CRIM 201: HUMAN BEHAVIOR and VICTIMOLOGY

 Module for Students

 Equip with 5 Activities

CRIM 201 Instructor: Sherwin Q. Dimasuhid

Introduction to Human Behavior

The study of human behavior is essential in criminology, as it provides knowledge and

information on the dynamics on the different kinds of human behavior that may pose a threat to
public safety. This course focuses on understanding abnormal behavior in relation to crime and
adoption of strategies and tactics in dealing with potential and actual crisis and types of
victimization in relation to crime causation. This also focuses on the role of victims in the study
of crime. It includes the theories that could explain human behavior and victims’ contribution to
victimization.

At the end of this course, the students shall be able to;

1. The student will be able to identify human behavior .

2.Explain the dynamics of normal and abnormal behaviour;

3. Identify, predict and control criminal behaviour;

4. Understand the role of the victim in the commission of crime; and

5. Apply theories in explaining human behavior and victimization to analyze crime causation.

Chapter 1: Nature of Human Behavior, Levels of Behavior and Determinants of Behavior

Human Behavior – Refers to the reaction to facts of relationship between the individual and his
environment. It is mainly influenced by genes and environment. It is the manner of conducting
oneself which considerably involves action of a person in response to stimuli and vice versa.

- It is the voluntary or involuntary attitude a person adopts in order to fit

society’s idea of right or wrong. It is partly determined by heredity and
environment, and modified through learning. It is also the way human
beings act. Many people use the word behaviour to mean conduct. But
in psychology and other behavioural sciences, behavior is regarded as
any activity of a person.

Psychology -the science that studies behavior and mental processes.

- uses scientific method and therefore judgment is suspended until all facts had
been analysed.

Personality - distinguishes and characterizes a person.

Common Sense -lacks the organization of thoughts and jumps to conclusion immediately

Factors That Affect Human Behavior

 1. Heredity/Biological Factors (Nature)- It is determined by genes. Genes are segments
of cell structures called chromosomes by which parents pass on traits to their offspring.
Genes are composed od chemical substance that give the offspring a tendency toward
certain physical and behavioural qualities.
Example: A person might inherit genes to become an excellent pianist. But the
person may never learn to play a piano well without early training and piano on which to
practice. In a way, genetic and environmental influences are intertwined in a person’s
behavioural development.
Most scientists agree that genes influence several intelligence and special aptitudes in
athletics, mathematics, music and science. But heredity is not only factor involved in
producing these characteristics.
2. Environment (Nurture)- Socio-cultural inheritance, Consists of the conditions and
factors that surround and influence an individual. Environment can cause certain
behaviour patterns.
3. Learning- Is the process by which behaviour changes as a result of experience or
practice. A person learns behaviour through new environments that provide ample
examples of the new behaviour, provide instruction or opportunity to practice new
behaviour. Learning takes place constantly because people are always being given new
proble to solve or are being shown new ways of doing things.

Individual Differences

-No two people are exactly alike

-Men differs from women - qualitative differences; and physical differences

-People differ from day-to-day activities.

Nature of Differences

-Physical

- Ability/Skill

-Personality

-Intelligence

Causes of Conflicts in Human Behavior

1. Physical Causes- Refers to natural causes: Typhoon, Earthquake, Fire, Flood and a storm
2. Social Conflicts- Involve restriction or rules in the home, in school, in the community.
Many laws are intended for public welfare, but they interfere with an adolescents desires
and interest.
3. Economic Conflicts- Result from one’s inability to acquire material things because of
poverty or financial obligations.

Two Basic Types of Human Behavior

1. Inherited Bahavior
Inherited behaviour or innate behaviour refers to any behavioral response or
reflex exhibited by people due to genetic endowment or the process of natural
selection. The survival of the species is contingent on behaviour like breathing,
ingesting food, voiding waste,mating and defending self. These behaviors are
modified through adaptation as the environment acts on an individual.

2. Learned Behavior
 Learned or operant behaviour involves cognitive adaptation that enhances the
human being’s ability to cope with changes in the environment and to manipulate
the environment in ways which improve the chances for survival, such verbal
communication, logical problem techniques, job skill etc. It gives people more
control over their lives . The key to this behaviour lies in its consequences for the
person and for the environment.

3 Basic steps on how does human behaviour takes place.

1. Sensation- The feeling or impression of stimulus are as follows:

a. Visual- refers to man’s sense of sight.
b. Olfactory-refers to our sense of smelling.
c. Cutaneous- refers to our sense of touch or feeling
d. Auditory-man’s sense of hearing
e. Gustatory-man’s sense of taste.
2. Perception-knowledge of stimulus
3. Awareness-psychological activity( according to interpretation and experience of object or
stimulus).

Three Levels of Behavior

1.The Vegetative - responsible for nurturing and reproduction, mostly found in plants; in human
beings, for food and reproduction.

2.The Animal - movement and sensation, mostly the use of the senses and sex drives.

3.The Rational/Psyche/Human - values and morals, reasons and the will (purpose and freedom).

Three Faculties of Man

1. Will - the power of conscious deliberate actions; the faculty by which the rational mind makes
choice of its ends of action, and directs energies in carrying out its determinations.

2. Intellect - the faculty of power of perception or thought; or power of understanding.

3. Soul - the emotional, and volitional faculties in man, conceived of as forming an entity distinct
from, often existing independently of his body; the emotional faculty of man distinguished from
intellect.

The family background is a basic consideration because it is in the family whereby an

individual first experiences how to relate and interact with another. The family is said to be the
cradle of personality development as a result of either a close or harmonious relationship or a
pathogenic family structure: the disturbed family, broken family, separated or maladjusted
relations.

