Ubc 1995-0117
Ubc 1995-0117
Ubc 1995-0117
by
EVAN LLEWELLYN
OF MASTERS OF ARTS
in
j©€^uired standard
n
FEBRUARY, 1995
Department
DE-6 (2/88)
ABSTRACT
This study deals with six clients' perceptions of change resulting from a
used consisting of two taped interviews and a Q-sort for each of the subjects.
The Q-sort is based on emergent themes garnered from the first client
then sorted theme cards according to each card's perceived importance in the
appreciably from the first interviews held within two weeks after therapy to the
cognitive understanding plays a less significant role. For this reason, the study
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the problem 1
Object of the study 1
Definition 2
A description of Neo-Reichian work 3
Evolution of the study 5
Importance of the study 6
Methodological approach 6
Limitations 6
CHAPTER V : DISCUSSION 48
Conclusions 58
APPENDIX A 61
APPENDIX B 67
APPENDIX C 82
APPENDIX D 83
REFERENCES 84
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Joyce for her love and encouragement. This study
has been made immeasurably easier due to her continuing support and gentle
help. I would also like to acknowledge Emily and Alyd who never cease to
v
1
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
despite their apparent popularity, these therapies have received little research
attention. With the exception of Gilbert (1992), available research dates from a
decade ago or earlier (Brownell, 1978; Dublin, 1976; McKechnie et al., 1982;
Navarro, 1985; Nichols, 1973; Perrin, 1986). Furthermore, there exists little
(Driver, 1985).
The present study proposes to fill this lacuna by enquiring into the felt-
participants. What are their feelings, sensations, and thoughts during and
as they reflect on the session after the completion of the workshop? And
finally, what is the relationship between these two events, that is, how does a
person's initial experience impact on the evaluation of self and the impression
clearly delineate its subject. It also seeks to embody a point of view that has
ramifications for further research questions. For instance does the client's
and other bodywork therapies? What is the relative importance of the various
elements of change? How do they impact on one another and how do their
are not within the study's purview, it is hoped the elucidation of personal
Definition
in the presence of other observers and within the context of a longer workshop.
the following muscle groups receive deep pressure or massage during a single
session: the masseter muscle of the cheek, the trapezius, deltoid and pectoral
muscles, the intercostal tissue of the chest, the gluteal, femoris quadriceps and
the femoral fascia (B. Wong, personnal communication, August 1988). These
the ocular, oral, cervical, thoracic, diaphragmatic, abdominal and pelvic rings
(Wright, 1982).
though not always, a mattress is placed on the floor on which the participant is
invited to sit or lie. Participants are reminded that they may stop the process at
any time they wish and a signal for declaring a stop is agreed on. The
participant is then instructed how to breathe deeply with her mouth open. She
and unforced passage of air in and out of the lungs. Attention is brought to
breathing down into the abdomen so that the stomach and abdominal muscles
expand on inhalation. The feet are often raised to forty-five degree angle with
4
the toes pointed slightly inwards. Arms extended along the body, lie loosely on
the mat.
sits at the head of the participant, the other at the side. A mild electronic
needles are placed in the hands or feet. As breathing continues the participant
often develop within the first five to fifteen minutes of therapy. Many
puckering of the mouth and an involuntary gnarling and inward turning of the
hands (Rosenberg & Rand, 1985). Frequently the face becomes blotchy, the
chest flushes to a bright red and the hands and feet turn pale. Depending on
the type and location of the discoloration and the manner of breathing,
acupressure is applied to various parts of the body (Wong & McKeen, 1980).
The pressure can be quite painful. As participants experience pain they are
the solar plexus and when properly practised does not hurt the client's throat or
vocal chords.
intercostal muscles of the chest, in the pelvic region and the abdomen. Also
thumb pressure may be applied to the face around the mouth, on the eyebrows
and along the jaw. This pressure may be applied intermittently throughout the
5
progresses the therapist may ask the participant if she remembers anything,
who she is shouting at or where she is. The questions often stimulate a
response and a dialogue with the imagined person. Frequently the participant
will kick and stamp her feet and smack her hands or fists into the mat.
half hour a point of resolution and or fatigue is arrived at. When the shouting
the end of each piece of bodywork and this seems to heighten the participant's
emotional tone. Many times the music leads to tears of joy or sadness. Next
all workshop participants are invited to approach the client with permission of
the client. Lastly, a debriefing takes place. The debriefing or processing of the
work primarily involves the participant's sharing of feelings and experiences and
the sharing of the observers' and therapists' feelings with the participant.
and group settings. The researcher noted that some participants exhibited
the client's internal experience? And secondly, are there other internal, less
Methodological approach
instead, searching for presences and meanings. Hence, the focus of the study
is on how things are subjectively experienced and not how they supposedly are.
rigour and the search for psychological reality (Giorgi, 1986) it lends itself well
Limitations
analysis impossible.
meanings, does not seek statistical reliability (McMillan & Schumacher, 1993).
Its usefulness resides rather in the quality of its narrative which, in turn, relies
between this approach and the "neo-Reichian" work of this study, the literature
concerning this and other body manipulation therapies will be examined. The
human body as a conduit for bio- or psychic energy and each sees muscle
form of body armour. And both seek to restore optimal energy flow through
Theoretical Context
However, before reviewing this research, one must first turn to the
Descartes' (1969) famous dictum on the separation of body and mind, this has
systems of body and mind, they assumed a one direction causal relationship
environment on the body and the body's influence on one's emotional states.
Darwin also observed that in all cases of distress, the human brain tends to
where the body and mind are reciprocally influenced within a self-regulating
1898, he stated his belief in the organic basis for neurosis while admitting his
lack of success in uncovering the source. His original theory, developed at that
time, however, did posit physical causes for various neurotic dispositions. The
origin of anxiety, for instance, though itself an emotional, that is, a mental
had almost all suffered sexual abuse. Although Freud was later to abandon this
In 1920s Wilhelm Reich (1973) described the human body both as the
physical and psychological blows. The ego then creates a hardened shell that
deflects danger from the external world while holding in instinctual energy.
