1.

DEFINITION OF LIMIT
Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about x0, except possibly at x0 itself. If f(x) gets arbitrarily
close to L for all x sufficiently close to x0, we say that function approaches the limit L as x approaches
x0 and we write lim f(x) = L. In another way limit of a function can be defined as follows:
x x0

Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about x0, except possibly at x0 itself. We say that f(x)
approaches the limit L as x approaches x0 and write lim f(x) = L, if for every number  > 0, there
x x0

exists a corresponding number  > 0 such that for all x : 0 < |x – x0| <  and | f(x) – L | < .

1.1.1 Right Hand Limit

lim f(x) = L, if for every number  > 0 there exists a corresponding number  > 0 such
x x 0

that for all x satisfying x0 < x < x0 +   |f(x) – L| <  and we call it the right hand limit.
x
e.g. lim = 1
x 0  |x|
1.1.2 Left Hand Limit
lim f(x) = L, if for every number  > 0
x x 0

there exists a corresponding number  > 0

such that for all x satisfying
x0 –  < x < x0  |f(x) – L| < 
x x
and we call it the left hand limit. e.g. xlim 
x 0 | x |
=–1 |x|

x
Through the graph of , we can easily visualize the things written above.
|x|
1.2 Algebra of Limits
Let Lim f ( x )   and Lim g ( x )  m . If  and m are finite then :
x a xa

(i) Limf ( x )  g ( x )     m .
x a

(ii) Lim f (x).g(x)  .m .

x a

f (x) 
(iii) Lim  , provided m  0 .
x a g( x ) m

(iv) Lim k f ( x )  k Lim f ( x ) = k ; where k is a constant .

x a x a

(v) Lim [f(x) + k] = Lim f(x) + k, where k is a constant .

x a x a

(vi) If f(x)  g(x) , then Lim f(x)  Lim g(x).

x a x a
1.3 Limit in Case of Composite Function
 
Lim f g (x )  f  Lim g ( x )  ; provided f is continuous at x = Lim g ( x ) .
x a
x a x  a 

For example :
x a

x  a


 x a

Lim n (f (x ))  n  Lim f ( x )  n  where Lim f ( x )  ,   0 .

1.4 Sandwich Theorem

If f (x)  g(x)  h(x)  x  ( , )  {a} and

Lim f ( x )    Lim h ( x ) then Lim g ( x )   , where a  (, ) .
x a x a xa

Illustration 1:
[x]
Evaluate L im , where [.] is G.I.F.]
x  x
Solution:
1 [x]
We have x – 1 < [x]  x,  1   1
x x
 1 [x ]
Now L im  1   1. Therefore by Sandwich theorem L im 1
x   x x  x

Illustration 2:
n x
Evaluate Lim .
x  x
Solution:
As 0 ln x  x (x > 1)
n x 1
0   (x > 1)
x x
n x 1 n x
0  Lim  Lim = 0  Lim =0
x  x x  x x   x
1.5 Some Standard Results on Limits
(i) L im sin x  L im tan x  0 .
x 0 x 0

sin x x sin 1 x x
(ii) L im  L im  L im  L im  1.
x 0 x x  0 sin x x  0 x x 0 sin 1 x
(where x is measured in radians)
 1 
(iii) L im cos x = L im  cos x  = 1
x 0 x 0  

tan 1 x x
(iv) L im tan x = L im x L im
= x 0  L im =1
x 0 x x  0 tan x x x  0 tan 1 x
(where x is measured in radians)
x
 1
(v) L im 1    L im (1  x)1/ x  e ,
x   x x 0
x ax
 a  1
lim 1    lim 1  x   lim 1  
a/x
 ea
x   x x 0 x   x

(vi) If L im f(x) = 1 and Lim ( x )  

x a
x a

then, L im f (x)(x)  L im [1 + (f(x) – 1)]  (x) = eLxima  f (x) 1.(x)

x a x a
Lim  ( x ).n[ f ( x )]
(vii) If Lim f ( x ) exists and positive then Lim [f (x )] ( x )  e xa
x a x a
x x
(viii) L im a  1  log e a (a > 0) , L im e  1  1 ,
x 0 x x 0 x
n n
(ix) L im x  a  n a n 1 .
x a x  a

(x) L im ln(1  x )  1 , L im log a 1  x   log a e

x 0 x x 0 x
n
(xi) L im 1  x   1  n ,
x 0 x
sin x cos x
(xii) lim  lim  0 . (where x is measured in radians)
x  x x   x
 0, 0  a 1
 1, a 1

(xiii) Lim a x  
x 
 , a 1
does not exist, a 0
  a0
 b , when m  n
 0
 0, when m  n
a 0 x m  a1x m 1  .... 
(xiv) L im =  a0
x  b x n  b x n 1  ...
0 1  , when m  n and
b0
0

 a0
, when m  n and
b0
0


1.6 Some Important Expansions

 n
x2 x3 xn xn xr
(i) ex = 1 + x + 
2! 3!
. . . 
n!
 ...   n!  lim  r!
n 0
n 
r 0

x 2 x3 n
r 1 x
r

(ii) ln (1 + x) = x –
2 3
 – . . .  lim
n 

r 1
(1)
r
: 1  x  1

( x ln a ) 2 ( x ln a )3 ( x ln a ) n
(iii) ax = 1 + (x ln a) +   ...  + ...
2! 3! n!
x3 x5 x2 x4 n
x 2r
(iv) sin x = x –   ... (v) cos x = 1 –   ....  lim  (1) r ,
3! 5! 2! 4! n
r0 2r!

x3 2 5 x 3 9x 5
(vi) tan x = x +  x  ... (vii) -1
sin x = x +   ...
3 15 3! 5!
x3 x5 x7 n n  1 2
(viii) tan-1 x = x –    . . (ix) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x  ...
3 5 7 2!
(for rational or integral n, for irrational n rule is not applicable)

1.7 Few Indeterminate Forms are as Follows

0 
, , 0  , 0 0 ,  0 ,    and 1 , where zero does not stand for exactly zero but a quantity
0 
approaching towards zero similarly one does not stand for exactly one but a quantity approaching
towards one.