The influences of childhood trauma, which affect the feeling of security of a child undergoing
development, processes. The development processes are being blocked sometimes by parental
deprivation as a consequence of parents or lack of adequate maturing at home because of
parental rejection, overprotection, restrictiveness, over permissiveness, and faulty discipline.

Pathogenic family structure – those families associated with high frequency of problems such
as:

1.The inadequate family – characterized by the inability to cope with the ordinary
problems of family living. It lacks the resources, physical or psychological, for meeting the
demands of family satisfaction.
 2.The anti-social family – those that espouses unacceptable values as a result of the
influence of parents to their children.

`3. The discordant/disturbed family – characterized by unsatisfaction of one or both

parent from the relationship that may express feeling of frustration. This is usually due to value
differences as common sources of conflict and dissatisfaction.

4. The disrupted family – characterized by incompleteness whether as a result of death,

divorce, separation or some other circumstances. Other factors Institutional influences
such as: peer groups, mass media, church and school, government institutions, NGO’s,
etc.

Socio-cultural factors such as war and violence, group prejudice and discrimination, economic
and employment problems and other social changes. Nutrition or the quality of food that a person
intake is also a factor that influence man to commit crime because poverty is one of the many
reasons to criminal behavior.

Three kinds of assumptions

Reality assumptions – assumptions about how things really are and what kind of person we are.

Possibility assumptions– assumptions about how things could be, about possibilities for change,
opportunities and social progress.

Value assumptions – assumptions about the way things ought to be, about right and wrong.

Two instinctual drives – Sigmund Freud

Eros - the life or love instinct, which drives people toward self-fulfilment and enjoyment

Libido - pleasure principle the instinctual craving of drive behind all human activities,
especially sexual, the repression of which leads to neurosis.

Thanatos - the death instinct, which produces self-destruction

. - can be expressed externally (e.g., violence and sadism) or internally (e.g., suicide,
alcoholism, or other self-destructive habits).

Stages of Human Development

- psychoanalytic

-learning

- cognitive

- sociocultural

Activity no. 1. Chapter 1 Answer the following.

1. Why is family important in moulding ones personality?

 Chapter 2: Theories explaining Human Behavior

Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud (Father of Psychoanalysis)

 Revolutionized the thinking of the profession on mental illness, personality
development or personality disorders with his psychoanalytic theories.

He postulated that the mind consists roughly of three overlapping divisions:

1. The conscious is that part of the mind which is immediately focused in
awareness.
2. The pre-conscious is that part of the mind which can be recalled and brought
to awareness at will.
3. The unconscious is the reservoir of memories, experience and emotions that
can be recalled. They are out of the individual’s awareness.

Psychoanalytic Theory – Psychoanalysis

 Attempts to explain the inner thoughts and feelings, at both the

conscious and sub-conscious levels, that influence behaviour.

Psychosexual stages

Oral stage

 From birth to Age 1

 Breast-feeding with mother
 Crying to meet needs
 Babies put everything in their mouths
 The mouth is source of pleasure or conflict
 Source of understanding/discovery of the world

Anal stage

 Age 1 to Age 4
 Pleasure derived from the anus
 Greater focus on defecating
 Children begin potty-training
 Conversion of involuntary to voluntary behaviour
 First attempt controlling instinctual impulse
 Derive praise from parents for completing potty training
 Punishment often targets buttocks

Phallic stage

 Between Age 4 and Age 6

 Focus on genital
  Pleasurable physiological sensations

 Conflictual feelings arise

 Children notice differences between girls and boys

 May fantasize about sexual acts and masturbate

Oedipus Complex

 Greek tragedy written by Sophocles

 Oedipus kills his father and weds his mother
 Oedipus unaware of the taboos he has transgressed
 Oedipus blinds himself upon learning of his deeds

Electra

Latency stage

 Middle childhood

 Sexual forces driven dormant by psychic forces

- Culturally unacceptable sexual thoughts/behaviors are channelled into other

activities (sports, intellectual interests, peer relationships)

 Preference for same-sex peers

 Modern critics say that children simply learn to “hide” their sexuality at this point

Genital stage

 Around the age of puberty

 Return of overt sexual and aggressive desires

 Emergence of interest in the opposite sex

 Sexual needs satisfied through socially acceptable means

 Lieben und arbeiten

- To love in an appropriate way and to contribute as a productive member of

society

Personality is made up of three components – the id, ego and superego

Id

 drives, wishes, urges and desires emanate

 instinctual impulses and demands for immediate satisfaction of primitive needs

Ego

 the reality-testing part (reality principle)

 conscious, most immediately controls behaviour and is most in touch with

external reality
Superego

 moral aspect, like conscience

 Develops by the incorporation of the perceived moral standards of the

community, mainly unconscious, and includes the conscience.

Psychoanalytic Structure of Personality

Superego - Based on the Ethical Principle
Ego- Based on the Reality Principle
Id- Based on the Pleasure Principle

Psychosocial Theory
 social context of the child and family also influences behaviour

Erik Erikson
- argues that social interactions are more important than sexual drives in personality
development

Behavioral Theory
- Focus on observable behaviour  Learning is gradual and continuous process 
Important factor experience

Modelling Theory

- People learn how to behave by modelling themselves after others whom they have the
opportunity to observe.

Modelling

- the process of learning how to behave by observing other

Gabriel Tarde (1890)

- the basis for a society is imitation, the tendency of people to pattern their behaviour
after the behaviour of others.

Albert Bandura (1973)

-according to the comprehensive modelling theory of aggression, everyone is capable of

aggression but people must learn aggressive behaviors

Self-Control Theory

- Root causes of crime can be found in a person’s inability to exercise socially

appropriate controls over the self.

