IBC Journal of

Buddhist Studies
IBCJBS

Volume 1
2019

International Buddhist College,

Thailand
 IBC Journal of Buddhist Studies
IBCJBS

Advisory Board
Venerable Dr Wei Wu
Venerable Professor Dr K.L. Dhammajoti
Professor Dr Y. Karunadasa
Professor Dr Charles Willemen

Editor in Chief
Kapila Abhayawansa
International Buddhist College, Thailand

Editorial Board
Porntipha Bantomsin, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Petrina Coventry, Adelaide University, Australia
Toshiichi Endo, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Somparn Promta, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
Tavivat Puntarigvivat, Mahidol University, Thailand
Fa Qing, International Buddhist College, Thailand
G. A. Somarathne, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Guang Xing, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
 Realities of Human Slavery and
Buddhist Theoretical Explanations
Samantha Rajapaksha

Abstract1
This paper investigates briefly quantitative details of the modern-
day slavery with the help of the materials from the United Nations
reports on Global Report on Trafficking in Persons in 2012 and
2014. The paper then discusses how early Buddhist texts interpret
the practice of selling and buying human slavery and how it is
related with other forms of wrong livelihood. Some core Buddhist
principles which are alluded to trafficking in person are also
discussed. The interpretation of slaves in general is also discussed.
The area has been less discussed even though it practically
happens anywhere in the world at any time even though most
sophisticated technology in place. Although Buddhist texts have
shed a very little light on the form of coercion but Buddha
sanctions trade of human slavery as one of the wrong livelihoods.
In the beginning, the paper discusses some aspects of the modern-
day slavery with the help of UN reports in order to understand the
problem and latter section examines how Buddhist texts oppose
sale of human slavery and interpretation of slavery including in
the later Buddhist texts.

Introduction
Human trafficking is a lucrative business which generates 150
billion USD annually. It is one of the growing issues in the
contemporary global context given the fact that economic

1
This paper was originally presented at the International Conference on Human
Trafficking/Trade in Buddhist Perspective: Ethical Problems and Solutions according to the
Buddhist Teachings in 2016.

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marginalization of the victims and offenders is more likely to be
leading cause. It is widely regarded that human trafficking might
occur anywhere in the world when the circumstances are
conducive to traffickers. Statistically, it is on the rise in the recent
past even in the developed countries as sophisticated technology
has become a powerful tool to traffickers. Women and children are
more vulnerable in particular women for sexual exploitation.
Though, necessary mechanism to curb trafficking in persons in
place, it is inevitable being happened. There seems no territory for
the operation of human trafficking. This global scale issue seems
to be dealt with global scale awareness without which it might
prevail and seem no ending to the problem.

Human Slavery
“Trade in human”, “human trafficking”, and “trafficking in
persons” are the terms used to denote the practice of human
trafficking. Human trafficking encompasses the act of recruiting,
harbouring, transporting, providing, or obtaining a person for
compelled labour or commercial sex acts through the use of force,
fraud, or coercion. According to the trafficking victim’s protection
act, the human trafficking is described as involuntary servitude,
slavery or practices similar to slavery, debt bondage, and forced
labour. According to the United Nations definition human slavery
is “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt
of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of
coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of
power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving
of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having
control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.
Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the
prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced
labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude
or the removal of organs.” Human trafficking is a crime with
multiple motives. Fundamentally, traffickers are in decline of
moral values. They are no longer appreciative of human potent.
Human trafficking has several aspects in the status of operation.

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Sex trafficking is the widely practiced in the world for the
commercial purposes.

Legal Status Quo of the Human Trafficking

Although the history of human trafficking dates back very long.
The criminalization of human traffickers by law has been in the
jurisdiction is relatively recent phenomenon. Even the UN clearly
identifies since 2000’s. Practically, some countries are yet to
criminalize the human trafficking. This signals that the crime of
human trafficking yet to be legalized. Strictly speaking, the lower
level of awareness among communities on this crime lead to the
lack of acceptance and knowledge on the subject. Therefore,
knowledge and awareness is key factors in the trade in human. In
order to tackle this crime, high level of support is critical in
particular from the communities. Exchanging information to the
relevant authorities are immensely supportive to discourage
human traffickers. Some are not even aware of the magnitude of
the issue. Victims seek no refuge in fear of death threat.