1.8 Some Standard Methods to Find Limit of a Function

8.1 Factorization
8.2 Rationalization
8.3 By application of standard limits
8.4 Expansion of function
8.5 Substitution
8.6 By use of logarithm
1.8.1 Factorization
Illustration 3 :
x 3  x 2 log x  log x  1
Evaluate lim
x 1 x 2 1
Solution :

The given limit = lim

x  1  x  1log x = lim x  1x
3 2 2

 x  1  x  1x  1log x
x 1 2
x 1 x 1 x  1x  1
x  1 x 2  x  1  x  1  log x  1 2  1  1  1  1  lo g 1 3
= lim = 
x 1 x  1x  1  1  1  2

DRILL EXERCISE - 1
Evaluate the following limits :
x 3 / 2  27 x9 1
1. lim 2. lim 14
x 9 x 9 x 1 x  1

tan 2 x  2 tan x  3 3x / 2  3
3. lim 2 4. lim
x  tan 1 (3) tan x  4 tan x  3 x 2 3x  9

sin 2   sin 2 
5. lim
   2  2

1.8.2 Rationalization
The meaning of rationalization means to remove the radical sign.

Illustration 4 :

Evaluate xlim x  x 2  k  x  , k > 0

  
Solution:
 x2  k  x xk
 2 



 lim
x x2  k  x2   lim
x   
lim x  x  k  x   | x | 1  k    x
x      x 2  k  x  = x   x 2  k  x  =
      x  
2
  
Here we have to consider two cases
(i) When x   ; |x| = x
xk xk k
then the given limit = lim = lim 
x   k  x    k   2
x 1  2   x x   1  2   1
 x    x  
 
(ii) When x  –  ; |x| = – x
 xk
then we have xlim
–  k 
 x 1  2   x
 x 

xk k k
lim  –
 –  –
x –   k  1  1 0
x   1  2  1
 x 
Illustration 5 :
1 x
Evaluate xlim
1
cos x 
1 2

Solution:
Put cos-1 x = y and x  1–  y  0
1 x 1  cos y
lim = lim
x 1
cos x 
1 2
y 0 y2

1  cos y 
now rationalizing numerator lim
y 0 y 2 1  cos y  
1  cos y 1 1 1 1
lim lim . 
1  cos y = 2 2 4
2
y 0 y y  0

DRILL EXERCISE - 2

Evaluate the following limits :

4 2
1. Lim (1  x )  (1  x ) . 2. Lim
2x  5  3
.
x
x2 x2 x2

x2 1 1
3. The value of lim
x 0
x2  9  3
. 4. Lx 
im  x 1  x  x .

1.8.3 By application of standard limits

Illustration 6 :
1  x1/ 3
Find lim .
x 1 1  x 1 / 5
Solution:
x1/ 3  ( 1) 5
Limit = xlim =
1 x1/ 5  (1) 3
 Note : lim
x 
1/ 5 5
 ( 1)
 5( 1) 4
1/ 5
x 1 x  (1)

(x1/ 3 )3  (1)
lim 1/ 3 = 3 (–1)2
x 1 x  (1)

Illustration 7:
ln x  1
Evaluate lim .
xe xe
Solution:
ln x / e
lim ln t
x 
e  1 = lim
x e
Above limit = t 1 t  1e
(Putting x/e = t)
e 

ln 1  y  1
Put t = 1 + y = lim 
y0 ey e

Illustration 8:

Evaluate lim

sin  cos 2 x .
2
x 0 x
Solution:

lim

sin  cos 2 x  = lim sin (1  sin x) = lim sin    sin x 
2 2

x 0 x2 x 0 x2 x 0 x2

= lim

sin  sin 2 x  = lim sin  sin x     sin 2
2
x

2

2
x 0 x2 x 0
  sin x 1 x 

= lim

sin  sin 2 x     lim sin 2
x
= 1 × × 1 = 
2 2
x 0  sin x x 0 x
Illustration 9:
1/ x
  
Evaluate lim  tan  x  
x 0   4 
Solution:
1
 1  x
   tan 4  tan x 

 x
1 1
lim tan  x   lim    lim 1  tan x  x  2 tan x  x
  lim 1  
x 0  4  x0
1  tan  tan x  x 0 1  tan x  x 0  1  tan x 
 4 
 2 tan x  1
lim 
tan x 1
 lim 2 .
 e x 0 1 tan x  x  e x 0 x 1 tan x  e2
 DRILL EXERCISE - 3
Evaluate the following limits :
1  tan x      
1. Lim . 2. Lim n. cos . sin   .
x