Self-control

- A person’s ability to alter his or her own states and responses

General Theory of Crime

-Explain all forms of criminal conduct through a single, overarching approach

Michael R. Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi

  Low self-control is the cause of crime

 Low self-control accounts for all crime

 argues that self-control is the cause of both crime and gravitation to delinquent
peers

Cognitive Theory Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

 Attempts to explain how young children think and process information.

 Piaget proposed that children order their interactions with the environment and
adapt to or change this order if they have new insights or information.

Activity no .2 Chapter 2. Answer the following.

1. Who is Sigmund Freud and what is his contribution in human behaviour?

2. Differentiate ID,EGO, Super EGO?
3. How sociocultural affects your behavior?
4. What is the best theoretical perspective in explaining human behavior? Why?
 Chapter 3
Chapter 3: Psychology of Criminal Behavior, Forensic Psychopathology, Personality
Disorders and Criminality
Psychology of Human Adjustment
Needs, Drives and Motivations

Drives are aroused state that results from some biological needs. The aroused
condition motivates the person to remedy the need.

Needs are the triggering factor that drives or moves a person to act. It is a
psychological state of tissue deprivation.

Motivation on the other hand refers to the causes and “why’s” of behavior as
required by a need. Adjustment - the satisfaction of a need.

Normal and Abnormal Behaviors

Who is a normal person?

▪ Free expression of personality

▪ Ability to exercise voluntary control over his behaviour
▪ Adequate security feeling
▪ Self-esteem and acceptance
▪ Efficient contact/perception of reality
▪ Adaptability to group norms or ability to form affectionate relationship with
others
▪ Emotional maturity
▪ Adequate self-knowledge
▪ Integrated and consistent personality
▪ Productivity

Who are abnormal?

▪ When a person fails to meet the criteria enumerated above, he is deemed

to be an abnormal person.

Abnormal Behavior Defined:

▪ Deviation from the average
▪ Deviation from the ideal
▪ Abnormality as a sense of subjective discomfort
▪ Abnormality as the inability to function effectively

Legal definition of abnormality

▪ According to the law, the distinction between normal and abnormal

behavior rests on the definition of insanity (one which cannot understand the
difference between right and wrong or inability to exert control over his behavior
at the time he or she commits a criminal act), which is a legal, but not
psychological, term.
Patterns of Abnormal Behavior

▪ The Neurotic Behaviors

▪ The Psychopathic Behaviors

▪ The Psychotic Behaviors

Neurotic Behaviors

▪ Psychoneurotic

▪ Twilight zone

Types of Neurotic Disorders

▪ Anxiety disorders

▪ Somatoform Disorders

▪ Dissociative Disorders

▪ Affective Disorders

1. Anxiety disorders

Obsessive-compulsive disorders

▪ When an individual is compelled to think about something that he don’t want to

think about or carry out some action against his will.

Asthenic Disorders (Neurasthenia)

▪ An anxiety disorder characterized by chronic mental and physical fatigue and

various aches and pains.

Phobic Disorders – the persistent fear on some objects or situation that present no actual danger to the
person.

Example of Phobic Disorders

▪ Acrophobia - high places

▪ Agoraphobia - open places

▪ Algophobia – pain

▪ Asthraphobia - storms, thunder, lightning

▪ Claustrophobia - closed places

▪ Hematophobia - blood

▪ Hydrophobia – water

▪ Mysophobia - contamination/germs

▪ Monophobia - being alone

▪ Nyctophobia – darkness

▪ Ocholophobia – crowds
 2. Somatoform Disorders
▪ Complains of bodily symptoms that suggest the presence of physical problem but
no organic basis can be found. The individual is pre-occupied with his state of health
or diseases.
Somatoform disorders includes
▪ Hypochondriasis
▪ Psychogenic Pain Disorder
▪ Conversion Disorders (Hysteria)
3. Dissociative Disorders
▪ Amnesia
▪ Multiple Personality
▪ Depersonalization
4. Affective Disorders
▪ The affective disorders are “mood disorders”, in which extreme or inappropriate
levels of mood – extreme elation or extreme depression.
Forms of affective disorders:
Types of Affective Disorders
▪ Milder forms
▪ Neurotic affective
▪ Neurotic depression
▪ Severe affective disorders
▪ Depressive stupor

The Psychopathic Behaviors

▪ stemmed from immature and distorted personality development

▪ maladaptive ways of perceiving and thinking

▪ They have no neurotic or psychotic symptoms but are not able to conform to prevailing
customs and standards of conduct of his social group

1. Personality Disorders – disorders of character, the person is characterized as a

“problematic” without psychoses. This disorder is characterized by disrupted
personal relationship, dependent or passive aggressive behavior.

The types of personality disorders are:

a. Paranoid Personality – characterized by suspiciousness, rigidity, envy, hypersensitivity,

excessive selfimportance, argumentativeness and tendency to blame others for one’s own
mistakes.

b. Schizoid Personality – characterized by the inability to form social relationship and lack
interest in doing so. The person seem to express their feelings, they lack social skills. They are
the so called “loners”.

c. Schizotypal Personality – characterized by seclusiveness, oversensitivity, avoidance of

communication and superstitious thinking is common.

d. Histrionic Personality – characterized by immaturity, excitability, emotional instability and

selfdramatization.

e. Narcissistic Personality – characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance and pre-

occupation with receiving attention. The person usually expects and demands special treatment
from others and disregarding the rights and feeling of others.
 f. Borderline Personality – characterized by instability reflected in drastic mood shifts and
behavior problems. The person usually display intense anger outburst with little provocation and
he is impulsive, unpredictable, and periodically unstable.

g. Avoidant Personality – characterized by hypersensitivity to rejection and apprehensive

alertness to any sign of social derogation. Person is reluctant to enter into social interaction.

h. Dependent Personality – characterized by extreme dependence on other people – there is

acute discomfort and even panic to be alone. The person lacks confidence and feels helpless.

i. Passive-Aggressive Personality – characterized by being hostile express in indirect and non-

violent ways. They are the so called “stubborn”.

j. Compulsive Personality – characterized by excessive concern with rules, order, and

efficiency that everyone does things their way and an ability to express warm feeling. The person
is over conscientious, serious, and with difficulty in doing things for relaxation.

k. Anti-social Personality – characterized by continuing violation of the rights of others

through aggressive, anti-social behavior without remorse or loyalty to anyone.