Stigmatization
Some of the cases of the human trafficking remain silent given the
fact that victims are afraid to tell their victimization due to various
reasons. Apparently, due to stigmatization, most afraid of telling
their stories. As most of the cases occur in secrecy so is the
victims are sometimes are fear of the community where they are
coming from. Sometimes, embarrassment comes from their own
family members. Such circumstances prevent victims to report the
unfair happens to them.

Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2012 and 2014

UN publishes a report pertaining to global scale human trafficking
every two years. The study is based on 2012 and 2014 reports.
The findings presented in both reports well indicate the global
scale human trafficking. UNODC gains momentum since 2003 in
collecting statistics on victims of human trafficking, despite the
fact various challenges are encountered. The both reports
183
highlight the global scale issue of the human trafficking. The two
reports find that the majority of the human trafficking are women
although men and boys are trafficked in significant numbers. It is
widespread global phenomenon. The figure 1 indicates the
percentage of the victims in terms of area of the exploitation. Vast
majority of victims are subjected to sexual exploitation. According
to the 2014 report, the main form detected for the sexual
exploitation. Disproportionally, women are victims of human
trafficking. Forced labour has been tremendously increased overs
the yeas both in developed and underdeveloped regions. Thus, the
report concludes that sexual exploitation is the leading purpose for
the human trafficking. The report further discloses that by gender
men outnumber in conviction of the human trafficking and women
are the victims of the human trafficking.

184
 Figure 1

Key Findings of the Reports

Both reports indicate that women are the most vulnerable in the
human trafficking than men which transcends more than 50%. The
human trafficking offenders are vastly outnumbered by gender as
men than women. The main purpose of human trafficking is
detected as for the sexual exploitation which occurs in most part of
the world. The reports further speaks that 134 countries have
criminalized trafficking by means a specific offence in line with
the Trafficking in Persons Protocol. However, the accusation
being levelled for the human trafficking conviction is recorded
very low. Between 2007 and 2010, 16% has not recorded any
single case related to the human trafficking. Traffickers often
engage such heinous acts given the fact that moral deterioration of
185
the traffickers. On given any civilized society, selling human is
decline. Money is main driven factor in the engagement of human
trafficking. It is a good indication that moral deterioration in
traffickers who engage in this misdeed. Often victims are
powerless and helpless in seeking justice.

Buddha’s Direct Words on Selling Human Slavery

Theravāda tradition believes that what appears in the Pāli canon is
some direct utterances of the Buddha. This seems to be the case at
least for some portions in the Sutta and Vinaya. However, when
the entire Pāli canon is observed very little has the aspects related
to human slavery including the sanction of human selling. The
scanty textual statements are enough to reconstruct how Buddha
sanctions such trade among other trades and why Buddha denied
so. Buddha advocates trade in human slavery as one of the wrong
type of livelihoods. Vaṇijjāsutta of Aṅguttaranikāya where
Buddha advocates selling human being should not be done.

A. III. 208, 13-17

pañcimā bhikkhave vaṇijjā upāsakena akaraṇīyā. katamā
pañca? satthavaṇijjā, sattavaṇijjā, maṃsavaṇijjā,
majjavaṇijjā, visavaṇijjā. imā kho bhikkhave pañca
vaṇijjā upāsakena akaraṇīyā.

The lay followers of the Buddha are discouraged to engage in five

types of trades. These include selling of arms, selling of human
beings, selling of meats, selling of liquors and selling of poisons
respectively. Selling of all these trades and their moral
consequences are discussed more or less in Buddhist texts except
selling human slavery. The question needs to be asked why
Buddha denied person in selling as one of the wrong livelihoods.
In order to answer this question, in the first place, we can draw
some other trades which are equally denied by Buddha and their
moral matters relating to it. The other all four are related to
making harm to others. In other words, the wrong types of trades
are harming sentient beings including humans. Selling human
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slavery is equally regarded morally unfitting just as the other four
trades. Therefore, when it comes to selling in person, Vaṇijjāsutta
is the only canonical statement where Buddha opposes sale of
human slavery. Hence, in terms of specifying the act of human
trafficking in the early Buddhist texts, this bears a great value. In
fact, it is the only occurrence in the early Buddhist texts where
Buddha specifically discourages trade in human slavery. In the
first place, it is clear that at the time of the Buddha, the trade of
selling human was apparently taking place, however, no such
incident (s) being cited in the texts as such. Probably, Buddha
being aware trade in human slavery just as other wrong types of
trades in the society may have imposed such moral obligation.
sattavaṇijjā or trade in human beings include buying and selling
of any human beings adults or children, slave trading.