1  2 sin x n 
 4n   4n 
4

2
sin
Lim 3x ln x
3. x  3 4. L im .
sin x x 1 x 1
2

5. Lim
x 3

 27 n x  2 
.
x3 x2  9
1.8.4 Expansion

Illustration 10 :
2 x  sin 1 x
Evaluate lim .
x 0 2 x  tan 1 x
Solution:
 x3 
2 x   x   ...
 6 1
lim 3
x 0  x  3
2 x   x   ...
 3 
DRILL EXERCISE - 4
Evaluate the following limits
x3
sin x  x  x tan(2 x )  2x tan x
1. lim 6 2. lim
x 0 (1  cos 2 x ) 2
x 0 x5
cot x  cos x ln(1  2h )  2 ln(1  h )
3. lim 4. lim
x   / 2 (  2 x ) 3 h 0 h2
5

5. L im
1  x  1
.
x 0 3x  5x 2

1.8.5 Substitution
Illustration 11 :
1
  cos x
Evaluate x lim
 1  x 1
Solution:
Put cos-1 x =   x = cos 
    1
 Above limit = lim  lim .
  1  cos    1  cos   

 1 k 1
lim lim = lim .
  2    
2 cos  / 2 k 0
 k 2 
2 cos 2   
2 2

k/2 1 1
(putting  =  – k) = lim
k0
. =
2 k 2  2
sin
2 2

DRILL EXERCISE - 5
Evaluate the following limits
sin   cos  1/( x  a )
lim  sin x 
1.  / 4  2. lim  
 x a sin a
 
4
x
3. lim
x 0 tan 1 2 x

1.8.6 By Use of logarithm

Illustration 12:
1/ x
Evaluate lim x x 

Solution :
Let A = lim x1/ x . Then,
x 
1
log A = lim log x  0 [See Illustration 2]
x  x

A = e0 = 1.
DRILL EXERCISE - 6

Evaluate the following limits :

Lim (cos ecx ) 1/  nx Lim (sec x) cot x

1. x 0
2. 
x
2

2
1/ x
 tan x 
3. lim  
x 0
 x 
2. CONTINUITY
2.1 Continuity at a Point
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a, if xlim
a 
f(a) = xlim
a 
f(x) = f(a)

i.e. LHL = RHL = value of the function at ‘a’ i.e. xlim

a
f(x) = f(a).
If f(x) is not continuous at x = a, we say that f(x) is discontinuous at x = a.
Note :
(i) All Polynomials, Trigonometrical functions, exponential and Logarithmic functions are
continuous in their domain .
(ii) We never talk about continuity/discontinuity at a points at which we can’t approach from
either side of the point. These points are called isolated points e.g. f(x) = a  x  x  a
at x = a.
(iii) There are some functions which are continuous only at one point.
 x if x  Q  x if x  Q
e.g. f(x) =  and g(x) =  are both continuous only at x = 0
 x if x  Q  0 if x  Q

2.2 Reasons of Discontinuity

(i) Lim f ( x ) does not exist.

xa

(ii) f(x) is not defined at x = b.

(iii) Lim f ( x )  f ( c) .
xc

In all the above cases, geometrically the graph of the function will exhibit a break at the point of
discussion. The graph as shown is discontinuous at x = a, b and c.
Illustration 13 :

Discuss the continuity of the function [cos x] at x = , where [  ] denotes the greatest integer
2
function.
Solution:
lim cos x   0
L.H.L = x

2

R.H.L = lim cos x   1


x
2

   
f   = cos  = 0
 2  2
 Clearly, L.H.L  R.H.L

so, the function is discontinuous at x = .
2

Illustration 14:
sin 2 x  A sin x  B cos x
If f(x) = is continuous at x = 0. Find the values of A and B. Also find f(0).
x3
Solution:
As f(x) is continuous at x = 0,

 lim f ( x )  f (0) and both f(0) and xlim

0
f(x) are finite.
x 0

sin 2x  A sin x  B cos x

 f(0) = xlim
0 x3
As denominator  0, when x  0.
Numerator should also  0, when x  0
which is possible only if
 sin 2(0) + A sin (0) + B cos(0) = 0  B=0
sin 2 x  A sin x
 f(0) = xlim
0 x3

 sin x  2 cos x  A   2 cos x  A 

 f(0) = xlim
0
  2
 = lim  2

 x  x  x 0  x 
Again we can see that denominator  0 as x  0
 Numerator should also approach 0 as x  0  2 +A= 0  A= – 2
 2 cos x  2    4 sin 2 x / 2 
 
  sin 2 x / 2 
 = x  0  x 2 / 4   1
lim
 lim
f(0) = x  0    lim
 x2  x  0 x2   
So, we get A = – 2, B = 0 and f(0) = – 1

Illustration 15 :
2 cos x  1     
f(x) = x   0,  except at x = . Define f   so that f(x) may be continuous at
cot x  1  2 4  4

x= .
4
Solution:
  
f(x) will be continuous at x = lim f ( x )  f  
, if x 
4  / 4  4
   2 cos x  1 ( 2 cos x  1) sin x
 f   = lim = xlim
 4 x  / 4 cot x  1  / 4 cos x  sin x
( 2 cos x  1) ( 2 cos x  1) (cos x  sin x ) sin x
= xlim
 / 4 ( 2 cos x  1) (cos x  sin x ) (cos x  sin x )

1  1 1 
  
2 cos x 1 cosx  sin x sin x
2
sin x cos x  sin x  2 2 2 1
= xlim lim
= x = 
 / 4 (cos2 x  sin2 x)  
2 cos x  1 / 4 2 cos x  1
2.
1
1
2
2
DRILL EXERCISE - 7