Energy then becomes cathected in the muscle tissue of the body and expresses
bodily reactions become rigidified into a frozen stance or muscle tension. The
tensions thus produced interrupt the free flow of psychic energy, what Reich
was later to call orgon energy. Hence, tensions contribute to further rigidity.
As rigidity sets in, the individual becomes less susceptible to pain but at the
same time reduces his or her capacity for achievement and pleasure. A
manifesting themselves not only as personality styles but as body types. Thus,
type, on the other hand, has a mask like appearance with taut facial
musculature, tight buttocks and, commonly, a wrinkle from above the side of
the nose to the corner of the mouth. There is also rigidity around the eyes and
Orgon therapy
character armour and destroying their neurotic equilibrium. This led to the
noted that every recollection of the content of a repressed idea brought about
resuscitated repressed emotions and ideas. It was this release that brought
about psychic relief. The ultimate goal of Reich's therapy then is the complete
peristaltic quivering known as the orgasm reflex. The orgasm reflex, Reich
noted, is also occasionally experienced during the sexual act. His position can,
adolescents, and adults which can rid the world of character neuroses..."
(p.539).
Feldenkrais
Reich, also address the body and its impact on psychological well-being.
Moshe Feldenkrais (1949), the founder the Feldenkrais method saw the body as
and hormonal processes all interact with one another in response to the
self-image was directly related to body image which is, itself, revealed in
He went on to say,
However, unlike Reich and his successors who applied pressure directly
to the individual through movement and breath while at the same time
feeling from their established routines. Likewise breathing, which both affects
and reflects muscle tension, influences emotional well-being. Thus, with breath
skeletal positioning of the body (Barlow, 1973). As a result, most adults have
damaging.
the position and tension of the neck and the position of the head. Ineffective
called "end-gaining". People with this style devote their behaviour, including
"primary control" patients are taught to alter the position of the head and the
vertebra of the neck. This reduces retraction of the head while sitting, standing
and walking. It also eliminates the kyphosis or dowager's hump and elongates
the spine. Using increased body awareness students are also taught to inhibit
maladaptive movements. The result, as Alexander saw it, was a healthier more
of neurosis (Perls, Hefferline & Goodman, 1951). Perls noted that the body
awareness of the body and the meaning of its symptoms. Unconscious or semi-
to spread through the individual seen as a functioning unity. Perls et al. (1951)
despite his claim that Reich's concept of motoric armour was the most
with these traits or symptoms and, through contact, acceptance of both the
16
symptom and its concomitant aggressive acts. Consequently muscle tension
Primal therapy
Primal Therapy holds that pain and early memories are locked within the
body at a cellular level (Janov, 1983, 1980). Janov, the founder of Primal
Therapy, states that people frequently experience acute, infantile pain. What is
more, like Rank (1929), Janov maintains that this pain is pre-eminently
associated with the trauma of birth. Thus, one's birth establishes a pattern for
later life. These early experiences, because of their physical and psychological
severity, are encapsulated or split-off. The result is that pain is held in the body
dreams are viewed as a means of both accessing and diluting the pain of early
Therapy begins with a concentrated inner focus, deep breathing and the
feelings. Primal therapy maintains that pain can be made conscious through
reliving cellular pain and memories, not by analyses and insight. And in its
Bioenergetics
Alexander Lowen, who had been a follower of Reich's in the late 1940s,
contrast to Reich (1945), who maintained that bodywork must begin at the
ocular ring and proceed downwards, Lowen works from the ground up. In
addition, bioenergetics utilizes body stress positions rather than deep tissue
18
massage to stimulate vegetative streaming. Lying with their legs in the air or
their back over a footstool clients are instructed to breathe deeply until the
onset of clonic shivering. At this point the autonomic system often takes over,
Rolfing
or rolfing has perhaps the most characteristics in common with Reich's work.
Rolf (1977) maintains that attitudes, fears and traumas are stored in the
envelop the organs and muscle bundles become shorter and thicker thus pulling
the body off-balance. The resultant postural aberrations lead, in turn, to further
different aspect of the body, the rolfer loosens and elongates the fasciae with
the use of his or her hands, knuckles and elbows. These interventions are
designed to realign the body so that its weight is shifted closer to a central
body's defences against stress and disease, alleviates symptoms and restores
The goal of therapy, as Rolf (1977) envisaged it, was a fully integrated
Instead, the body speaks for itself. An integrated person is defined as someone
new and enriched awareness of one's body, unity of mind and body, and
class. She recorded that the rolfing group scored higher on post-test self-
evaluation scores than the controls. She felt, however, that other
neither of the above studies concerned itself directly with the specific bodywork
involved in this study. What is more, neither study addressed itself to the
Neo-Reichian bodywork
she compares this approach to traditional Reichian therapy. Driver reported that
commonalities with all of the above therapies, draws primarily on the technical
therapist, for instance, might apply deep pressure to the chest area of a client
attention to cognitive understanding. However this does not entail the full
21
affective implications (Harris, 1970). Waal, Grieg and Rasmussen (1970) note
that there is "a correlation between muscular tension and the type of respiration
on the one hand, and emotional conflicts and affective states of the other (p.
3)"
selection, the interview process, and data analysis. In addition, the researcher
Instruments
Subjects
Of the six subjects chosen in the study, one was male. All were
Caucasians ranging in age from 21 to 50. Four came from the professional
middle class, one was a secretary and one was unemployed. Three of the
subjects had university degrees while two had completed high school. All the
subjects had taken part in a five day bodywork workshop and each one had
Subject selection
men. The participants included three Americans and 26 Canadians from four
provinces and one territory. Selection was based on availability, gender balance
attempt was made to select an equal number of men and women, and, in fact,
23
a sufficient number of suitable males volunteered as subjects. However, long
distances precluded many of the men from participating. The final selection
for the purposes of the study, is defined as any experience during the bodywork
perceptions.
Presuppositions
was necessary to "bracket off" these presuppositions. A list was made prior to
the commencement of the workshop and was referred back to throughout the
study. In this manner the researcher filtered out his pre-judgements and
6. The experience may involve the fear of being, or appearing, weak and
vulnerable.
9. The intensity of any provoked feelings may have subsided during the
interval between the workshop and the interview.