It is good to examine why Buddha denied such type of

trade as one of the wrong livelihoods. The compound sattavaṇijjā
could be rendered as trade of human or human selling. satta or
satva can be referred to living being and vaṇijjā is referred to
trading. When combined it has the sense of trading of living being.
However, satta or satva has meaning not only for human being but
simply for other living being. By looking at the Pāli text, we even
can conclude that selling of living being. The definition of
sattavaṇijjā or selling of human being cannot be found in
vaṇijjāsutta. Therefore, in the first glance, it is barely noticeable
that this directly affirm to indicate selling human slavery.
However, this can be solvable by examining simply if satta
directly to refers to human being. In the Dīghanikāya, a mention is
made three good conducts of satva or human being. This context
is specific to human being than sentient being.

D. I. 83, 21-23
sattā kāyasucaritena samannāgatā vacīsucaritena
samannāgatā manosucaritena samannāgatā.
There are innumerable canonical statements where Buddha refers
satta for human being even though it has the sense for other
sentient being. The preceding excerpt directly expression of
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human being in which being is possessed with good bodily,
verbally and mentally conduct. However, Satta can also be seen
referring to sentient being. The following speaks of any sentient
being born in the world not necessarily the rational being i.e
human being. In the Dīghanikāya, a mention is made on sentient
being.

D. I. 17, 19
loko yebhuyyena sattā.

Therefore, we can conclude that selling both human slavery and

living being are equally possible since there are no additional
interpretation for the sattavaṇijjā in the early Buddhist text.
However, since early Buddhist texts distinguish both satta-s. The
text refers here selling human being. This is also backed up by
commentarial explanation. The commentary even the sub-
commentary are of the same definition of sattavaṇijjā. The
following is the explanation given by the aṭṭhakathā,
Manorathapūraṇī.

Mp. 303,14-16
upāsakenā ti saraṇagatena.. sattavaṇijjā ti
manussavikkayo.

The aṭṭhakathā has identified sattavaṇijjā as manussavikkayo. The

commentary straightforwardly defines sattavaṇijjā to be
manussavikkayo or selling of human being. The commentary
simply has given synonym. However not much is explained about
the selling human being other than giving a synonym. In the first
place, the commentary identifies the lay follower who has faith
towards three departments i.e the Buddha, the teaching of the
Buddha and the monastic community. Therefore, based on the
commentarial explanation we can conclude that Buddhist texts
both earlier and later sanctions selling of human slavery. Even the
sub-commentary defines slavery using commonly used Pāli term
to explain slavery as bhujissa-. The following is the excerpt of the
ṭīkā, sub-commentary.
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 sattavaṇijjā abhujissabhāvakaraṇato.

The sub-commentary defines sattavaṇijjā as

abhujissabhāvakaraṇato which literally means not making state of
being freed. The ṭīkā further clarifies the meaning of the state of
slavery. bhujissabhāva or state of being freed is one of the
commonly used compounds to denote the freed slave. The
compound of the ṭīkā explains how the slave’s freedom being
confined. The capture of slave forcibly or the involuntary capture
of human being is perfectly explained in the use of the compound
abhujissabhāvakaraṇato or not making state of being freed. Both
earlier and later Buddhist texts are advocating human slavery not
to be sold out and not morally accepted trading.

Buddha Rejects Owning of Slaves

When the virtuous behaviour, sīla of the Buddha being interpreted,
Buddha refrains from accepting certain things including both male
and female slaves. Probably, the idea of being simple in life and
monk attendant would be suitable in attending Buddha’s needs.
The same idea being interpreted in the aṭṭhakathā, when the
reason why Buddha has rejected accepting slaves.

D.I. 5, 14-15
dāsidāsapaṭiggahaṇā paṭivirato samaṇo gotamo.

Treating Slaves
Buddha proposes five essential duties to be fulfilled towards
slaves by their masters. Master-slave relationship being described
so that both parties are contented in particular the latter.

D.III. 191, 1-4

yathābalaṃ kammantasaṃvidhānena
bhattavetanānuppadānena gilānupaṭṭhānena
acchariyānaṃ rasānaṃ saṃvibhāgena samaye
vossaggena.

