Lecture-2

One-dimensional Compressible Fluid

Flow in Variable Area
 Summary of Results(Cont..)
• In isoenergetic-isentropic flow, an increase in velocity always corresponds to a
Mach number increase and vice versa.

• Therefore, a converging passage always drive the Mach number towards the
unity and diverging passage always drive the Mach number away from the unity.

• Suppose the Mach number is unity at some point in the flow. Since infinite
𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝐴
acceleration (dv → ∞) is not possible (Note: = ( 2 ) ) unless there is
𝑉 𝑀𝑎 −1 𝐴
shock wave, which is specifically excluded in assumptions, the bracketed
equation then implies that dA = 0 when Ma = 1.

• Finally suppose that the compressible fluid is flowing in a passage that actually
has an area minimum (called Throat). Is it always possible to conclude that the
Mach number is unity at the throat?

• If dA is zero, then two options are possible: Ma = 1 or dV = 0, simply knowing

dA = 0 does not allow us to determine which condition occurs.
 Conclusion
The response of the flow to specific type of area change is exactly opposite for
subsonic and supersonic flow (as described in the last lecture in tabulated form).

Sonic flow (M = 1) can occur only at minimum area. Minimum areas occur at the
inlet of simply diverging passage, the outlet of simply converging passage, and
the throat of a converging and diverging passage.

It is possible, but not necessary, that the Mach number at the throat of a
converging-diverging passage be equal to 1. if the Mach number at the throat is
not 1, the velocity must pass through a maximum or minimum. If the throat Mach
number is 1, the fluid may either accelerate or de-accelerate down stream from
the throat.
 Steady Isentropic flow of an ideal gas (do by yourself)
For flow of a compressible fluid in a small stream tube, we can make the following assumptions:

1. The flow is steady

2. There are no body forces(gravity, electromagnetic and others)
3. There are no shear stresses
4. There is no heat transfer
5. The stream tube does not pass through the a shock waves.*

The last three assumptions taken together imply that the flow is adiabatic and reversible, therefore the entropy of the
fluid is constant
Ŝ = constant, (Ŝ1 = Ŝ2)
For steady flow the energy equation is
𝑉22 𝑉12
𝑞 − 𝑤𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 − 𝑤𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 = ℎ2 + − ℎ1 +
2 2
According to our assumptions, q and wshear are zero. But the shaft is not necessarily zero, energy equation becomes
𝑉22 𝑉12
− 𝑤𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = ℎ2 + − ℎ1 +
2 2
When we use the definition of stagnation enthalpy,
− 𝑤𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = ℎ𝑜2 − ℎ𝑜1
If the fluid is an ideal gas,
− 𝑤𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝐶𝑝 ( 𝑇𝑜2 − 𝑇𝑜1 ) ……………………………………….(1)

*Assuming that there are no shocks If the flow is subsonic every where along the stream tube is not necessary, because the shocks are possible only if the
inlet flow is supersonic.
Doing work on the fluid increases its stagnation temperature, even if there is no heat transfer. Now
consider the changes of stagnation pressure in isentropic flow. By definition of stagnation state
Ŝ = constant, (Ŝ1 = Ŝ2)
𝐶 𝛾
𝑝𝑜2 𝑇𝑜2 𝑝 𝑇
Thus 𝑝𝑜1
= (𝑇 ) 𝑅 = (𝑇𝑜2 )𝛾−1
𝑜1 𝑜1
Using the equation 1, we get
𝛾
𝑝𝑜2 𝑤𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝑝𝑜1
= (1 − 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑜1
) 𝛾−1

A situation of considerable interest in compressible flow is the case with no shaft work. The following
statement applies to this case:

• In the isentropic flow with no shaft work, all the stagnation properties are constant.

Stagnation properties are constant in isentropic flow only if there is no shaft work. This special case (wshaft
= 0) is so important in compressible flow that some engineers and authors use the phrase “isentropic flow”
to mean “isentropic flow with no work”. Here use the phrase isoenergetic-isentropic flow to refer to
isentropic flow with no work.
Equations relating property and velocity changes in isoenergetic-isentropic flow of an ideal gas can easily
be developed from stagnation property definitions and constancy of stagnation properties. take, e.g. the
calculation of change in temperature between two points in an isoenergetic-isentropic flow. Because To is
constant, we can write
𝑉12 𝑉12
• 𝑇𝑜1 = 𝑇1 + = 𝑇2 + = 𝑇𝑜2
2𝐶𝑝 2𝐶𝑝
Using Mach number instead of velocity is sometimes convenient, above equation can be written in the
following form
2
𝑇2 𝑇𝑜2 1 + (𝛾 − 1) 2 𝑀𝑎1
= 2
𝑇1 𝑇𝑜1 1 + (𝛾 − 1) 2 𝑀𝑎2