10. As a result of the experience participants may feel more positive about
themselves and others.
12. Some participants may feel their "work" is not completed, that is, they
did not go far enough or deep enough to adequately deal with their core
issues.
Each subject was interviewed twice and the interviews were recorded.
The first interview took place within ten days following the workshop. It
1983). The initial question was, "Could you tell me about your bodywork
The second interview took place five months after the workshop. At that
time subjects were given a summary of the first interview and asked to
complete a Q-sort based on their original comments. Once the material from
both interviews had been analyzed, the researcher developed the essential
Once the initial interviews were completed and transcribed verbatim, they
were read to obtain an overall impression. Four of the six transcripts were then
additional transcript yielding progressively fewer units. The first four transcripts
statements of the participants. The two final transcripts were then reread and
meaning units (Giorgi, 1985). All of the statements were categorized under
four headings: Prior to the Work. During the Work. Immediately Following the
interview for corroboration and correction (See Appendix B). Also a Q-sort was
Subjects were first shown the three statements in the category, Prior to
the Work, and asked which, if any, reflected their experience. Next they were
presented with 13 cards, each representing a meaning unit for the category,
The subjects were asked to sort these cards into two piles. One pile
contained those meaning units that did not reflect their experience or whose
impact was of minimal significance. The second pile contained those meaning
Once the cards were sorted, the participants were asked to arrange the
were encouraged to focus on the overall order from most to the least important
meaning unit.
This same method was used in sorting the final two categories,
After the cards were put in order of priority a number was written on the
back of each card. The subject's first choice was given the number ten, the
second number nine and so on down. No respondent chose more than ten
cards in any one category. Respondents did note that it was occasionally
work. Subjects also stated that some meaning units were of equal importance.
None of the respondents, however, had difficulty ranking the more important
The rankings taken from the second interview were then tabulated and a
total score placed after each statement. Also a second number followed each
statement indicating the number of times a meaning unit had been chosen. For
28
example, the meaning unit, "I had an experience of energy moving in my body."
is followed by two numbers, (5) and (36). The first number means that five of
the six respondents chose the statement as being significant. The second
number for the highest priority), the meaning unit received a weighting of 36.
The maximum any statement could receive was (6) and (60). In fact, only two
units were chosen by all the subjects and no unit received a perfect score. The
The meaning units were next grouped within themes. For example, the
meaning units: "I experienced a new integration of body and mind" and "I felt a
Relationship with Self. At this point the researcher moved beyond what was
theme and divergence indicated the lines of demarcation between them (Giorgi,
Meaning units
The meaning units the participants were asked to prioritize are listed
below.
29
The themes were re-analyzed in the light of information from both interviews
and the Q-sort results. In summary, validity was maintained by the process of
the hermeneutic circle which involves continual, attentional movement from the
particular of the protocols to the totality of the meanings and back to the
adopting the same viewpoint as articulated by the researcher, can also see
what the researcher saw, whether or not he agrees with it (Giorgi, 1986,
refers only to the collection of data. Reliability was assured by the use of
audio-tapes and transcripts that accurately captured not only the exact words
of the respondents but also the hesitations, speed and implicit emotional tones
of the discourse.
32
All cards were analyzed on the basis of the Q-sort data. Those cards of
little numerical value were eliminated. For the most part these cards contained
1. Experience of Release
2. Experience of the Body
3. Experience of Others
4. Physical Manifestations
5. Emotional Experiences
6. Accessing New or Forgotten Feelings
7. New Relationship with Self
Experience of Release
of the respondents and heavily weighted. In fact, the first statement, "I
of the five respondents who selected this item. All of the participants spoke of
the six respondents reported expressing tears. One respondent noted, "I
remember crying. I just felt a flood of tears and I felt okay." Another stated, "I
immediately started crying." and later, "I felt sad again and I started to cry
again. I really felt like a sadness came over me." A third respondent stated, "I
was just aware of all of the energy that was coming out of me, from the anger
to the pounding as I was beating on these pillows." The third statement, "I felt
very peaceful after my work," was cited by all participants following release of
were, "Peaceful right afterwards." "I felt at peace all of a sudden, connected."
The fourth statement, as can be seen from the weightings, was less significant.
It was conveyed by comments such as, "I felt like I had been zapped. It was
like an exorcism." "For me it was like being able to let go of a monster that's
The next theme emerging from the data is contained in the statements:
occasionally implied more than one meaning unit. For instance, several
sudden these things in my body are moving around like a rush of energy stirring
stuff up. It's definitely a sensation of movement and stirring like someone
stuck a spoon in me and was mixing me all around." Another reported, "I was
feeling a lot of tingling through me and the energy was moving." However,
statement 5, "I had unexpected body sensations during the work," was also
rendered by comments such as, " I could recognize the tingling in my legs and
the sensation was quite unique. I'd never experienced anything like that
before." or "I felt a tingling throughout my body like a numbing tingling." and,
"I had a real physical sensation. Physically my upper body became extremely
work," was selected by only three of the participants. However, two of these
three made it their first choice among the statements referring to experiences
after the work. A third respondent made this unit her second choice. This
indicates that, although this was not a universal experience, it was highly
respondents reported improved circulation in their feet. "I've noticed that the
circulation in my body is better. "I had cold feet all the time, they never get
warmed up. I've not had cold feet since I did the work." T w o of the
Statement 7, "I had a different sense of my body as a result of the work" was
less significant and derived from comments such as, "I felt much lighter."
Another participant noted a different perception of his body. "I feel big, bigger,
kind of squared and more confident." "I felt like I walked differently."
Although the participants did not use the word "acceptance", the fact that
statement ten was chosen by five of the six participants indicates that it
accurately reflects their perceived experience. A comment such as, "I find
myself more willing to hear other people's input and listen to it and learn from
11. I made loud vocal noises such as yelling and screaming (5), (28).
12. I felt compelled to express myself physically with such actions as
pounding and kicking (4), (27).
