end with a probable universal statement as
inferred from the premises.
Ex.
Mike, Paul, Bong, & Ton are Cagayanos
Mike has a dark complexion.
Paul has a dark complexion.
Bong has a dark complexion.
Ton also has a dark complexion.
:: Cagayanos probably have dark complexions.

■ The conclusion is only “probably” true.

WHO IS THE FIRST
“LOGICIAN”?

■ Aristotle came up with the

first complete system of
Logic, which was written
under the title of
“Organon” or “Instrument”
(of Knowledge).
■ His Logic is classified as
“syllogistic.” Aristotle (384-322 BC)
 WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF
LOGIC?
LOGIC

Expressed Expressed
in language in symbols

syllogistic propositional predicate

categorical hypothetical
 ARISTOTELIAN SYLLOGISTIC
LOGIC

■ Aristotelian syllogistic logic is “categorical.”

■ This type of logic is based on the mechanism
of correlating three terms or categories in the
premises to arrive at a necessarily true
conclusion.
■ Example 1:
All dogs are animals;
All terriers are dogs;
Therefore, all terriers are animals.
 ARISTOTELIAN SYLLOGISTIC
LOGIC

terrie
Animals Dogs s

1st premise: 2st

premise:
All dogs are animals. All dogs are terries.
ARISTOTELIAN SYLLOGISTIC
LOGIC

Animals
1st premise:
Dogs All dogs are animals.

2st
premise:
terri All terriers are dogs.
ers
Conclusion:
All terriers are animals.
 ARISTOTELIAN SYLLOGISTIC
LOGIC

■ Example 2:
All actors love the spotlight;
Wowowilly is an actor;
Therefore, Wowowilly loves the spotlight.
 ARISTOTELIAN SYLLOGISTIC
LOGIC

Spotlight
Actor Willy
-lover

1st premise: 2st

premise:
All actors love the
Wowowilly is an actor.
spotlight
 ARISTOTELIAN SYLLOGISTIC
LOGIC

Spotlight-lover 1st premise:

All actors love the
Actors spotlight
2st
premise:
Willy Wowowilly is an actor.

Conclusion:
Wowowilly loves the
spotlight.
 Recap for Part I
CORRECT
LOGIC ARGUMENT
(RULES) S SIMPLE
APPREHENSIO TERMS
N
REASONIN
G JUDGMEN
PROPOSITI
PROCESS T ON

INFERENC ARGUMEN
E T
Recap for Part I
■ Define Logic.
■ What is the core of logic?
■ How is logic different from psychology?
■ What are the three operations of the mind?
What are their corresponding verbal
expressions?
■ What are the two kinds of arguments?
■ Briefly discuss Aristotle’s syllogistic logic.
 Part II:
Logic as an “Organon” of
the Mind Towards Truth

This section will discuss the nature of logic

as an instrument of the mind towards
truth. With this in mind, we will also
discuss the notion of truth and its
independence from validity.
Logic as a tool…
■ Logic is not an exclusive science studied for
its own sake. Rather, it is an instrument
used by all the sciences in clarifying their
points and arguments.
■ Logic is the ideal tool of the mind.
Logic as a means to attain truth…
Truth is the correspondence of the mind
with the reality.
I won the Democratic
Presidential race!

Obama

Clinton
 Logic as a means to attain truth…
■ The truth-value of a statement is whether it
is “true” or “false.”
■ Truth is not the same with validity.
■ Truth is strictly ascribed to propositions, and
validity is properly ascribed to arguments.
■ Proving the truth of propositions properly lies
in the hands of the empirical scientists.
■ Valid arguments become tools for truth
because it “conserves” the “presupposed”
truth of the propositions.
Truth is independent from
Validity…
■ An argument can be valid but at the same
time have false propositions.
■ Ex.
All animals are man; (False) Valid Form (AAA-1)
All chairs are animals; (False)
Therefore, all chairs are man. (False)
 Truth is independent from
Validity…
■ An argument can have true propositions but at
the same time have invalid form.
■ Ex.
All creatures have a purpose; (True)
All angels are creatures; (True)
Therefore, all angels are not man. (True)

■ The argument is invalid because it has four

terms.
Truth is independent from
Validity…
▪ The truth of propositions does not
necessarily make the argument valid, and
the validity of the argument does not
necessarily make its propositions true.
▪ But, if the given propositions in the
premises of the argument are recognized as
true, then the conclusion is necessarily true.
▪ If the propositions of the arguments are all
true and the entire form of the argument is
valid, then it is said to be a “sound”
argument.
WHAT IS A SOUND
ARGUMENT?