A third approach involves the use of the table relating stagnation property ratioand Mach number. We
calculate the temperature ratios by
𝑇2 𝑇 𝑇
= 𝑀2 𝑀
𝑇1 𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜 1

Where
𝑇
𝑀
𝑇𝑜

is a numerical value read from the tabulated data at Mach Number M. In a fourth method, we make the
calculations in two steps:

𝑇1 𝑇
𝑇𝑜2 = 𝑇𝑜1 = 𝑇 and 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑜2 𝑀2
𝑀1 𝑇𝑜
𝑇𝑜
Any of the above equation could be used to relate the temperature and velocities ( or Mach number) at
point 1 and 2. which equation is most convenient depends on the exact information available. Similarly
pressure and velocity ( of Mach number) in iso-energetic and isentropic flow can be related by any of the
following equations:
𝛾 𝛾
𝑉12 𝛾−1 𝑉22 𝛾−1
𝑝1 1 + = 𝑝2 1 +
2𝑇1 𝐶𝑝 2𝑇2 𝐶𝑝

𝛾
2 𝛾−1
𝑝2 1 + (𝛾 − 1) 2 𝑀𝑎1
= 𝛾
𝑝1 2 𝛾−1
1 + (𝛾 − 1) 2 𝑀𝑎2

𝑝2 𝑝 𝑝
= 𝑀 𝑀
𝑝1 𝑝𝑜 2 𝑝𝑜 1

𝑝
𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑜2 𝑀2 where
𝑝𝑜
𝑝1
𝑝𝑜2 = 𝑝𝑜1 = 𝑝
𝑀
𝑝𝑜 1
 Area-Mach Number Relation
To obtain an equation relating area and Mach number, use continuity equation for a control volume with inflow at plane
1 and outflow at plane 2. (following figure)

𝜌1 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 𝐴2

𝑝
For an ideal gas 𝜌 = and V = 𝑀𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑀𝑎 𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑅𝑇

Substituting the above equation into continuity equation gives

𝛾 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑀𝑎1 𝛾 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑀𝑎2
=
𝑅 𝑇1 𝑅 𝑇2

Simplifying the above equation gives the following

−1 1 2
𝐴2 𝑀𝑎1 𝑝2 𝑇2
=
𝐴1 𝑀𝑎2 𝑝1 𝑇1

For isoenergetic-isentropic flow we can replace the temperature and pressure ratio
2 (𝛾+1) 2(𝛾−1)
𝐴2 𝑀𝑎1 1 + 𝛾 − 1 /2 𝑀𝑎2
= 2
𝐴1 𝑀𝑎2 1 + 𝛾 − 1 /2 𝑀𝑎1
If any of three quantities A1, Ma1, A2, Ma2 are specified, the fourth can be calculated. Usually A1 and Ma1 are known and
Ma2 or A2 is to be found. If Ma2 is given and A2 is to be calculate then the calculations are simple, however, if A2 is given
and Ma2 must be calculated, that is not so easy.
• Set Ma1 = 1, A1 = A* and drop the subscript 2 to get the following

𝛾+1 2(𝛾−1)
𝐴 1 2 𝛾−1 2
= 1+ 𝑀𝑎
𝐴∗ 𝑀𝑎 𝛾 + 1 2
(you may find tabulated values of A/A* in the various Fluid Mechanics Texts)

Plot of Area ratio function versus Mach number is given under and can be used to infer
interesting information.
 Conclusions
 A/A* is always greater than unity except at Mach number unity where the A/A* is 1.

 If the Mach number is given, there is single corresponding area ratio, so the problem
of calculating the area required to obtain a given Mach number seems easy1.

 If A/A* is known, there are two corresponding Mach numbers. Choice of proper
Mach number for known area ratio requires more information than just the area ratio
itself. Generally we must know the pressure ratio or other information besides area
ratio to conclude the Mach number2.

 Warning!! In a passage with the throat, the throat area (At) does not necessarily equal
the critical area unless other evidence indicates it.