Nevertheless, as can be seen by the weightings, one of the respondents did not
this statement but gave it less importance than other aspects of the work.
and pillows. Although these actions were remembered, participants were not
fully aware of the degree of their physical outbursts. For instance, several
respondents surmised they must have shouted forcefully because their throats
had been sore afterwards. The following comments are typical of the
"I know that I must have screamed because my vocal cords were
very sore, been very exercised. I guess I yelled or called my dog. I
just felt there had been a lot of screaming or crying and I
remember, I do remember the mattress was there. I think I kicked
it. I'm assuming that's what I did."
also:
"I was probably yelling. I don't know how loud I got but my sense
of it was I didn't have a whole lot of voice afterwards. It was
pretty loud."
during the work. Statement 15 refers to new images that were created during
"The very moment I started going into the exercise the same
flashback feeling that I had had when I went to have minor surgery
came over me. It was that I was afraid I was going to die."
"When I left home at 17 I had gone and sat up in the clouds and
watched for about three months and that's what wanted to
happen at about 20 minutes in. But that's the only time in years
and years that I have felt like that."
17. I felt I had discovered a previously hidden part of myself (4), (23).
of a response that can appear under several headings, the statement could
equally refer to the present meaning unit, "I discovered new or forgotten
This was the final theme to evolve from the data. The statements
18. I felt more vulnerable immediately following the work (3), (26).
19. I experienced a new integration of body and mind (5), (31).
20. As a result of the work I felt greater aliveness (5), (40).
21. I felt a renewed sense of inner direction in my life after returning home
(5), (39).
22. I felt more connected to my inner self (5), (43).
23. I experienced a significant cognitive shift after the work (4), (26).
25. There was a change in my personal life style or habits as a result of the
work (4), (24).
This last theme covers a wide range of experiences but each has in
common a new relationship with aspects of the self. The self is defined here as
the perceptions of the characteristics of the "I" and the perceptions of the
relationships of the "I" to others, along with the associated values of these
by these comments:
The statement, "As a result of the work I felt a greater aliveness" was chosen
by five of the six participants and was chosen three times as the most
energy I feel has loosened up in my body and given me a lot more." Another
respondent stated,
"What the bodywork did was it opened up the feelings where that
spice just added this whole new colour to everything."
The next meaning unit, "I felt a renewed sense of inner direction in my life
after returning home" was also highly valued by most of the participants.
"It has given me the strength to face a problem that I've been
unwilling to face for a long time."
The meaning unit, "I felt more connected to my inner self" was highly valued by
The final units, "I experienced a cognitive shift after the work" and "There was
"I'm much more relaxed about (my success). There's not the push.
I'm not shoving everybody else down the street saying, get your
work done. It's more of an inclusion, including other people
around."
extremely intense. On the other hand, five of the participants found the
intense.
Essential Structure
1. Experience of Release
bodywork experience.
Experience of release
pent-up psychological and physiological pressure during the initial stages. "I felt
so frustrated and so contained. It was like taking the lid off." Another
interviewee stated,
The pressure was intensified by deep breathing and pressure massage. Four
sobbing, pounding and kicking. Deep breathing and acupressure facilitated the
42
every case there was a sense prior to this of consciously letting go.
Furthermore, the respondents felt that the degree of "letting go" correlated
At the same time that the participants were aware of "letting go", they
were conscious of another aspect of the self which was witnessing and
reports:
"I just felt totally willing and ready to go into it. So I had a couple
thoughts of, "I don't know if it's right to be doing this right now.'
but I was able to let it go."
strongly influenced their ultimate experience. Two participants had to face the
urge to flee:
"There was more room inside me again for the good feelings. I
could feel the music again, actually feel it again. I hadn't been
able to feel the music for a long time."
When this experience of new internal spaciousness was not immediately filled
with clearly identifiable emotions, the result, for one respondent, was increased
anxiety:
"I had this feeling of space and I wasn't exactly sure what it was,
space in my body, or space in my head. That was just space and
that's still there and that scares me. I feel afraid of that."
44
Experience of others
Five of the participants noted an altered body sense. And four of those five felt
"I was picking up all these things inside me, these senses of
freedom, of being full of myself, like a rose in full bloom. Full and
present and very real. Later that day one of the senses that came
to me was that I was grounded."
engaged in their lives. "I felt motivation return, I felt that I could take on my
dragons in a sense, my challenges in life." The sixth respondent who did not
"I feel like I'm really letting go of a lot of stuff. Letting go of a lot
of areas which I control my emotions or I control myself which no
longer work for me and that feels really scary. I'm in a place of
having a lot of anxiety again and the challenge has been to accept
it."
what Rank viewed as the rekindling of the will (1932). Significantly, enhanced
courage was reported by five of the six participants as the primary long-term
Summary findings
Idiosyncratic responses
Although two participants noted a "cognitive shift" after the work and all
of her life:
For this person the non-judgemental acceptance of the others was instrumental
feelings. This frustration arose from the conflicting forces of aroused feelings
resurgence of tears and in some cases laughter. In other words, the music
of the participants mentioned the use of music during the bodywork sessions.
Two explanations for this apparent contradiction present themselves: (1) The
conscious nature that it was able to trigger intense emotions at the time.
they neither attributed them to the music nor appear to have remembered the
presence of music.
five month period but all the participants noted that these changes, although
attenuated, were long lasting. The two respondents who had reported
improved circulation stated that the effect had not diminished and that their
feet were still warm. The participant who had reported a change in her
addictive habits reported that she no longer wanted to, nor smoked marijuana,
and that she engaged in occasional social drinking only. What emerged as the
salient long-term effect for all subjects was a renewed energy and commitment
Typically participants noted they were not fixed and that their problems
had not all been resolved. Nonetheless, they felt more hopeful and actively
CHAPTER V : DISCUSSION
statements chosen by all respondents: "I felt very peaceful after my work (6),
(44)." Also, a second meaning unit, "I experienced strong, spontaneous release
of emotions (5), (50)." was the first choice of the five respondents who
selected this item. And a third unit, though less heavily weighted, still figured
(37)." These three meaning units clearly indicate the overriding impact of
2. The trauma must be relived as vividly as possible, that is, the experience
must be remembered and the emotions that accompany the memory of
the experience must be expressed.