189
It is to make sure that slaves are not overworked but doing their
work according to their capacity, their service being paid off so
that it is not the exploitation of slave labour, at times slaves are ill,
they should be treated properly so that they can continue their
work.

Variable Income Source Generating Plan for Selling Human

Slavery
A well-defined secular economic policy has been proposed by the
Buddha avoiding wrong means of trades, micchāvaṇijjā. Buddha
advocates to renounce micchāvaṇijjā and make use sammāvaṇijjā
or right means of trades in order to generate income source to
survive.

Sv 235, 6-7
ko ājīvo ti? pañca micchāvaṇijjā pahāya dhammena
samena jīvikakappanaṃ.

While rejecting the wrong method of livelihood, it is

recommended the right type of livelihood in order to gain
successful wealth. Righteous living (dhammena jīvitakappanaṃ)
impartial living (samena jīvitakappanaṃ) are key to achieve such
goal. In several places in the aṭṭhakathā, it is recommended that
avoiding these types of wrong livelihood instead to be engaged in
just and earnest living in order to accumulate wealth. The wealth
accumulated through micchāvaṇijjā is not considered righteous
living (dhammena jīvitakappanaṃ) which eventually lead to ruin
the economy (apāyamukha) and moral deterioration and being
born in the realm of suffering. The criteria on which the wealth
can be accumulated have been stated in the early Buddhist texts in
innumerable places. Financial success can be achieved through
uṭṭhānasampadā or earned by hard working not by harming others.
It simply refers not to find short cuts for success but earnest
intention and well planning and gradual success with hard working.
Material wealth can be gained if person is consciously practicing
the moral consequences and stick to the right principles. What

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Buddha rejected as micchāvaṇijjā including human slavery can be
easily done and requires no such hard working.

Some Core Principles Which are Alluded to Denial of

Human Slavery
Any violent means to sentient beings or rational beings is foreign
to fundamentals of Buddhism. Buddha advocates that non-violent
means in your deeds. He encourages to be non-violent in any form.
When somebody is forced to engage any involuntary acts, it is the
violation of freedom of any sentient being. In the Dhammapada, a
mention is made, take oneself as example, do not engage harming
others. Even though it is not alluded to human slavery, the idea is
clear that slaves are just as any other human beings are willing to
live freely.

Dhp 37, 130

sabbesaṃ jīvitaṃ piyaṃ, attānaṃ upamaṃ katvā na
haneyya na ghātaye.

This is a powerful rhetoric to discourage and devalue sell of

human slavery. In the definition of human trafficking, it is clear
that use of force, fraud, or coercion are essential factors in
carrying out the human trafficking. It is also an involuntary
servitude which is utterly denied by Buddhism. Further, In the
Daṇḍasutta of the udānapāli, it continues to mention that if you
expect happiness by harming other, you will not attain happiness
for sure.

Ud 12, 3-4
yo daṇḍena vihiṃsati attano sukham esāno pecca so na
labhate sukhaṃ.

In other words, deed of coercion will return as coercion sooner or

later. Further, human trafficking demands several planning and
meticulously done work of harming to another one. So according

191
to Buddhism, person accumulates all corruptible qualities due to
seek happy living by confining others independency.

Interpretations of Slavery in the Buddhist Texts

Even though grouping and work task assigned to slaves
considerably vary, ancient Indian texts including Vedic texts
commonly term dāsa to refer slave, servant. The Buddhist texts
are no exception to this. Even gender identification of slave varies
slightly. Male slave is known as dāsa while female is known dāsī.
Even though most often dāsa-s or slaves represent the lower scale
of the social grades, some slaves represent superior level of the
ancient society which is relatively rare. Slavery known to
Buddhist texts has multifaceted. These include enemies captured
as slaves, debtors as slaves, voluntary slaves, convicted as
slaves.2

The early Buddhist texts most often use compound

dāsakammakāraporisa- or slaves and labourers. The texts mainly
refer to classify this group as one of the social graders in the
ancient society, kammakāra or labourer both paid and unpaid
would include in this category. In the Majjhimanikāya,
dāsakammakāraporisa- is used to describe this specific social
group along with such other compound terms. These include pair
words labourer and slave, mother and father, wife and children etc.

M.I.186-187,30-31, 7-32
mātāpitūnaṃ……puttadārassa…dāsakammakaraporisass
a...mittāmaccānaṃ… ñātisālohitānaṃ.