1(if
the initial Mach number is Ma1 is less than 1 and desired final Mach number Ma2 is greater than 1, a minimum area is exactly equal to A* must occur
between the planes 1 and 2, otherwise flow cannot pass through Ma=1)
2(we can sometimes logically eliminate one of the possibilities. If we know that the flow is subsonic at a plane 1 and minimum area is exactly equal to A*

does not occur between the planes 1 and 2, the flow at 2 cannot be supersonic.
Mass Flow Relations and Chocking
 Mathematics ( on white board)
 Conclusion
 Suppose that po and To are fixed (isoenergetic-isentropic flow). A specified mass
flow rate can be forced through a limiting area. No smaller area can pass that
flow.

 Suppose that po and To are fixed (isoenergetic-isentropic flow). Any particular

fixed geometry duct, with fixed minimum area, can pass only a certain maximum
flow. Passage of this maximum mass flow occurs when the Mach number at the
minimum area is 1. once the Mach number at the minimum area becomes 1, it is
not possible to increase the mass flow rate.

 It is possible to increase the limiting mass flow in a fixed geometry duct or to

force a specified mass flow through a smaller area by increasing 𝑝𝑜 𝑇𝑜 . Doing
work on a gas (compression) increases both po and To; however, the ratio 𝑝𝑜 𝑇𝑜
is usually increased by compression.

 Chocking
“The chocking phenomenon occurs in compressible duct flow when the local Mach
number reaches 1 at the minimum area in the duct. When this occurs, the mass flow
rate through the duct cannot be increased unless the ratio of stagnation pressure to
square root of stagnation temperature is increased.
 Flow through a converging Nozzle
 The nozzle is only convergent , so the flow cannot pass through M = 1.
 The flow at the nozzle inlet (in the large reservoir) is obviously subsonic (M= 0),
so the flow in the entire nozzle is subsonic , with the possible exception of the
nozzle exit.
 The flow cannot be supersonic in the nozzle, so there can be no shocks and the
flow is isoenergetic-isentropic everywhere in the nozzle .the stagnation
properties are constant and equal to the gas properties in the reservoir.

 The maximum possible Mach number in the nozzle is 1.0 .this value can occur
only at the nozzle exit (minimum area).

 There is a maximum possible mass flow rate

that can occur only when the Mach number is 1
at the nozzle exit .
Discussion
 Discussion (cont…..)
 Curve labeled as “a” corresponds to a closed valve. There is no flow and pressure equals the
reservoir pressure everywhere.
 Case “b” corresponds to slight opening of control valve. The back pressure is less than the
supply pressure and there is flow. Minimum pressure and maximum Mach number are at the
nozzle exit. We can calculate the mass flow rate by mass flow equation.
 Case “c” is similar to case “b” except larger control valve opening permits lower back pressure
with correspondingly higher mass flow and exit Mach number and lower exit pressure. Note
that Mach number is still less than 1.
 Case “d”, the control valve is sufficiently open to bring the exit Mach number to a value of 1.
The exit pressure is now become critical pressure and also equals the back pressure. Mass flow
rate can be calculated from the suitable equation.
 Case “e” corresponds to opening the control valve farther than in the case “d”. After trying this
we find that no changes occur in the nozzle. In the case “d”, we reached the limit of nozzle’s
capability. The exit Mach number cannot exceed 1, the exit pressure cannot drop below the
critical pressure, which can be determined from critical property formulas.
 The only difference between case “d” and case “e” is the back pressure and exit pressure are no
longer equal. The flow must adjust to lower back pressure after leaving the nozzle. The down
stream flow is multidimensional, so the pressure curve shown as a wavy line downstream from
the nozzle exit.
 There are two regimes in simple converging nozzle

 If pB/po > p*/po, the flow is unchocked

 If pB/po =< p*/po, the flow is chocked
 Flow through Converging-diverging Nozzle
 The nozzle is convergent-divergent , so the flow can pass through Ma=1 , the flow
also can be subsonic everywhere.
 If Ma=1 anywhere, it must be at the throat .
 There may be supersonic flow in the divergent portion of the nozzle , so there may
be shocks in the flow . If there are shocks , the flow is not completely isentropic ,
although it is isoenergetic
 If there are no shocks, the flow is isentropic. if there are shocks , the flow from the
reservoir up to the first shock is isentropic. Flow downstream from a shock also is
isentropic but with different values of entropy , stagnation pressure, and critical
area.
 The maximum possible Mach number that can occur anywhere in the passage
corresponds to acceleration of the fluid in an isentropic process from the reservoir
to the nozzle exit . The maximum possible Mach number can occur only at the
exit and is determined by the ratio of exit area to throat area .
 The maximum possible mass flow rate in the nozzle is determined by the gas
constant , the reservoir properties, and the minimum area , which occurs at the
throat.
Flow through a Converging-Diverging Nozzle
 Discussion
 Case “a” corresponds to complete closure of control valve.