3. When primal pain is experienced in the present, clients may relive their
defensive response to the trauma through psychological, physiological
and/or emotional symptomdlogy. Individuals must go beyond their
defences to relive the trauma and to express emotions that were not
communicated at the time.
49
4. The whole process of reliving a primal pain must be analyzed in order to
help clients gain emotional and intellectual integration.
5. Once repressed traumas have been relived (possibly more than once) and
analyzed, the symptoms and pain they cause disappear (pp. 45-46).
Reviewing one participant's session, can reveal how the above elements
With people she was afraid to breathe deeply and so connect with and
reveal her emotions. She noted that all her life she had struggled to remain
had precipitated her discomfort and the bodywork session. Morgan also
relationships. Lastly she described the blocked energy in her extremities in the
The second point, reliving trauma through memory and its accompanying
emotions, was evident in Morgan's vision of her father in a small room. At that
moment she experienced intense fear. Point three states that individuals not
only may relive defensive responses to trauma (fear, for example) but must also
re-experience the trauma itself. In addition, they must express emotions not
arms and the yelling of "No, don't touch me!" was the expression of these
feelings. She reported great relief in being able to finally say what she had
take place through analysis and discussion. Morgan discussed her experience
with the therapists, her husband and other workshop participants directly
following the session. Five months after the work, she experienced increased
integration both within herself and with her environment. Point five states that
once early traumas have been relived and analyzed, symptoms caused by
trauma disappear. Morgan reported that the circulation in her feet had changed
immediately following the bodywork and that this effect had continued till the
time of the second interview, five months later. Also the psychological
Individuals, as they regress to the source of their primal pain, often experience
a trance-like state prior to full release (Janov, 1991). This is due both to the
intensity and the desperate quality of their feelings. Helene, who had been
sexually exploited, split off during the bodywork session. At a crucial point she
wanted to watch the proceedings from high up in the clouds just as she had
memory of her therapy. This was in spite of violent flailing and venting of
Most, like Elaine, had difficulty recognizing the intensity of their expressed
feelings. Only the after effects indicated to them the force of their expression.
51
Typically they reported they had probably made a lot of noise because their
connected with the therapist (Rosenberg & Rand, Lowen, 1975). If the patient
for him/her to reflect on the experience and so gain insight. This contact with
observer which differs from the split-off, trance-like state. In the study, the
latter appeared at selective moments during the beginning of the therapy and
was felt as an involuntary urge. The former was more generalized, more
subject to will and able to recall the factual aspects of the session. As noted in
observing themselves. Despite letting go, each was able to monitor, at least,
part of her experience from a more detached viewpoint. All, with the exception
However, the time and the degree of emotional intensity remained vague or
misconstrued.
tension felt by the participants as they wrestled with their simultaneous desires
for control and release of feelings. Catharsis requires that individuals relinquish
enough ego control to allow themselves to regress and relive past traumas
while, at the same time, retaining enough ego strength to analyze and make
52
sense of the experience. The therapist fulfills the relinquished ego functions of
therapist that she can permit herself to re-experience underlying pain without
associated with regression during catharsis. Fear of this nature is often related
to the fear of losing one's defences and losing oneself. In Elaine's case the fear
combined within it two separate phenomena: the original trauma, fear of death,
and the recent trauma that had triggered it. This second trauma was a minor
operation prior to which the fear of death had resurfaced. Gilbert (1992), citing
Lowen and Janov, maintains that client symptoms will not be eradicated until
the original trauma is relived and analyzed. If this is true, it would suggest that
Elaine's catharsis was incomplete. For, although she experienced primal pain
and later identified the triggering event, dissociation prevented her from fully
she "had never had a mother's cuddling." Tamara experienced the therapist as
a father who acted, "as I wanted my father to act." She went on to say, "The
Three of the six participants did not recall a specific traumatic incident
that had shaped their early experiences. Nonetheless, they all experienced
53
pervasive frustration and discouragement which often comes from anxiety and
years of perceived neglect. Both Janov and Baker remark that reliving trauma
experience is equally one that unleashes the pent-up pain resulting from
Others. This theme contains the only other statement chosen by all six
participants: "Immediately following the work I felt very warm toward the
other group members (6), (36)." It also contains another strongly weighted
(5), (31). Both of these statements point to an inclusive attitude toward others.
Moreover, it is precisely this aspect of caring and interest in others that is seen
1980). As previously noted, this aspect was fostered by the fact that the
their private selves and the concomitant feelings of shame, remorse, disdain
and love in the company of others. Witnessing one's darker side along with
54
loving acceptance deepened the participants' experience. After all, a therapist
of worthiness. The fact that the participants were accepted despite their self-
revelations was evidenced by group sharing after the work and the participants'
reported, "The experience of being with other people when they were having
the bodywork done, I was almost, I enjoyed-even though the emotion was sad,
hurt wrenching some of the things people were going through." These
Cognitive and emotional change are also evident in the theme, New
Relationship with Self. Four meaning units within this theme were significantly
weighted:
therapy, the concept remains fluid, varying as it does from one practitioner to
the next. In the present study integration reflects a sense of well-being and a
their experience after returning home. This coincides with Reich's belief that an
repressing disavowed feelings. As the armouring breaks down and feelings are
ideas and points of view. Both participants stated this openness as a cognitive
shift which was in addition to a new affective openness. The implication is that
Five participants stated they felt more connected to the inner self and
five related a new sense of inner direction in their lives. This was expressed as
state of health, connects with and follows an innately derived inner direction.
increased clarity of that purpose was the most significant long-term effect of
the therapy. The sixth participant, who at the first interview had expressed
freedom. Initially for her the loosening of a strict adherence to external goals
situations for the sake of long-term goals. Existentialists have often cited the
1969; May, 1953; Yalom, 1980). Rank believed that once the roots of
psychoneurosis had been unearthed, will along with creativity were the means
by which the individual could free himself from the past. This aspect of the
meaning unit, "I had an experience of energy moving in my body (5), (36)."