Even though early Buddhist texts explain different roles assigned

to slaves, the later commentaries sometimes are specific on the
works and duties assigned to slaves. It seems
dāsakammakāraporisa- is a specific type of slaves which are hired
on the daily basis and obtained their service rather than stationed
domestically and served for the master. The commentary defines

2
See also Law (1948-3).
192
them to be type of labourer who works and lives on the daily basis
wage labour. This specific group seems to be male servant rather
than female.

Mp. II. 241,9-11

dāsakammakaraporisassā ti dāsānañ ceva
devasikabhattavetanabhatānaṃ kammakarānañ ca
nissāya jīvamānapurisānañ ca

In order to show one’s social status, owning of property is a

reflection especially owning of human asset in the ancient Indian
society. Thus far, owning of slaves and unpaid labourer is a part of
owning such property and expression of the social status. Some
texts reflect how slaves were treated and how even they were fed
with. There were slaves who were serving for royals and non-
royals. Buddha says even in his early part of life, the slaves who
were serving him at his father’s palace were fed with good kind of
rice, sālimaṃsodana while non-royal slaves were fed with
porridge with broken rice, kaṇājakaṃ which is accompanied by
sour gruel, bilaṅga.

A.I.145, 18-20
kaṇajakaṃ bhojanaṃ diyyati bilaṅgadutiyaṃ….
sālimaṃsodano diyyati.
In the Vinaya, three types of slaves are identified. These three
types of slaves are believed to have existed at the time of the
Buddha. However, earlier texts do not define these three groups in
the texts.

Vin IV 224, 33
dāso nāma antojāto dhanakkīto karamarānīto.

These three types of slaves are defined not in the Vinaya but in the
samantapāsādikā, the Vinaya Commentary. The dāsavatthu which
groups the types of slaves in details. One type is children of slave
women (antojāto), second type is purchased slaves (dhanakkīto)
and third type is imported slaves (karamarānīto).
193
 Sp.V.1000, 20-27
antojāto nāma jātidāso gharadāsiyā putto. dhanakkīto
nāma mātāpitūnaṃ santikā putto vā sāmikānaṃ santikā
dāso vā dhanaṃ datvā dāsacārittaṃ āropetvā kīto. ete
dvepi na pabbājetabbā. pabbājentena tattha tattha
cārittavasena adāsaṃ katvā pabbājetabbā karamarānīto
nāma tiroraṭṭhaṃ vilopaṃ vā katvā upalāpetvā vā
tiroraṭṭhato bhujissamānusakāni āharanti.

According to the commentary, the former two types of slaves

should not be ordained. If they were to be ordained, their status of
slavery should be renounced.
Jātaka texts present some stories which reflect the types of slaves
and status of slaves. One of which is the Vidhurapaṇḍita Jātaka in
which four kinds of slaves are spoken. This is perhaps the
expanding account of the Vinaya account of three slave categories.
The one grouping besides three what Vinaya identifies is the self-
proclaimed slaves, sāmaṃdābyamupagatā.

Status Quo of Human Slave

Buddha speaks of manumission of a slave in several occasions
given the fact that upon release from slavery. One regains his or
her former position as an average human being. The status of
being freed from slavery (bhuijssabhāva) is a delighting factor. In
the Sāmaññaphalasutta. The status of a slave upon release is
equated to a taintless monk’s psychological status.

D.I. 72-73, 23-29, 1-2

seyyathāpi mahārāja puriso dāso assa anattādhīno
parādhīno na yenakāmaṃgamo. so aparena samayena
tamhā dāsabyā mucceyya attādhīno aparādhīno bhujisso
yenakāmaṃgamo. tassa evamassa – ‘ahaṃ kho pubbe
dāso ahosiṃ anattādhīno parādhīno na yenakāmaṃgamo.
somhi etarahi tamhā dāsabyā mutto attādhīno aparādhīno
bhujisso yenakāmaṃgamo’ti. so tato nidānaṃ labhetha
pāmojjaṃ, adhigaccheyya somanassaṃ.

194
Buddha uses the simile of slave to express the psychology of
taintless monk who renounced taints. The status of slave is
explained as not autonomous (anatthādhīno). The slave is not on
his own, he is no longer capable of taking decision on his own. He
has to be defendant on the master (parādhīno). Slave’s own
privileges being neglected and his life is governed by his master.
Upon release, former slave regains a status which is delighted and
rejoiced.