■ Example of a Sound Argument.

All men are rational animals;
All teachers are men;
Therefore, all teachers are rational animals.

■ Logic aims at giving sound arguments.

 LOGIC AND ETHICS
THEORETICA “truly”
L true
REASO TRUT
N H

MIN PRACTICAL “truly”

D good

WILL GOOD
 LOGIC AND ETHICS
Truth about the
nature of
THEORETIC “truly” concepts
AL true
REASO TRUT
N H

PRACTICAL “truly”
good

Truth about the

value of actions
 LOGIC AND ETHICS
Truth about the
nature of LOGIC
THEORETIC concepts
AL
REASO
N

PRACTICAL

Truth about the

MORALITY
value of actions
 LOGIC AND ETHICS
LOGICAL REASONING
THEORETICAL
All man are mortals
TRUTH & VALIDITY
Socrates is a man. OF CONCEPTS
Socrates is mortal.

MORAL REASONING
We should not kill PRACTICAL
This situation urges me to kill Pedro. TRUTH OF THE
VALUE
Thus, I must not succumb to the OF CONCEPTS
urge of killing Pedro in this situation.
 HOW CAN WE RELATE
LOGIC AND ETHICS?

Killing is a sin.
To terminate the life of Pedro is killing.
Thus, To terminate the life of Pedro is a sin.
 HOW CAN WE RELATE
LOGIC AND ETHICS?
Killing is a sin.
To terminate the life of Pedro is killing.
Thus, To terminate the life of Pedro is a sin.

Recognition of the
■ To know the
ethics value of the action. undesirability of this
(practical reason) reality. (practical reason)
■Identification of the
Identification of the
“definition” or “meaning”
“definition” or “meaning” of
of the concept.
logic (theoretical)
the concept. (theoretical)
■How it is positioned in the
■How it is positioned in the
argument
argument
Recap of Part II
SOUND
ARGUMENT
S

TRUTH VALIDITY

CONCLUSIO
N
Recap of Part II
■ Discuss the idea of Logic as a tool.
■ Explain the propositional notion of truth.
■ What is the difference between truth and
validity?
■ Give examples of a valid argument with false
propositions.
■ Give examples of an invalid argument with
true propositions.
■ How can validity be an avenue for truth?
■ How can we relate logic and ethics?
 Part III:
Summary

This section will summarize

through questions and answers
the different topics discussed in
preceding sections.
IV. Summary (Q &A)
■ What is Logic?
■ “Logic is the science of correct reasoning.”
■ Logic is a discovery of the “norms” of
correct thinking. And as such, it is primarily
concerned with “arguments.”
■ Logic is a “prescriptive” or “normative”
science, and not a “descriptive” science.
 IV. Summary (Q &A)
■ What are the types of logic?
LOGIC

Expressed Expressed
in language in symbols

syllogistic propositional predicate

categorica hypothetic
l al
IV. Summary (Q &A)
■ What are the operations of the mind and their
corresponding verbal expressions?

Mental Operations Verbal Expression

Simple Apprehension Term

Judgment Proposition

Inference Argument
 IV. Summary (Q &A)
■ What are the parts of an argument?
• An argument is composed of two parts, the
premise(s) and the conclusion. The premises are the
supporting propositions, while the conclusion is the
proposition being supported.
■ What are the different kinds of arguments?
1. Deductive arguments - arguments that start with a more
universal statement and conclude with a less universal
statement.
2. Inductive arguments - arguments that start with a sufficient
list of particular statements and end with a probable
universal statement as inferred from the premises.
IV. Summary (Q &A)
■ What is truth?
■ Truth is the correspondence of the mind with the
reality.
■ Truth is strictly ascribed to propositions, and
validity is to arguments.
■ Truth is independent from Validity
■ A “sound argument” is a valid argument with true
propositions.