1 x  3 1 x
1. Find the vlaue of f(0) so that the function f (x) = is continuous at x = 0.
x
 x 2  (a  2)x  a
 , x2
2. If the function f(x) =  x2
 2 , x2

is continuous at x = 2. Then find the value of a.

ln(1  ax)  ln(1  bx)

3. If the function f(x) = is undefined at x = 0. Then find the value which should
x
be assigned to ‘f’ at x = 0 so that it is continuous at x = 0.

x , x 3

4. If f (x) =  4 , x  3 is continuous at x = 3 then find the value of 
3x  5 , x  3


2 x 4
5. If f(x) = , x 0 is continuous function at x = 0, then find the value of f(0).
sin( 2 x )

2.3 Continuity In An Open Interval

A function f(x) is said to be continuous in an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at each and every
point of (a, b) i.e. y = [x] is continuous in (1, 2)
2.4 Continuity In A Closed Interval
A function f(x) is said to be continuous in a closed interval [a, b] if
(a) It is continuous in (a, b)
(b) Value of the function at “b” is equal to left hand limit at “b” i.e., f(b) = xlim
b 
f (x )

(c) Value of the function at “a” is equal to right hand limit at “a” i.e., f(a) = xlim
a 
f (x)

Illustration 16 :
Check the continuity of the function f(x)=[x2] – [x]2  x  R at the end points of the interval
[– 1, 0], (where [  ] denotes the greatest integer function).
Solution:
Continuity at x = – 1
f (–1) = [(–1)2] –[–1]2 = [1] – (–1)2 = 1 – 1 = 0

R.H.L = xlim
 1
 
x 2  x 
2
=0–1=–1
so, f(– 1)  R.H.L
Continuity at x = 0
f(0) = [(0)2] – [0]2 = 0 – 0 = 0

LHL = xlim
0   x  x   0 1 1
2 2

So, f(0)  L.H.L

Hence the function is not continuous at the end points of the interval [– 1, 0]

Illustration 17 :
A function f is defined as follows:



1 , when -   x  0
 
f(x) =  1  sin x , when 0  x 
 2
2
   
 2   x   , when  x  
  2 2

Discuss the continuity of f.

Solution:
Continuity at x = 0
L.H.L at x = 0 lim f ( x )  lim (1)  1
x 0 x 0

R.H.L at x = 0 xlim f ( x )  lim (1  sin x )  1

0 x 0

f(0) = 1 + sin 0 = 1
= L.H.L = R.H.L = f(0) so f(x) is continuous at x = 0.

continuity at x =
2
 lim
L.H.L at x = = lim  f(x) = x    (1 + sinx) = 1 + 1 = 2
2 x 2
2
2
   
R.H.L at x = = lim f(x) = 2 +    2
2 x
  2 2
2

2
    
f  = 2 +    = 2
 2  2 2
    
 L.H.L = R.H.L = f    L.H.L = R.H.L = f  
 2  2
 
so, f(x) is continuous at x =   Hence, f(x) is continuous over the whole real number.
 2

DRILL EXERCISE - 8

2x  1 if  3  x  2

1. Is the function f(x) =  x  1 if  2  x  0 is continuous everywhere in (-3, 1).
 x  2 if 0  x 1


 1  cos(4x )
 , for x  0
 x2
2. Let f(x) =  a , for x  0
 x
 , for x  0
 (16  x )1/ 2  4

then find the value of ‘a’ for which f(x) is continuous at x = 0.

x for rational values of x in [0 , 1]
3. If f(x) =  . Show that f(x) is continuous only at
1  2x for irrational values of x in [0 , 1]
x = 1/3.
 sin 5 x , x0
4. For what value of ' k ' is the function , f (x) =  3 x continuous .
 k , x0

x 2 cos e1/ x when x  0

5. The function f(x) is defined as f(x) =  . Show that f(x) is
 1 when x  0
discontinuous at x = 0.

2.6 Algebra of Continuous Functions

Let f(x) and g(x) are continuous functions at x = a. Then,
(i) cf(x) is continuous at x = a where c is any constant
(ii) f(x)  g(x) is continuous at x = a
(iii) f(x). g(x) is continuous at x = a
(iv) f(x)/g(x) is continuous at x = a, provided g(a)  0
Note :
(a) If f(x) is continuous and g(x) is discontinuous at x = a then the product function
( x )  f ( x ).g ( x ) is not necessarily be discontinuous at x = a.
  1
sin x0
e.g. f(x) = x and g(x)   x
 0 x0
(b) If f(x) and g(x) both are discontinuous at x = a then the product function ( x )  f ( x ).g ( x )
is not necessarily be discontinuous at x = a.
1 x0 1 x  0
e.g. f(x) =  and g(x) = 
1 x  0 1 x0
(c) Continuity of an inverse Function : If the function y = f(x) is defined, continuous and strictly
monotonic on the interval X, then there exist a single valued inverse function x =  (y)
defined, continuous and also strictly monotonic in the range of the function y = f(x).

Illustration 18 :
The function f(x) = a [x + 1] + b [x - 1], where [x] is the greatest integer function then find the
condition for which f(x) is continuous at x = 1.
Solution :
f(x) is continuous at x = 1  Lim
x 1
f(x) = Lim
x 1
f(x) = f(1)

 Lim
x 1
a [x + 1] + b [x - 1] = Lim
x 1
a [x + 1] + b [x - 1] a - b = 2a + 0b a + b = 0

DRILL EXERCISE - 9
1. If f(x) = x + {- x} + [x] , where [x] is the integral part and {x} is the fractional part
of x . Discuss the continuity of f in [ - 2 , 2 ] .