Participant reports of energy and body change reflect the findings and clinical
Two themes were less significant and are, therefore, not included in the
the notion that memories and feelings constitute a necessary condition for
change. Lowen (1971) states that emotional expressions not linked to early
memories serve merely to blow off steam and, therefore, have little or no long-
term effect. However, other practitioners maintain that cathartic change does
not always necessitate the recalling and reliving of specific memories (Baker,
surprise. Undoubtedly, one session was not sufficient for a full reliving of
repressed feelings. It is also possible that the item, itself, was somewhat
misleading. The feelings the participants experienced were not new to them.
What was new was the intensity of feeling and the ready accessibility to these
emotions. Had this last theme been entitled, Accessing Heightened Feelings, it
of change for some of the participants. However, it does imply that their
importance was not universal and that, generally, these themes were perceived
Conclusions
of the first taped interview clearly indicate that the bodywork experience had a
the follow-up interview respondents were asked if they had any negative
asked if they had changed their perceptions or evaluations from the first
interview to the second. In both cases the answer was no. Participants did
talk about a gradual lessening of the euphoric after effects of the workshop.
that coincided with their original assessment. In other words there was no
appreciable change from the assessments made within a week to ten days after
the workshop and at the time of the five month follow-up. The quality of the
experience, the insights and general learnings remained the same. Somatic
What is less clear is the degree to which perceived changes tangibly influenced
the participants' lives. Strupp (1973) noted that clients' perceptions are
to quickly penetrate the social and defensive layers of personality to reveal deep
Would repeated sessions have similar effects or could they provide for a deeper
resolution of these issues? And what of the group effects, would they be
attenuated by repeated catharsis? These questions are not easily answered and
client and the issues involved. Based on the experiences of Reich (1945),
as being largely emotional in nature. There was, from the participants' point of
of the directness and speed with which Neo-Reichian work addresses core
behaviours.
61
APPENDIX A
Cameron had experienced increasing difficulties in her marriage and had begun
Her bodywork took place on the second day of the workshop in a small
evening group of eight participants and two therapists. She was asked if she
momentary reluctance then willingly stepped forward. She commented that she
had no specific issue to deal with. In response the therapists suggested that
she could "just breathe and see what happens." Cameron lay on her back on a
mattress in the centre of the floor. She breathed deeply for about five minutes
allowing the air to fully fill her lungs while at the same time expanding her
shoulders and chest. After five minutes, involuntary trembling in the hands,
arms and legs became noticeable. As Cameron continued to breathe, her body
developed a rhythmic rocking motion so that on the out-breath her pelvic basin
was thrust forward. One of the therapists encouraged her to make a sound as
she breathed out so that a guttural groan was emitted. She was further
encouraged to amplify this sound and it developed into a loud bellow, then a
Occasionally words were uttered such as "no" or "I won't." When Cameron
62
began to choke on her out-breath she was told to cough up or spit out any
coughed and stopped the deep rhythmic breathing. At this point she began to
sob uncontrollably. She rolled into a foetal position and asked to be held by the
female therapist. While she was in this position the second therapist turned on
soothing music. Cameron cried gently for a number of minutes and then began
to smile. She started a purr-like hum. The other members of the group were
invited to come closer. Cameron, the therapists and the other group members
Jay is a gay man in his forties. He had been an Episcopalian minister but
recently lost his position and separated from his wife due to his open admission
Jay's bodywork began on the last day of the workshop. He was invited
to sit in the middle of the large group and pillows were placed about him. He
was instructed in the deep breathing technique while sitting in this position. At
the same time acupressure was applied primarily to his shoulders. As the
breathing continued Jay began to cry out under the pain of the acupressure but
insisted on continuing the session. Jay's cries of anguish gradually turned into
self-abuse and at that point the therapist suggested Jay talk to his other
aspects of himself and to his wife. The dialogues provoked continuing emotion,
especially sorrow, and when they were completed music was played. The
63
other participants were then invited to approach Jay and share their feelings
with him.
Elaine is a realtor. She has been married for twenty years and has two
place of work and problems dealing with her aging mother. She had had little
experience with therapy prior to the workshop which had been recommended
by a friend.
lay oh a mattress in the centre of the room and began deep-breathing for about
five to ten minutes. Shortly after breathing deeply Elaine began to cry out that
she was afraid. She thrashed about on the floor pounding her fists into the
mattress and kicking forcefully into a foam block. Her emotions ebbed and
flowed as she rested momentarily and then, under the impetus of acupressure,
began breathing again. Elaine eventually started to giggle and laugh while
enveloping herself in the arms of a female therapist. Music was played and as
the group shared, Elaine talked about her fear of dying and her subsequent
with two daughters in their early twenties. She came to the workshop with her
Her bodywork on the fourth day of the five day workshop proceeded in
the following way. In a session in the large group Morgan asked the therapist
64
about the ability of abused children to remain grounded in reality. The therapist
mentioned a tendency among some abused people to escape the real world
investigating this possibility. After hesitating a moment she stated she was
willing. A covered mattress was placed on the floor in the middle of the room
and she was asked to lie on it. She was told to close her eyes and breathe
deeply into her diaphragm with her mouth open. Because Morgan has a hearing
impediment she was asked if she could hear the voices of the therapists. One
therapist sat on the floor at her head while two other therapists sat on either
acupuncture points on the shoulders and on various parts of the face. During
the deep breathing she was asked, "Do you see anything? What do you see?"
When Morgan said, " A door." One of the therapists asked, "Can you open it?"
In this way a dialogue continued between Morgan and the primary therapist.
During this time Morgan was continuing to breathe deeply and pressure was
intermittently applied. A scene developed in which she saw her father. This
was frightening to her. She shouted at her father and hit the mattress with her
feet and hands. At the suggestion of the therapist a more benign scene was
visualized and the work was brought to an end. Music was played and
Morgan's husband, who had come forward, held her as she relaxed into his
arms.
65
Tamara is a twenty-one year old woman raised by a single mother. She
had recently moved away from the family home and at the time of the
workshop was doing secretarial work in a major Canadian city. She came to
the workshop partly through the influence of her mother and partly as a result
Tamara's work began on the first day of the workshop as she was sitting
in the large circle. She had asked the therapist for acupuncture to help remedy
diarrhoea that she had been experiencing for several weeks. A therapist took
her pulses based on the Chinese system of medicine, talked to her briefly and
deeply into her chest and abdomen and immediately she began to sob
occasionally gently vibrating the acupuncture needles. The sobs turned into a
rage and Tamara struck pillows on the floor with her fists and howled loudly.