Psychotic Behavior
▪ Gross structural defects in the brain tissue, severe disorientation of the mind thus it
involves loss of contact with reality.

Example

▪ Organic Mental Disorders

▪ Senile and Pre-senile Dementia

▪ Mental Retardation

▪ Schizophrenia and Paranoia Levels of Mental Retardation

a) Mild Mental Retardation (I.Q. 52-67) - “educable”

b) Moderate Mental Retardation (I.Q. 36-51) - “trainable”

c) Severe mental Retardation (I.Q. 20-35) - “dependent retarded”

d) Profound Mental Retardation (I.Q. under 20) - “life support retarded

Schizophrenia – refers to the group of psychotic disorders characterized by gross distortions of

reality, withdrawal of social interaction, disorganization and fragmentation of perception,
thoughts and emotion. It also refers to terms such as “mental deterioration”, “dementia praecox”,
or “split mind”.

Types of Schizophrenia

1. Simple Schizophrenia (Undifferentiated Type) – the schizophrenia in which

symptoms are rapidly changing mixture of all the primary indicators of schizophrenia.
The varying combinations of delusions, hallucinations, thought disorders, and gross
bizarreness.

2. Paranoid Schizophrenia – it is the illogical, changeable delusions frequently

accompanied by vivid hallucinations, with a resulting impairment of critical judgment,
unpredictable and occasionally dangerous behavior.
 3. Catatonic Schizophrenia – it is the altering period of extreme withdrawal and
extreme excitement. The individual may talk or shout incoherently and engage in
uninhibited, impulsive behavior. The person may be dangerous.

4. Hebephrenic Schizophrenia (Disorganized Type) – there is emotional

distortion manifested in inappropriate laughter, peculiar mannerism, and bizarre behavior.

Paranoia – the same as “delusions”, “impaired contact with reality”. A psychotic

behavior characterized by delusion of apprehension following a failure or frustration.

1) Auditory Asphasia – loss of ability to understand spoken words.

2) Expressive Asphasia – loss of ability to speak required words.

3) Nominal Asphasia – loss of ability to recall names of objects.

4) Alexia – loss of ability to read.

5) Agraphia – loss of ability to express thoughts in writing

6) Apraxia – loss of ability to perform simple voluntary acts. Groups of Organic Mental
Disorders

▪ Delirium – the severe impairment of information processing in the brain affecting the
basic process of attention, perception, memory and thinking.

▪ Dementia – deterioration in intellectual functioning after completing brain maturation.

The defect in the process of acquiring knowledge or skill, problem solving, and judgment.

▪ Amnestic Syndrome – the inability to remember on going events more than a few
minutes after they have taken place.

▪ Hallucinosis – the persistent occurrence of hallucinations, the false perception that arise
in full wakefulness state. This includes hallucinations on visual and hearing or both.

▪ Organic Delusional Syndrome – the false belief arising in a setting of known or

suspected brain damage. ▪ Organic Affective Syndrome – the extreme/severe manic or
depressive state with the impairment of the cerebral function.

▪ Organic Personality Syndrome – the general personality changes following brain

damage. ▪ General Paresis – also called “dementia paralytica”, a syphilitic infection of the brain
and involving impairment of the CNS.
Other Groups of Human Disorders
▪ Addictive Groups of Disorders

▪ Abnormal Sexual Behaviors

Abnormal Sexual Behaviors

Sexual dysfunctions affecting males

▪ Erectile Insufficiency

▪ Pre-mature Ejaculation

▪ Retarded Ejaculation

Sexual dysfunctions affecting females

▪ Arousal Insufficiency

▪ Orgasmic Dysfunction

▪ Vaginismus - painful spasmodic contraction

▪ Dyspareunia - difficult or painful sexual intercourse

Sexual reversals

▪ Homosexuality – the same gender

▪ Transvestism – wearing clothes (opposite sex)

▪ Fetishism – object

Abnormal behavior based on choice of partner

▪ Pedophilia – children

▪ Bestiality - animal

▪ Auto-sexual – self

▪ Gerontophilia - ederly

▪ Necrophilia – dead

▪ Incest - family members (consanguinity & affinity)

Based on sexual urge

▪ Satyriasis – man

▪ Nymphomania – woman

Based on mode of sexual expression

▪ Oralism – mouth (fellation or cunnilingus)

▪ Sadism – physical pain

▪ Masochism - one's own pain or humiliation

▪ Sado-Masochism
Based on part of the body

▪ Sodomy - anal

▪ Uranism – homosexual (male)

▪ Frottage - touching or rubbing (in a crowd)

▪ Partialism – part of the body

Based on visual stimulus

▪ Voyeurism – watching (naked or sexual activity)

▪ Scoptophilia – (looking at something and at someone)

Based on number of participants in the sexual act

▪ Troilism – three partners

▪ Pluralism - variety of way

Other sexual abnormalities

▪ Exhibitionism – display one's genitals or sexual activity in public.