2. Discuss the continuity of the function; f(x) = [[x]] – [x – 1] (where [.] denotes the greatest
integral function).

3. Examine the continuity or discontinuity of the function f(x) = [x] + [–x]. (where [.] denotes the
greatest integral function).

2.7 Continuity of Composite Function

If f is continuous at x = c and g is continuous at x = f(c) then the composite g(f(x)) is continuous at
x sin x
x = c. e.g. f(x) = 2 and g(x) = x are continuous at x = 0, hence the composite
x 2
x sin x
(gof )(x)= 2 will also be continuous at x = 0.
x 2

Illustration 19:
1 1
Find the point(s) of discontinuity of y = 2 , where u = .
u u–2 x 1
Solution:
1
The function u = f (x) = is discontinuous at the point x = 1. . . . (i)
x 1
1 1
The function y = g(x) =  is discontinuous at u = – 2 and u = 1.
2
u u2 u  2u  1
1 1
when u = – 2,  2  x=
x 1 2
1
u=1  1  x = 2
x 1
1
Hence, the composite function y = g (f(x)) is discontinuous at three points x = , 1, 2
2
DRILL EXERCISE - 10
1
1. If f(x) = ; find the points of discontinuity of the function y = f (f(f(x))).
1 x

1  x , 0  x  2
2. Let f(x) =  .Determine the form of g(x) = f (f(x)) and hence find the point of
3  x , 2  x  3
discontinuity of g , if any .
3. If f(x) = – 1 + | x – 1|, 1  x  3 and g(x) = 2 – | x + 1|, 2  x  2 , then calculate
f(g(x)) and g(f(x)). Discuss the continuity of f(g(x)).

x  1, 1  x  0
4. Let f(x) =  2 and g(x) = sin x. Further let h(x) = f ( | g(x) | ) + | f (g(x))|.
 x , 0  x 1
Discuss the continuity of h(x) in [–1, 1].

3. DEFINITION OF THE DERIVATIVE

The derivative f  (x) of a funct ion y = f(x) at a given point x is defined as
y f (x  x)  f (x)
f (x)  L im  L im = finite. If this limit exists finitely then the function
x  0 x x  0 x
f (x  x)  f (x)
f(x) is called differentiable at the point x. The number f  (x)   lim 
 finite  is
 x  0  x 
called the left hand derivative at the point x.
f (x  x)  f (x)
Similarly the number f  (x)   lim 
 finite  is called the right hand derivative at
 x  0  x 
the point x. The necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of the derivative f(x) is the
existence of the finite right and left hand derivatives, and also of the equality f  (x)  f  (x) = finite.
Illustration 20:
Show that 5
x 3 has no finite derivative at x = 0.
Solution:
3 5 3
x 3 , then we have y  x  x   x .
Let y = 5 5

5 3 1
At x = 0, we have, y  5 x 3 , y  x = 5
;
x x x 2

1
Hence, y (0) = lim 5  i.e., there is no finite derivative.
x 0
x 2

3.1 Geometrical Meaning of The Derivative

Let us consider the function f(x) and the corresponding curve y = f(x). Clearly line joining two
points M0 (x, y) and M1 (x +  x, y +  y) on the curve will be the secant to the curve and the
y
slope of this secant is given by tan  = (Where  is the angle made by the secant with the
x
positive direction of the x-axis). In the limiting case when x  0 the point M1 approaches M0 and
the secant joining these two points will become the tangent at M0 whose slope will be given by
y
tan  = lim  f ( x ) which means that slope of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at any argument
x 0 x
is equal to the value of the derivative at that argument.
y

M1
M0 y=f(x)
y
x y
x
O x x+x

Geometrically, a function is not differentiable in the following cases :

3.2 Differentiability on An Interval
A function y = f(x) is differentiable on an interval (finite or infinite) if it has a derivative at each point
of the interval. It is differentiable on a closed interval [a, b] if it differentiable at every point of the
f a  h   f (a )
open interval (a, b) and if the limits lim = finite (Right - hand derivative at a)
h 0 h

f b   f ( b  h )
lim = finite (Left - hand derivative at b) exist finitely
h 0 h
3.3 Relation Between Derivability And Continuity
(a) If f ( a ) exists then f(x) is derivable at x  a  f ( x ) is continuous at x = a .In general a
function f is derivable at x then f is continuous at x. i.e. if f(x) is derivable for every point of
its domain of definition, then it is continuous in that domain. The converse of the above
  1
x sin x0
result is need not be true e.g. the functions f(x) = |x| and g(x) =  x both are
 0, x 0
continuous at x = 0 but not derivable at x = 0.
(b) Let f  (a )   and f  (a )   where  and  are finite then :
(i)     f is derivable at x = a  f is continuous at x = a.
(ii)     f is not derivable at x = a but f is continuous at x = a. If a function f not
differentiable but is continuous at x = a, it geometrically implies a sharp corner or
kink at x = a .
(iii) If f is not continuous at x = a then it is not differentiable at x = a.

DRILL EXERCISE - 11

1 for   x 0

1. A function f is defined as follows : f(x) =  1  sin x for 0  x  2 . Discuss the continuity
  2
2   x  2 

for 2 x

and differentiability at x = 0 and x = /2 .