 Curves and points labeled “b” represents a slightly open control valve. The gas accelerates
in the convergent portion of the nozzle, and the pressure drops. The throat Mach number is
less than 1. The pressure and Mach number distributions are roughly symmetrical about the
throat. Exit and back pressure are equal.

 Curve “c” represents a slightly larger control valve opening. The pressure and Mach
number situation is qualitatively similar to case “b” but the mass flow is larger. The
maximum Mach number occurs at the throat.

 In case “d” the control valve has been opened just enough to bring the throat Mach number
exactly to 1. The flow is still subsonic everywhere except exactly at the throat. The mass
flow has reached a maximum and flow has just become chocked.

 The pressure rises downstream form the throat, so the back pressure at which converging-
diverging nozzle chokes is greater than p*/po. The Pressure ratio at which this occur is
called first critical pressure ratio.

 What happens when the valve is opened beyond the case “d”? Because the throat is
chocked, the conditions upstream of throat cannot be affected. There is a response in flow
downstream from the throat, because at case “d” the down stream flow is subsonic.
 Discussion (Cont.)
 When the valve is opened and back pressure is lowered, the fluid begins to accelerate as it
enters the divergent portion of the nozzle, i.e., the flow become supersonic. If the control
valve is opened only slightly past the case d point, the downstream resistance is too large
for complete acceleration in the divergent portion of the nozzle, so a shock occurs in the
divergent portion.
 Curves and points labeled as e represents the flow for a slightly more open control valve.
The flow accelerate in the converging portion of the nozzle, reaches sonic speed at the
throat, and accelerates to supersonic speed downstream from the throat. The supersonic
acceleration terminates in the shock wave. Downstream from the shock, the flow
experiences subsonic de-accleration and exits the passage with Ma<1. The exit and back
pressure are equal. The exact position of of the shock depends on the back pressure, and for
a given back pressure, is fixed. The mass flow rate for case e, as well as for all lower
values of back pressure, is the same as for the case of d.
 Opening the control valve and lowering the back pressure causes the shock to move
downstream (case f). Note, that once the shock passes a plane, the flow up to that plane is
no longer affected by lowering the back pressure. As the valve is opened further, the shock
is eventually drawn to nozzle exit. The flow accelerates isentropically all the way from
reservoir to the exit shock. Exactly at the exit, the pressure jumps to the back pressure as
the fluid exits through the shocks. The situation is shown as case g. Note that the exit
pressure is doubled at the case of g.
 Discussion (Cont.)
 Lowering the back pressure further causes the shock to move out of the nozzle and become
multidimensional (case h). The flow accelerates isentropically from the reservoir to the
exit. The gas exits the nozzle supersonically with Ma corresponding to the nozzle’s exit-to-
throat area ratio. The exit pressure is determined only by the stagnation pressure (pO1) and
the exit Mach number and is not equal to the back pressure. The gas adjusts to the back
pressure externally.

 If we continue to lower the back pressure, it eventually reaches equality with the exit
pressure (case i). At this condition, there is no pressure adjustment in the exiting gas.
Lowering the pressure further (case j) requires external expansion pressure adjustments but
does not the affect the nozzle flow.
Summary of Discussion
We can summarize this information about converging – diverging nozzle flow as
follow. There are four regimes of flow in a converging – diverging nozzle.

 Venturi regime (cases a – d). The flow is subsonic and isentropic everywhere.
The flow accelerates in the convergent portion and decelerates in the divergent
portion. Maximum Mach number and minimum pressure occur at the throat.

 Shock regime (cases d – g). The flow is subsonic in the convergent portion,
sonic at the throat, and partly supersonic in the divergent portion. The acceleration
terminates in a shock that stands in the divergent portion at a location determined
by the exact value of the back pressure. The flow experiences subsonic
deceleration from the shock to the exit. The flow is choked.

 Over expanded regime (cases g – i). The flow accelerates throughout the
nozzle. The throat flow is sonic, and the exit flow is supersonic. The pressure of
the gas increases to the back pressure downstream from the nozzle exit.

 Under expanded regime (cases i – j). This case is similar to the over expanded
regime, except that the external pressure adjustments are expensive rather than
compressive.