When the anger had subsided, Tamara talked about her father and once again
began to cry. The therapist after asking permission, held Tamara in his arms
and music was played. The observing workshop participants were invited to
Helene is fifty. She had been sexually and emotionally abused as a child
and had remained for years in a physically abusive relationship. Her second
Helene came to the workshop to deal with her depression and suppressed anger
66
which had been triggered by a recent job lay-off and the various stresses in her
life.
evening small group. She had expressed a desire to work so the therapists
invited her into the centre of the small circle. She sat on a mattress and for
breathing deepened, Helene first made guttural noises then began to shout and
swear. A gestalt-type dialogue ensued first with her mother then her father.
As Helene spoke she expressed a great deal of anger and sadness while, at the
same time, violently twisting a towel that had been handed her by the therapist.
After approximately 25 minutes Helene lay down on the mattress. She cuddled
up into the arms of a female participant and music was played. Group
members came closer and shared their feelings with the group.
67
APPENDIX B
Interview Summaries
each of the six research participants. These summaries were then returned to
the respondents at a second interview during which time they were discussed
and minor changes made. The summaries that appear in this document are the
Participant #1:
When Cameron had first observed bodywork during the workshop she
had been jolted. She had felt nauseous, emotional and frightened. However
lie on a mattress in the middle of the room. She began by breathing deeply
through her mouth, expanding her chest and diaphragm. The experience of
minutes she felt a tingling in her body and a dryness in her mouth. At the same
time, it felt like her head was going to burst. As she continued to breathe,
conflict between wanting to express herself and repressing her feelings. Part
of her was wanting to interfere and control what was happening while the
pressure and the breathing was increasing the tension. The applied pressure
was stirring up feelings and energy inside of her. It seemed as if things were
68
moving around in her body like a spoon in a pot. There was a rush of energy
minutes and this helped to release the tension. After fifteen to twenty minutes
into the session Cameron ceased screaming and deliberately stopped the
proceedings fearing she would throw up. Immediately, she became annoyed
and critical of herself for not continuing and she began to sob. At that same
moment, however, Cameron felt a warm wave of euphoria wash over her and a
deep feeling of release. She wanted to be gently held and cuddled. She
reconnected with the people around her wishing to hug and be hugged.
and hard to remember in detail. Rather than a controlled mental experience, she
After the bodywork she felt open, vulnerable and sensitive to others'
pain. And she felt a little embarrassment about expressing her feelings so fully
in front of strangers.
emotional experiences. She felt a hunger to feel sadness and joy while
watching iother participants work. As a result of feeling so much, her heart and
On returning home Cameron was aware of not wanting to slip into old
patterns. She needed to be real and to avoid any fakeness. She found that her
energy was very directed. In her work she noticed a sharper focus. She could
see exactly what was required and how to go about getting it. She felt a
69
renewed strength to confront long-standing problems in her life. Without any
conscious willpower she lost the desire to drink alcohol and smoke marijuana
which she had been doing regularly for years. She felt reconnected to her body
summation, she had a desire for more clarity and purpose in her life and a
Participant #2:
evening of the workshop. She was invited by the therapist to lie on a mattress
in the middle of the room. A gentle, electronic stimulus was applied to various
acupuncture points on her legs, feet and hands. Elaine was instructed to
breathe deeply expanding the muscles of her chest and abdomen. The
moment the work began Elaine had the sensation of feelings that had come to
her earlier in her life while undergoing minor surgery. She was afraid she was
going to die. Elaine shared her fear with the therapist who attempted to
reassure her.
After a few minutes Elaine began to feel a tingling in her hands, which as
her breathing progressed, spread and became particularly noticeable in her legs.
She could now feel the energy moving in her body. She felt afraid of losing
control and letting her feelings flow. She began to cry out that she didn't want
to die and to kick and strike the mattress with her feet and fists. At this time
details remain vague for her but after 15 to 20 minutes Elaine felt a physical
and comfort. She felt close to the other group members. Whereas before she
had judged herself as being silly, unworthy and inadequate, she now felt at
embarrassment. She could now look people in the eye with ease and feel a
of stress and her chest was no longer tight. She was warm to others and had
the conviction she could step forward in relationships with people instead of
experience, the effects of which lasted for several weeks after coming home.
Elaine had also noted, however, that a particular moment of personal stress had
jarred her from these feelings and had momentarily returned to her habitual
Elaine does not believe that all her personal issues have been resolved. In
fact, when her negative feelings now surface they are more intense. The
Participant #3:
Helene's bodywork session began the first night of the workshop in the
and so was invited to come to the centre of the room by one of the therapists.
Helene sat on a mattress in the middle of a small circle of participants and was
instructed to breathe deeply. The therapist asked Helene to talk to her mother
about Helene's feelings. This was difficult for her to do but she began to talk
to her mother. She told her that Helene needed to be recognized and she
needed to be seen by her mother for the person she really was. As she spoke
she began experiencing a lot of anger mixed with terror at confronting her
mother. She cried out and yelled forcefully at her. The fear she felt was
reminiscent of fear she had experienced as a young child but she drew strength
from the support of the therapist and the safety of the group. Helene found that
i
being able to talk feelingly and openly with her mother and not suffering feared
emotions. After venting her fear, frustrations and anger there was now room
Next Helene spoke to her father where her feelings were mixed with
sudden urge to leave. It was as if the spirit inside her wanted to remove itself
and leave her body behind. As her anger increased Helene violently twisted a
her experience.
After approximately 30 minutes Helene relaxed her hold on the towel and
stopped shouting. She placed her head on the breast of female participant and
started to cry. Music was played and she was held in a woman's arms.