2. Examine for continuity and differentiability at the points x = 1 and x = 2, the function f
x [x] , 0 x 2
defined by f(x) =  where [x] = greatest integer less than or
 (x  1) [x] , 2  x  3
equal to x .
 1 
 1 
 |x| x
3. Let f(x) = x e ; x  0 , f(0) = 0, test the continuity and differentiability at x = 0
4. Discuss the continuity and differentiability of the function f(x) = sinx + sinx , x R.
Draw a rough sketch of the graph of f(x) .

1  x , ( 0  x 1)

5. f(x) = x  2 , (1 x  2) . Discuss the continuity and differentiability of
4  x , ( 2  x  4 )

y = f (f(x)) for 0  x  4 .

4. FUNCTIONAL EQUATION :

Illustration 21 :
 xy 
If f(x) + f(y) = f   for all x, y R
 1  xy 

f (x)  1 
(xy 1) and xlim
0
= 2. Find f   and f (1)
x  3
Solution :
 xy 
f(x) + f(y) = f   .................. (i)
 1  xy 
Putting x = y = 0, we get ; f(0) = 0
Putting y = –x, we get ; f(x) + f(–x) = f(0)
 f(–x) = –f(x) .................. (ii)

also, lim f ( x ) = 2
x 0 x
f (x  h)  f (x)
Now, f (x) = lim .................. (iii)
h 0 h
f (x  h)  f (x)
= lim [using (ii) f(–x) = –f(x)]
h 0 h

 xhx 
f  
 1  ( x  h )( x ) 
f(x) = lim [using (i)]
h 0 h

  h 
 f  
  1  x ( x  h )  
lim
 f (x) = h 0  h 
 
 

 h 
f 2 
1  xh  x   1 
lim   2 
 f (x) = h 0  h   1  xh  x 
 2 
 1  xh  x 

 h 
f 2 
1  xh  x  1
lim   lim  f (x) 
 2
 f (x) = h 0  h  h 0 1  xh  x 2  using lim
 x 0 x 
 2 
 1  xh  x 

1 2
 f (x) = 2 × 2  f (x) =
1 x 1 x2
Integrating both sides, f(x) = 2 tan-1 (x) + c
where f(0) = 0  c = 0. Thus f(x) = 2tan-1 x
 1   1    2 2
Hence, f  = 2tan-1   = 2. = and f (1) = 2 = =1
 3  3 6 3 11 2
Illustration 22:
Let f : R R is a function satisfies condition
f(x + y3) = f(x) + [f(y)]3 for all x, y R. If f(0)  0. Find f(10).
Solution :
Given f(x + y3) = f(x) + [f(y)]3 ................. (i)
and f(0) 0 ................. (ii)
Replacing x, y by 0
f(0) = f(0) + f(0)3  f(0) = 0 ................. (iii)
f ( 0  h )  f ( 0) f (h )
also f  (0) = lim  lim ................. (iv)
h 0 h h 0 h


f (0  (h1/3 )3 )  f (0) f ((h1/ 3 ))3  f (h1/ 3 ) 
Let lim
I = f  (0) = h 0 lim
= h 0  lim  1/ 3  = I3
(h1/ 3 )3 (h1/ 3 ) 3 h 0
 (h ) 
I = I3
or I = 0, 1, –1 as f (0) 0  f (0) = 0, 1 ................ (v)
Thus,
f (x  h)  f (x) f ( x  (h1 / 3 )3 )  f ( x )
f (x) = hlim  lim
0 h h 0 (h1/ 3 )3

f ( x )  (f ( h1 / 3 ))3  f ( x )
f (x) = lim [using (i)]
h 0 ( h1 / 3 ) 3
 f ( h1 / 3 ) 
 f (x) = h 0 1 / 3  = (f  (0))3
lim
 (h ) 
 f (x) = 0, 1 [as f (0) = 0, 1 using (v)]
Integrating both sides, f(x) = c or x + c as f(0) = 0  f(x) = 0 or x
Thus f(10) = 0 or 10
DRILL EXERCISE - 12

1. A function f : R  R satisfies the equation f(x + y) = f(x) . f(y) for all x, y in R and
f ( x )  0 for any x in R. Let the function be differentiable at x = 0 and f (0)  2 . Show
that f ( x )  2f ( x ) for all x in R. Hence determine f(x).

 x  y  2  f (x)  f (y)
2. If f   for all real x and y and f (2)  2 , then determine y = f(x).
 3  3

 xy  f (x) f (y)
3. Let f    for all x and y. If f (1)  f (1) , show that f(x) + f(1 – x) = cont.,
 2  2
for all non-zero real x.
 x  f (x)
4. If f   = x, y R, y 0 and f(t) 0, if t 0 and f (1) = 3 then find f(x).
 9  f (9) 
5. DIFFERENT METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION

5.1 Derivative of f(x) From The First Principle/ab Initio Method

If f(x) is a derivable function then,

y f (x  x)  f (x) dy
Lim  Lim  f (x)  .
x  0  x x  0 x dx
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
or simply f  (x) = Lim .
h 0 h
Illustration 23 :
Find the derivative of tan–1 x with respect to x by using first principle.
Solution:

Let tan–1x =  ,      ,    x = tan  and tan-1(x + h) =  +  . . . (i)