▪ Coprolalia - outburst of obscene words

▪ Don Juanism – sexual desire with many different female partners

Psychology of Criminal Behavior

Expressive behaviors

Volitional: A volitional behavior is a deliberate act that is committed to achieve a specific end.
The end may or may not be a legitimate endeavour. A legitimate endeavour can include acts such
as sexual or physical assault, theft, or other behavior that is undertaken as a direct means to
achieve a desired outcome. An illegitimate endeavour may include speeding, illicit drug use, or
other high-risk behavior undertaken while in a manic or psychotic episode, or other state that
distorts the offender’s capacity for insight or judgment.

Nonvolitional: A nonvolitional behavior is an act committed as a result of delusional or

hallucinogenic cognitions that establish a false presumption on the part of the offender.
Command hallucinations (e.g., “the Seagull told me that man was evil, and it was my duty to
stab him before he hurt anyone else”) and delusional thoughts of cause and effect (e.g., “if I kill
his wife then he will love me, and we can be together forever”) are examples of this form of
criminal act.

Incidental: Incidental behaviors are illegal acts that occur incidentally to another objective. An
example of this may be someone who has a pathology that presents as generally avoidant but
fnds himself in a highly anxiety-provoking situation that triggers a panic attack. As a result, the
individual may “lash out” to try and escape (avoid) the fear-provoking stimuli. He may assault
someone, destroy property, or steal a bike, car, or other means of transportation to flee.

Psychopathology Refers to our understanding, study, or knowledge of any illness, disorder,

dysfunction, or dysregulation of the mental processes that govern an individual’s cognition,
affect, and behavior (Sinnamon, 2015).

 Psyche means “mind” or “soul,”

 pathos means “suffering, feeling, emotion, calamity
 logia means “to speak.” Overtime, change to “study of,” “science of,” or “branch of
knowledge [of]” (Harper, 2013)
 The branch of knowledge and collective body of conditions relative to the suffering of the
mind” (Sinnamon, 2015)

The Four Key Themes (4Ds) of Abnormality Used in the Consideration of

Psychopathological Symptomology

Deviance: Refers to the extent to which an individual’s specific conditions, affects and
behaviour are considered to be outside of what is acceptable and or normal within his/her social
environment
Distress: Refers to the extent to which the presenting symptoms
Dysfunction: Refers to the extent to which the presenting symptoms impair the individual from
engaging in his or her normal daily activities such as work, study, self-care or engaging in
general activities of daily living like washing, preparing a meal or dressing appropriately.
Danger: Refers to inherent risk of harm either to the individual or others, usually by the
individual, as a result of presenting symptoms (like aggressive paranoia, delusions, or
hallucinations involving persecution or directives to harm self or others and suicide ideation.

Forensic Psychopathology
A specialized area in which the focus rests on those psychological maladies and their symptoms
and consequences that, for one reason or another, intersect with the legal system. Simply put,
forensic psychopathology is interested in clinical psychopathologies with criminal implications.
This includes any psychological or neuropsychological condition that impacts the perpetrators of
criminal acts as well as their victims.

Personality Disorders and Criminality Personality disorders (PDs) are multifactorial

syndromes that occur in the face of a confluence of biopsychosocial factors including heritability
(genetics and epigenetics), developmental experiences (abuse, trauma, health, attachment,
education, and environmental exposure during core brain development), general social and
environmental characteristics, personal anatomical and physiological dynamics, and innate
character qualities.

Symptoms of personality disorders generically include: “Emotional dysregulation, inability to

maintain positive relationships, social isolation, anger outbursts, suspicion and lack of trust,
inability to delay gratification, poor impulse control, and often there is a history of alcohol and/or
substance abuse. The thoughts and behaviours of those with a personality disorders are
characteristically considered odd, eccentric, melodramatic, overly emotional, anxious, and/or
fearful. Many signs and symptoms of specific personality disorders “bleed” into one another and
it is often difficult to proffer an accurate diagnosis that could not be differentially provided by
another clinician.”
Activity no. 3.Answer the following.
1. Explain the difference between Psychopathic Behavior and criminal behaviour?
2. Explain how pedophilia and fetishism been committed.
 INTRODUCTION TO VICTIMOLOGY

Victimology

 A branch of criminology that scientifically studies the relationship between an injured

party, and an offender by examining the causes and the nature of the consequent suffering.

 Specifically, Victimology focuses on whether the perpetrators were complete

strangers, mere acquaintances, friends, family members, or even intimates and why a particular
person or place was targeted (Karmen, 2006).

 Benjamin Mendelsohn father of victimology, describes the feld as “the science of

victims and victimity. By victimity, we mean the general concept, the specific common
phenomenon which characterizes all categories of victims, whatever the cause of their situation”
(1976, p. 9). In other words, Mendelsohn continues, “it [victimology] must take into account all
phenomena which causes victims, to the extent that society takes an interest in them” (1976, p. 9;
emphasis added). Taking into account these statements, victimology is the study of victimization
that includes the analysis of the victim-offender relationship as well as the victim’s experiences
with the criminal justice system during the administration of justice (Mendelsohn, 1976; van
Dijk, 1999; Viano, 1983). Ultimately, the field of victimology includes two overarching goals:
(1) to prevent victimization from happening in the first place and (2) to minimize the harm post-
victimization as well as prevent repeat victimizations (Mendelsohn, 1976).