Helene realized the shame she had felt about her father's sexual abuse.
mother's love. She realized she had never before been cuddled by her mother
or held by another woman. She recognized a body need for that kind of touch.
spontaneous. She felt less self-conscious. Because she felt emptied there was
now more room for good feelings and there was room for music to move and
vibrate inside her again. The experience seemed like a catalyst that allowed her
to break through the restricting walls of her defences. She was now more able
She appreciated the solidarity of the group and the intimate connections
she made with others. She believes she has come to a better understanding of
herself but also recognizes that there are still layers of her personality that need
care and attention. The experience, she said, was like peeling a layer off an
onion and she doesn't know if she will ever reach the core.
Now she feels comfortable with herself and with her experience of
bodywork.
74
Participant #4:
therapist to do some work relating to his feelings. Jay sat on his knees in the
centre of the room and cushions were placed about him. He was instructed to
breathe deeply expanding both his chest and the muscles in his diaphragm.
Acupuncture needles were placed in his wrists. Because the bodywork session
moved quickly Jay was not able to be recall all the details of his emotional and
particular, he noted the tingling in his gut and hands. He was then asked by
himself. As he spoke Jay became angry; he pounded the pillows in front of him
and yelled furiously at his "other self". Jay experienced a release of anger
which came up from the depths of his abdomen and which was directed at
respond from the point of view of his previously, disowned aspects. Having
felt degraded and guilty being now the recipient of the expressed anger and
criticism. Jay does not remember what he said in response to his angry self but
he is certain he spoke about his fear and shame and need for secrecy. The
connected to his sorrow, grief and regret. And the depth of these feelings were
75
surprising. He then talked to his absent wife and cried openly. The work, as a
The bodywork did not seem to last very long. At a certain point it "just
felt done." Although nothing was said, it was as if a director had said, "It's
over now."
Music from the Los Angeles Gay Men's Chorus was played, and Jay
relaxed. The other participants were invited to come closer. The empathy he
believed they felt for him was one of the most powerful elements of the
connectedness to the earth. He was more comfortable with himself and more
aware of his body. He also noted a greater integration between his emotions
and his physical sensations. Also, his voice was noticeably lower, quite a part
On returning home Jay noticed his low grade depression had lifted. He
also noted a cognitive shift related to the return of energy both to his body and
mind. This translated into a new willingness to be himself and open to others.
personal challenges.
76
Despite these changes Jay does not feel all his personal issues have been
Participant #5:
say that severely abused children cannot remain grounded in reality; rather,
they are condemned to live life in a protective fantasy. What Morgan believed
she had heard in the therapist's comments had been particularly upsetting
because, as an abused child herself, she believed she had established firm
On the day of her bodywork she asked for a clarification in the large
group. Though reassured that she had misconstrued the therapist's comments
she was, nevertheless, aware that the topic had touched a very sensitive area
concerning her early years with her father. She was intensely interested in
Morgan lay on a mattress in the centre of the room. One therapist sat at
her head, the other two on the floor on each side of her. She immediately felt
panic when asked to close her eyes fearing she would not be able to hear.
However she sensed relief when she realized that she could hear the therapist's
voice. Morgan was instructed to breath deeply, fully expanding her chest and
The therapist asked her what she saw. Morgan described a corridor with
enter a darkened room in which her father was sitting. Light from a barred
window showed his features and clenched jaw. This was a terrifying moment
While this was happening Morgan's deep breathing continued and acupressure
was applied to her face, particularly at points near the nostrils and on the
significant difference. Unlike previous occasions she was now able to stand up
to him and tell him to stop. She began shouting, "Don't touch me!" While
shouting she unconsciously raised her forearms off the mat as if to stop
something. The therapists at her side slapped her hands which increased the
intensity of her yelling and she pushed against the therapist's hands. The
The therapist suggested she fill the room with light. She basked the
room in a white light, the window increased in size and outside she could smell
and see flowers and trees. Morgan became relaxed and calmed. She felt that
by expressing herself so fully she had created a boundary for herself and she
could confront her fears without falling into the abyss. The experience was like
79
letting go of a monster that had always been with her. In a sense her father had
been demystified.
She opened her eyes, saw her husband beside her and felt love and
gratitude for his presence. She recognized the compassion of the other group
members and felt compassion in herself. And despite her usual discomfort
being the centre of attention she allowed the moment to sink in.
herself and fully present to her surroundings. She had a sense of being fully
inside her body. The black hole she had felt growing inside of her was now
herself has been found and this new self intermittently bubbles to the surface.
At the same time she is experiencing peace. Morgan used to believe she could
never reach her full potential or be completely successful. Now she believes
her new business will be the most successful she has ever begun. At the same
time she is striving less. She is better able and willing to listen to other people
and feels less need to control others. She has become more inclusive and
Up till now her nightmares have not recurred and her chronically cold feet
Participant #6:
Tamara's bodywork took place in the large group on the first day of the
workshop. Tamara had asked the therapist for acupuncture to relieve the
diarrhoea she had been experiencing for several months. The therapist asked
her to breathe deeply and felt her pulses based on the Chinese system of
each foot and gently vibrated them. Almost immediately Tamara began to cry,
then changed to rage and she screamed and beat the pillows in front of her.
Her upper body and arms were radiating heat and she started to sweat. It
seemed to her as if a lid had been removed and it felt very good. Her feelings
then turned to sadness and she cried. At that point the therapist asked her
permission to cradle her in his arms. She experienced this as a fatherly gesture
as if he were standing in for the real father she missed. The whole experience
Immediately after the work Tamara found she could breathe easier and
more fully. She felt lighter and more in her body. Also, she had the sensation
of occupying more space in her chest. Tamara noted less stress in herself and
she noticed, too, that she could enjoy herself more in the presence of other
people.
she experienced insomnia for over a week she felt more energetic. The
circulation in her body improved and her chronically cold feet and hands were
81
warmer. She felt she had let go of herself. At the same time, however, this
noticed feeling an increased space in her head. This sensation was sometimes
surprise. She had not expected to enter such a deep emotional state so
quickly. At one point during the work she had been concerned for the on-
But these were fleeting thoughts and she decided to go with the flow of her
emotions. The whole experience had been very emotional with little thought or
APPENDIX C
establishing contact with the group and group sharing once the work was
complete?
Looking back now, have you changed your view of the experience?
your bodywork?
Was there any learning for you in the experience and, if so, what was it?
84
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