 2 2
 x + h = tan(  +  ) . . . (ii)

tan 1 ( x  h )  tan 1 x
Let lim L
h 0 h
     
L = lim  lim (from (i) and (ii)
h 0 h h 0 h

 
= hlim
0 tan(  )  tan 
= lim
0 tan(  )  tan 

 cos( ) cos  1 1

= lim  cos 2   
 0 sin  sec  1  x 2
2

Illustration 24 :
Using the definition of the derivative, find the derivative of the function cos ax at x.
Solution:
 a  ax
Let y = cos ax , we have  y = cos a (x +  x) – cos ax = – 2 sin  ax  x  sin
 2  2
 a  ax
 2 sin  ax  x  sin
 y  2  2

x x
a
sin x
Hence y  lim y  2 lim sin  ax  a x  lim 2 = – a sin ax.
 x  0 x x  0  2  x 0 x

In particular, if a = 1, then y = cos x and y = – sin x

5.2 Algebra of Derivatives
If u and v are derivable function of x, then

(i)
d
dx
b g
uv 
du dv

dx dx

(ii)
d
dx
bg
Ku  K
du
dx
, where K is any constant

(iii)
d
dx
bg dv
u. v  u  v
dx
du
dx
known as “ Product Rule ”

F
Gdu I F
J dv I
 uG J
(iv) d FuI
GJ Hdx K Hdx Kwhere v  0 known as “ Quotient Rule “
v

dx H
vK
 2
v

dy dy du
(v) 
If y = f(u) and u = g(x) then . “Chain Rule “
dx du dx
5.3 Some Standard Formulae of Differentiation
d d n
(constant) = 0 x = nxn–1
dx dx
d x d x
a = ax lna e = ex
dx dx
d d 1
(loga |x| )  1 log a e n | x | 
dx x dx x
d d
sinx = cosx cos x = – sin x
dx dx
d d
tan x = sec2x sec x = sec x tan x
dx dx
d d
cot x = – cosec2x cosec x = – cosec x cot x
dx dx

DRILL EXERCISE - 13

Find the derivatives of the following functions w.r.t. x :

 2 
1. y = sin x 2.
y
x = tan  1n 

 1  tan 2
y
 
y 
2  tan 2 
 
1
3. y = 5.3 x3 + x8 + 3 tan x 4. y= – 3e–x
2x
5. y = sin (x2 + 1)
5.4 Inverse Function And Their Derivatives
(a) Theorem : If the inverse functions f and g are defined by y = f(x) and x = g(y) and if f ( x)
1 dy
exists and f  ( x)  0 then g ( y)  . This result can also be written as, if exists
f ( x) dx
dy
 0 , then
dx dy dy dx dy dx F
G IJ F
G IJ L
Mdx O
 0P
and
dx dy
 1/
dx
or .  1 or
dx dy dx
= 1/
dy HK
, where
HK Ndy Q
d 1 d 1
sin–1x = , –1 < x < 1 cos–1 x = – , –1 < x < 1
dx 1 x 2 dx 1  x2

d 1 d 1
tan–1 x = , xR cot–1x = – , xR
dx 1 x2 dx 1 x2
d 1 d 1
sec–1x = ,|x|>1 cosec–1x = – ,|x|>1
dx | x | x 2 1 dx | x | x 2 1

Illustration 25:
sin x dy
If y = x–1/2 + log5x +  2 x , find ?
cos x dx
Solution:
Here y = x–1/2 +log5x + tanx + 2x on differentiating w.r.t. x we get,
dy d d d d
 ( x ) 1 / 2  (log 5 x )  tan x  ( 2 x )
dx dx dx dx dx
1 1
=  ( x ) 1 / 2 1   sec 2 x  2 x ln 2
2 x log e 5
1 1
=  ( x )3/ 2   sec 2 x  2 x ln 2
2 x log e 5
Illustration 26 :
tan1 x 2 1
Differentiate: y = 2 n sin e .
Solution:
tan1 x 2 1
y = 2 n sin e
dy tan1 x 2 1 1 1 1
 2 n sin e n2.  1
x 2 1  .2x
cos e tan  
1
 . e tan x 2 1 . 2
dx  1 x 1 2 x2 1
1
x 2 1   
sin  e tan 
 
1
1  1
x 2 1 
tan1 x 2 1
cos e tan . e tan 1 x 2 1
= 2 n sin e . n2.  1
x 2 1    . x x2 1
sin  e tan 
 
 DRILL EXERCISE - 14

Find the derivatives of the following functions w.r.t. x :

1 cos 3x
1. y = cos
cos3 x
x2  1 x2  1
2. y = sin-1 + sec -1
, |x|>1
x2  1 x2  1
1
x )3
3. y  e(tan
1 1 1
4. If y  tan 1  tan 1 3
2
 tan 1 2  ....to n t erms, show
x  x 1 x  3x  1 x  5x  7
dy 1 1
 2
 2 .
dx (x  n)  1 x  1

5. y= (1  x 2 ) sin 1 x  x

5.5 Differentiation of A Function Defined Parametrically

dy
dy dt ( t )
Let x and y be the functions of parameter t, i.e., x = f(t), y =  (t), then   .
dx dx f ( t )
dt
Illustration 27 :
2 dy
If x = e  t and y = tan–1 (2t + 1), find ?
dx
Solution:
2
Here x = e  t so, dx  2.t e  t and y = tan-1(2t + 1)
2

dt
dy 1
On differentiating both sides, we get  dt  1  (2 t  1) 2 2

dy 2
2
dy dt 1  4t  4t  1
 
  dy  et
2

dx dx 2t Hence, 

dt
 2
et
 
dx 2 t 2 t 2  2 t  1

DRILL EXERCISE - 15
dy
Find of the following functions :
dx
1 1 dy
1. If x2 + y2 = t – and x4 + y4 = t 2 + 2 then find the value of x3y
t t dx
2. x = 2at 2 , y = at 4 3. x = a cos, y = b cos 