Chapter 4: Areas of Victimological Thought

Critical Victimology
According to Chouliaris (2011; as cited in Walklate, 2015), “critical victimology . . . engages in
a twofold task: to cast light on the institutions and structural relations that favor specifc images
of victimization at the expense of others (contextualization); and to draw attention to situations
that, despite producing serious victimization, are not designated as such.” In other words, critical
victimologists question how the wider societal structure influences our conception of
victimization and the conditions under which the label “victim” is applied (Mawby & Walklate,
1994; Walklate, 1989, 1990, 2015). Relatedly, critical victimologists criticize the heavy
utilization of national crime surveys by positivist victimologists as limiting the ability to capture
complex contextual details about victims’ choices and lives that are intrinsically tied to class,
gender, and race (among other things) (Walklate, 1989, 1990, 2015). Critical victimologists have
also been especially disapproving of positivist victimology because of its failure to question how
the socio-political undertones of criminal law, which is crafted and shaped by the most powerful
in society, influence broader understandings of victimization (Walklate 1989, 1990, 2015). Put
broadly, critical victimology attempts “to examine the wider social context in which some
versions of victimology have become more dominant than others and how those versions of
victimology are interwoven with questions of policy response and service delivery to victims of
crime” (Mawby & Walklate, 1994, p. 21).

General Victimology Although Mendelsohn’s (1963) early work in victimology was oriented
toward understanding the genesis of crime, he later advocated that all forms of victimization
were rightfully within the purview of victimology (1976). In other words, Mendelsohn (1976)
envisioned that victimology was rightfully considered as a separate area of social science
focused on victimization broadly and not as a subfield within criminology. Included in this broad
field were harms that resulted from crime, but also the environment, technology, and social
trends (Mendelsohn, 1976). In the course of advocating for this expanded scope, Mendelsohn
(1976) also called for formal organizations as well as clinics designed to promote a holistic
understanding of victimization as a global problem. Given this shift in focus to understand all
forms of victimization, as well as potential remedies for harm, general victimology is also known
as assistanceoriented victimology (van Dijk, 1999). Others have referred to this branch of
victimology as radical victimology, particularly in instances of state violence toward citizens
(Mawby & Walklate, 1994).

Penal Victimology
The focus on the understanding of victims as dynamic components of crime with varying degrees
of responsibility dominated many early works in victimology, and, because of the nature of these
studies, these lines of inquiry are referred to as penal victimology (van Dijk, 1999). Penal
victimology, sometimes also known as interactionist victimology (van Dijk, 1999), broadly
describes studies that focus on the interaction and relationship between offenders and victims
within the confnes of criminal law (van Dijk, 1999). In addition to these terms, some have
referred to this feld as positivist victimology given these scholars’ heavy utilization of crime
surveys in early studies (Walklate, 1990). Although the chief criticism of penal victimology has
been the victim-blaming nature of the research, van Dijk (1999) notes that early works in this
area were important attempts to improve crime prevention efforts through the greater
understanding of criminal events. Moreover, studies in this area of victimology led to the
development of three important concepts meant to provide an understanding of the victim’s role
in criminal events: victimprecipitation, victim-facilitation, and victim-provocation.

Marvin Wolfgang was the first scholar to empirically evaluate the concept of victim-
precipitation in his study of homicides (1957). Although he focused his investigation on
homicide, Wolfgang’s (1957) description of victim-precipitation is easily applicable to all
crimes: “The term victim-precipitated is applied to those criminal homicides in which the victim
is a direct, positive precipitator in the crime” (p. 2; emphasis added). In other words, victim-
precipitation broadly refers to a victim’s actions or behaviors that prompted the crime itself
(Meier & Miethe, 1993). Ultimately, Wolfgang (1957) found that out of 588 criminal homicide
cases, 26% were victim-precipitated. Aside from this finding, Wolfgang (1957) also identified
several characteristics that were important in the comparison of victim-precipitated homicides to
nonvictim-precipitated homicides: biological sex, race, relationship status, substance use.

Victim-provocation is similar to victim-precipitation, but the former arguably carries the most
culpability in terms of assessing victim-responsibility. The greater culpability stems from the
victim engaging in some provocation that leads to the onset of crime (Daigle & Muftic, 2015).
For example, a patron at a bar becomes enraged and extremely hostile toward the establishment’s
management at closing time. In the course of the exchange, the patron grabs a knife and charges
at one of the managers. The manager responds by shooting the patron. Victimologists would
likely agree that this case illustrates victimprovocation, because the patron would have left
unharmed if it were not for his own actions. In terms of gauging responsibility, victim-
facilitation is associated with the least amount of culpability compared to victim-precipitation or
victim-provocation. Victim-facilitation describes situations in which a crime occurs because of
victim carelessness in safeguarding themselves or their property (Daigle & Muftic, 2015). For
example, a home that is burglarized after the homeowner neglects to lock the front door certainly
does not excuse the offender, but the crime was easier for the perpetrator to commit given the
lack of security.

Activity no. 4 Answer the following.

1. Why victim being victimized of a crime?
2. Give at least 10 reasons to prevent being victim of a crime.
3. Why do we need to study victimology?

Chapter 5: Theories of Victimization Biosocial Criminology Theory

One of the earliest pioneers of biosocial criminology theory was Dr. Lee Ellis, who
utilized this perspective in the understanding of rape (1991). According to the Biosocial
Criminology Association, biosocial criminology seeks to “understand the biological and
environmental influences on the development of antisocial behavior.” In other words, biosocial
criminologists investigate the perpetration and/or experiencing of criminal activity from a
vantage point that accounts for biological as well as social factors. As mentioned, some of the
earliest work utilizing this perspective focused on rape.

In his seminal (1991) article entitled “A Synthesized (Biosocial) Theory of Rape,” Ellis
attempted to integrate and merge other perspectives on the topic into one all-inclusive
framework. At the time, many scholars utilized the following approaches to understand this
crime: (1) feminist perspective, (2) evolutionary theory, and (3) social learning theory (Ellis,
1991). In order to understand Ellis’ attempt to integrate and merge these theories into a biosocial
criminology framework, it is necessary to discuss each of these perspectives separately.