Changing Status of Slave

In rejecting the idea of slave status, Buddha opines that it is due to
somebody’s deed that determine one’s status as a slave or a noble
one. The idea of social ranking in the ancient Indian context was
designated by birth not by deed. Hence, slaves occupy the social
status similar to lower graders. Buddha advocates that those had
become noble ones once later they have become slaves and vice
versa. Thus, it is a reflection the simile of slave being used to
denote the inferiority class of the society. Further, it is a reflection
that slaves are outcaste in opposite to noble ones, ariya.

M. II. 149, 6-7

ayyo hutvā dāso hoti dāso hutvā ayyo hoti.

Further in order to point out the taints which bind one being
unable to freed, Buddha takes the simile of slave is who is bound
by and finds himself cannot be freed.

Sv 214, 19-20
evaṃ dāsavyaṃ viya uddhaccakukkuccaṃ daṭṭhabbaṃ.

Buddha Rejects Owning of Slaves

When the virtuous behaviour, sīla of the Buddha being interpreted,
Buddha refrains from accepting certain things including both male
and female slaves. Probably, the idea of being simple in life and
monk attendant would be suitable in attending Buddha’s needs.

195
The same idea being interpreted in the aṭṭhakathā, when the
reason why Buddha has rejected accepting slaves.

D.I.5, 14-15
dāsidāsapaṭiggahaṇā paṭivirato samaṇo gotamo.

Some Incompatible Textual Interpretation on Human Slavery

Despite the fact that Buddha sanctions trafficking in persons as
one of the wrong means of livings, there are some textual
statements which support that the slaves were ill-treated or they
were facing discrimination even in obtaining the monkhood. One
of which is that Buddha imposes Vinaya rule not to ordain slave.
If someone does so, it is considered an offense of wrongdoing.

Vin. I. 76, 26-27

na bhikkhave, dāso pabbājetabbo. yo pabbājeyya, āpatti
dukkaṭassā ti.

It seems that Buddha imposes such Vinaya rule as certain slaves

take the advantage of being a monastic to evade from certain
obligations towards their masters as presumably they were bound
previously. If slaves are bound by certain obligations, they cannot
be freed until they would end serving for master.

Conclusions
Both reports of the UN are explicit that human trafficking has no
boundaries and it might practically occur anywhere. Some victims
are even unaware that they are victims of human traffickers. As
criminalization of human trafficking is relatively quiet recent law
which even in some countries are yet to criminalize. Economic
backwardness and marginalization causes for the victims and
offenders to be in the social crime. Male offenders outnumber
their female counterparts in the trafficking while most trafficking
cases detected for sexual exploitation. Sexual exploitation is a
widely prevalent human trafficking issue. It is imperative to have a
higher level consciousness in the whole process of the human
trafficking by which victimization could be lessened to a
196
significant level. Buddhism is explicit slavery on various grounds.
One which is that Buddha vehemently rejects selling human being,
manussavikkayo as one of wrong means of livings. Probably,
Buddha, being aware that trade in human slavery taking place
widely in the society, imposed such moral obligation just as other
wrong types of trades. Even Buddha refrained owning slave as
part of his virtuous behaviour. Buddha speaks of the welfare of
slaves if slave owned by master. Even though in certain cases,
Buddha imposes Vinaya rule on slave not to be ordained. Overall
Buddhist texts speak negative aspects of human slavery.

Abbreviations
A Aṅguttaranikāya. E. Hardy. Ed. 1976.
Aṅguttaranikāya. London: Pali Text Society
D Dīghnikāya. Rhys Davids.T.W. Estlin Carpenter.J.
ed. 1975. Dīghnikāya.i. London. Pali Text Society
Dhp Dhammapada. O.von. Hinuber, Norman. K.R. ed.
1995. Dhammapada. Oxford. Pali Text Society.
M Majjhimanikāya. Chalmers, Robert. ed.1977.
Majjhimanikāya. London: Pali ext Society
Mp Manorathapūranī. Kopp, Hermann. ed. 1966.
Manorathapūranī. London. Pali Text Society
PED Pali-English Dictionary.ed. 1986. Pali-English
Dictionary. London: Pali Text Society
Sp Samantapāsādikā.Takakusu, J.,Nagai,Makoto. ed.
1966. Samantapāsādikā. Pali Text Society
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Websites:
https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-
analysis/glotip/Trafficking_in_Persons_2012_web.pdf
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/192587.pdf

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