In terms of the feminist perspective, scholars in this field theorize that violence against
women, including rape, is ultimately an expression of power and control originating from a
system of oppression and patriarchy (Ellis, 1991). From this perspective, rape is a symptom of
the larger systemic issue of gender inequality—it is not grounded in sexual attraction or
gratification (Ellis, 1991). From an evolutionary theory perspective, rape stems from an internal
motivation among males to ensure the production of offspring (Ellis, 1991). Finally, from a
social learning theory perspective, rape is the result of individuals internalizing sexist attitudes
and beliefs, such as those depicted through mass media, and then acting on those antisocial
norms (Ellis, 1991). Given that these perspectives speak to both biological (e.g., evolutionary
theory) and social (e.g., feminist perspective; social learning theory) causes of violence, Ellis
(1991) leveraged each of their respective strengths in his construction of a biosocial theory of
rape.

From Ellis’ (1991) biosocial criminology perspective, rape occurs as a result of the
following four biosocial factors: (1) men’s biological drive as well as social drive to “possess”
another person; (2) men’s desire to continue their lineage through the production of multiple
offspring, which for men generally does not require the same level of investment as it does for
women; (3) men’s learned and internalized attitudes and beliefs about sexual activity perpetrated
through mass media; and (4) men’s hormonal differences compared to women’s. In a later study
focused on revisiting the biosocial criminological perspective on rape, Ellis and Widmayer
(2008) found support for applying this perspective to sexual violence. In that study, the scholars
found that non-rapists had fewer sexual partners than rapists, because, arguably, offenders sought
to ensure the continuance of their lineage (Ellis & Widmayer, 2008). Moreover, findings
indicated that the relationship between an offender and a survivor post-victimization varied
depending on whether an offspring might be produced (Ellis & Widmayer, 2008).

Lifestyle Exposure Theory Unlike previous theoretical frameworks, lifestyle exposure theory
(LET) centers on the actions and behaviors of potential victims that increase their vulnerability to
experiencing a crime. LET was proposed by Hindelang, Gottfredson, and Garofalo in 1978 and
is very similar to routine activities theory (RAT), which is the work of Cohen and Felson that is
discussed later in this chapter. In fact, scholars have claimed that RAT is “merely an expansion”
of LET (Choi, 2008, p. 308). In terms of its applicability to understanding victimization, LET
essentially asserts that the risk of experiencing crime varies across society given the differences
in how individuals are structurally situated (e.g., age, class, gender, race) (Choi, 2008).
Santana (2010) notes that LET originated in work devoted to understanding why certain
segments of the population, such as young men, are more vulnerable to experiencing crime
versus other groups. Santana (2010) continues, explaining that individuals’ activities and
lifestyles are intertwined with the roles and expectations they hold in society. Thus, a young
bachelor is likely at greater risk of experiencing a crime by the sheer nature of leading a more
active lifestyle that exposes him to potential offenders.

Routine Activities Theory

Cohen and Felson introduced routine activities theory (RAT) to academia in the 1970s at
approximately the same time as LET (discussed earlier). Much like LET, RAT is an opportunity-
driven theoretical understanding of victimization. According to Cohen and Felson (1979), crime
likely results from a convergence in time and space of the following three factors: a potential
offender, a suitable target, and the lack of a capable guardian. This perspective, like LSC, is
applicable across personal and property offenses; moreover, it has informed cybercrime research
as well (Navarro et al., 2015; Navarro & Jasinski, 2012, 2013).

According to RAT scholars, potential offenders, formerly referred to as motivated

offenders, are omnipresent in society (Mustaine & Tewksbury, 2009). Taking that into account,
RAT scholars have rarely investigated this component until recently. In their 2015 study,
Navarro and Jasinski investigated differences in demographics and motivations across three
groups of online sexual offenders to discern factors that would assist law enforcement in
identifying these perpetrator types before crime engagement. Ultimately, the scholars found that
the mainstream media’s characterization of online sexual offenders as “predators” did not align
with these data (Navarro & Jasinski, 2015). Additionally, findings indicated that the
demographic and background characteristics of online sexual offenders did vary across offense
types (Navarro & Jasinski, 2015).

The second component of RAT is akin to the main premise of LET and takes into account
target vulnerability to victimization. The target can be a person or property (Cohen & Felson,
1979), and vulnerabilities broadly range across studies. For example, in their 2015 study of
cyberbullying on social networking sites (SNS), Navarro and colleagues assessed what behaviors
on social media platforms like Facebook make users vulnerable to cyber victimization.
Ultimately, the scholars found that using SNS daily increased the risk of experiencing
cyberbullying (Navarro et al., 2015). Additionally, bullying others, posting status updates, and
using private messages all increased the odds of experiencing cyberbullying (Navarro et al.,
2015).
The third component, a capable guardian, counteracts the chance of victimization
occurring (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Although scholars’ conceptualization of the capable guardian
widely varies across studies, this component was envisioned as someone who could keep a crime
from happening by keeping “an eye on the potential target of crime” (Felson, 2006, p. 80). In
other words, using an alarm system or bright lights may deter a burglary, but these items are not
capable forms of guardianship in terms of understanding RAT. Instead, capable forms of
guardianship are parents, police officers, teachers, and others who are in positions to both
monitor potential targets of crime and act if a crime is likely to occur. Taking this into account,
Cohen and Felson (1979) theorized that the lack of a capable guardian contributed to the genesis
of crime when a potential offender and suitable target converged in time and space.

Social Learning Theory Social learning theory (Akers, 1973) argues that social
behavior, regardless of whether it is prosocial or antisocial, is a learning process. Akers (1973)
proposed SLT several decades ago and it has come to be referred to as a general theory of crime
because, much like LSC, it has wide applicability across various offense types. As noted by
Akers (1973), SLT comprises four important concepts: (1) differential association (e.g.,
association with deviant peers), (2) definitions (e.g., positive or negative beliefs about crime), (3)
differential reinforcement (e.g., punishments or rewards), and (4) imitation. Depending on the
effects of these four concepts, SLT theorists argue, individuals are socialized toward a path of
prosocial behavior or antisocial behavior. To gain a greater understanding of SLT, further
explanation of its key components is warranted.

Differential association, although considered as part of SLT here, is an important stand-

alone concept in criminology frst introduced by Sutherland (1939). The term essentially
describes an association with deviant peers (Sutherland, 1939), which could then influence one’s
own engagement in deviance. Defnitions are an important component of SLT, because
engagement in delinquency is reliant on an individual believing criminal behaviors are
acceptable (Akers, 1973). Next, differential reinforcement is critical for the potential replication
of behavior. According to SLT, a behaviour that is reinforced—either positively (e.g., something
is added of value) or negatively (e.g., something is removed that is unwanted)— likely leads to a
continuance of that behavior (Akers, 1973). In contrast, a behavior that results in punishment—
either positively (e.g., something negative is added) or negatively (e.g., something of value is
removed)—likely deters a continuance of that behavior (Akers, 1973). Finally, imitation occurs
when the behavior is learned and repeated (Akers, 1973).

Strain Theory
Robert Agnew’s general strain theory greatly expanded the understanding of criminal
offending. According to Agnew (2001), engagement in criminal behavior ultimately stems from
an individual encountering a source of adversity (i.e., strain), experiencing a negative emotion as
a result (i.e., anger, frustration), and then reacting in an antisocial manner. It is important to note
that Agnew identified several potential reactions from individuals, but engagement in deviance
was most important for criminologists (Agnew, 2001). In terms of sources of strain, Agnew
identified three broad groups: “loss of positive valued stimuli, presentation of negative stimuli,
and goal blockage” (p. 319). Assessing whether an individual will react to strain or not is also
dependent on whether “(1) these are seen as unjust, (2) are seen as high in magnitude, (3) are
associated with low self-control, and (4) create some pressure or incentive to engage in crime”
(Agnew, 2001, p. 320).

Agnew’s (2001) sources of strain are easily applicable in the understanding of both
offending and victimization. To consider the first source of strain, loss of positively valued
stimuli, imagine a domestic abuser who becomes enraged after his partner threatens to terminate
the relationship (i.e., loss of positively valued stimuli). The abuser may engage in or threaten
violence to the partner in order to prevent the termination of the relationship, thus resolving the
source of strain. Next, consider the second source of strain (i.e., the presentation of negative
stimuli) and imagine the same situation as described above.

After reconciling their relationship, the couple described above experience several
horrific violent altercations. The partner, who fears for her life as her abuser continues to escalate
in his violence (i.e., presentation of negative stimuli), kills him in a fit of rage. By killing her
abuser, the victim resolved the source of strain confronting her. Finally, consider the final source
of strain (i.e., goal blockage) and once again imagine the same couple as before, but with a
different outcome. After reconciling their relationship, the abuser continues to escalate in his
violence, because he blames his partner for his lack of success in his professional career (i.e.,
goal blockage). As a result, he becomes increasingly frustrated and kills his partner. While the
aforementioned are gruesome examples, they illustrate how flexible general strain theory is in
the application of criminal activity to understand why individuals perpetrate crime as well as
experience it.

Subculture of Violence Theory

The subculture of violence theory (SVT) is one of the few theoretical perspectives that
explains both offending and victimization from a broad perspective. The theory originated from
the work of Wolfgang and Ferracuti (1967) and is based on the premise of the existence of a
violent subculture in which antisocial behavior becomes a normative response to certain affronts
that, in turn, perpetuates the cycle (Kennedy & Baron, 1993). Kennedy and Baron (1993)
reiterate that SVT does not claim that violence is always the reaction in this type of subculture,
but rather that individuals in this subculture encounter situations in which violence is their
normative response, in contrast to those socialized in the dominant culture (Kennedy & Baron,
1993). As noted by Kennedy and Baron (1993), adhering individuals likely experience praise for
their conformity to these subculture norms, while those who fail to conform risk ostracization
from the community.

SVT is therefore a useful perspective for understanding both why individuals engage in
deviance as well as why individuals experience deviance. Examining various theoretical
perspectives, not just SVT, shows that one of the most salient risk factors for experiencing
victimization is the victim engaging in deviant activity. This is often referred to as the victim-
offender overlap (Marcum, Higgins, Freiburger, & Ricketts, 2014; Schreck, 1999). It is easily
applicable to SVT in the sense that individuals socialized to utilize violence as part of the
normative culture are likely to also be met with violence, which can result in their own
victimization. For example, imagine a gang member who engages in violence in order to
maintain his/her status in the surrounding community and consider the likelihood of that gang
member eventually experiencing violence him/herself.

Activity no. 5 Answer the following.

1. Choose at least 1 theoretical study that best explains the reason behind human
behaviour in relation to criminality.

Prepared by :Sherwin Dimasuhid

Grading Criteria:
Major Examination=50%
Quizzes=20%
Reporting , Oral And Class Participation=15 %
Assignment= 10%
Attendance =5%
A total of =100%

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The origins of psychoanalysis (Vol. 216). London: Imago. Puckett, M. B., & Black, J. K. (2005).
The young child: Development from prebirth through age eight.
Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Schmalleger, F. (2011). Criminology. Boston: Prentice Hall.
Sinnamon, G. (2015).
Psychopathology and Criminal Behavior. In W. Petherick (Ed.), Applied Crime Analysis: A
social science approach to understanding crime, criminals, and victims. Boston: Anderson
Publishing. Note
Norsu previews instructor