4. x = cos - cos 2, y = sin - sin 2 5. x = a ( – sin), y = a(1 + cos )

5.6 Logarithmic Differentiation : To find the derivative of :

(i) a function which is the product or quotient of a number of functions
OR
(ii)a function of the form [f(x)]g(x) where f and g are both derivable, it will be found
convenient to take the logarithm of the function first and then differentiate. This is called
Logarithmic Differentiation.
Illustration 28 :
dy
If xy .yx = 1, find ?
dx
Solution: Taking n on both sides; y n x + x n y = n 1
d d  d   d 
Differentiating both sides, we get y. (n x) +  y  . n x +  x  . ny + x  ln y  =0
dx  dx   dx   dx 

1 dy 1 dy
or y.  ln x.  1. ln y  x. . 0
x dx y dx

 x  dy y  dy

y  x ln y . y
ln x   .
y  dx
    ln y  
x  y ln x  x
 x  dx

DRILL EXERCISE - 16

Find the derivatives of the following functions w.r.t. x :

1 dy 2
1. If y = esin x
and u = log x, then find 2. y = xx
du
3. (sinx)cosx 4. y = (cos x)ln x + (ln x) x
ex xe ex
5. y = ex  ex  xe

 
y  log e tan 1 1  x 2 
5.7 Differentiation of A Function With Respect To Another Function
d
f ( x)
df ( x ) dx f ( x )
 
d( x ) d ( x ) ( x )
dx

Illustration 29 :
 2x 
Differentiate sin–1   with respect to tan–1 x, where x (-1, 1)
1 x2 
Solution:
d  2x  d d
sin 1  2   2 tan 1 x  2 (tan 1 x)
dx  1  x   dx  dx 2
d d d
dx
tan 1 (x)
dx
 tan 1
x  dx  tan 1
x 
Illustration 30 :
Differentiate ln tanx with respect to sin–1 (ex)
Solution:
d
d ln tan x  dx
ln tan x  cot x sec 2 x
  e x 1  e 2 x
 
d sin 1 (e x ) d 1 x
sin e   x
e .
1 =
sin x. cos x
dx 1  e2x
5.8 Differentiation of Implicit Function
If the relation between the variables x and y is given by an equation containing both, and this
equation is not immediately solvable for y, then y is called an implicit function of x. Implicit functions
are given by  (x, y) = 0.
(i) In order to find dy/dx, in the case of implicit functions, we differentiate each term w.r.t. x
regarding y as a functions of x and then collect terms in dy/dx together on one side to finally
find dy/dx.
(ii) In answers of dy/dx in the case of implicit functions, both x and y are present.

DRILL EXERCISE - 17

1. Differentitate sin3 x + cos3 x with respect to sinx + cos x

3x  x 3 2x  1 1 
2. Differentiate tan -1
with respect to tan-1
2 , where x    , 
1  3x 2 1 x  3 3
2x 2x
3. Differentiate tan-1 2 with respect to sin
-1
, where x (-1, 1)
1 x 1 x2

Illustration 31 :
dy
If x2 + y2 + xy = 2, find ?
dx
Solution:
d 2 d 2 d d
x2 + y2 + xy = 2, Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x we get, (x )  (y )  ( xy )  ( 2)
dx dx dx dx
dy  dx  d  dy dy
or 2x  2 y   y  x  y  0 or 2x  2 y  1.y  x.  0
dx  dx   dx  dx dx
dy (2 x  y)
2 y  x  dy  (2x  y)  dx

2y  x 
dx
Illustration 32 :
dy x 2 1  y6
If 1  x 6  1  y 6  a 3 ( x 3  y3 ) , prove that  .
dx y 2 1  x 6
Solution:
Here, 1  x 6  1  y 6  a 3 ( x 3  y 3 )

Let x3 = sin  ,y3 = sin  then we get 1  sin 2   1  sin 2   a 3 sin   sin 
cos  + cos  = a3 (sin  – sin  )
 3         
2 cos  2 . cos 2   a 2 cos 2  sin  2 
        

   3     3

cos   a sin   = cot  a
 2   2   2 
–1 3
 –  = 2 cot (a )
or sin-1 x3 - sin-1 y3 = 2 cot-1 (a3), Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x we get,
1 1 dy dy x 2 1  y 6
.3x 2  .3y 2 . 0 Hence, dx  2
1 x6 1  y6 dx y 1  x6

f ( x) g( x) h( x )
5.9 If F(x) =  ( x) m( x) n( x ) , where f, g, h,  , m, n, u, v, w are differentiable functions of x then
u ( x) v( x) w( x)

f  ( x) g  ( x) h  ( x ) f ( x) g( x) h ( x) f ( x) g( x ) h( x)
F  (x) = ( x) m( x) n( x)   ( x) m( x) n ( x)  ( x) m( x) n( x) .
u( x) v( x) w( x) u( x ) v( x) w ( x) u  ( x) v  ( x) w  ( x)

DRILL EXERCISE - 18

Find the derivatives of the following functions w.r.t. x :

1. y = x cos y + y cos x 2. y 1  x 2  x 1  y2  1

3. 1  x2 + 1  y 2 = a (x - y) 4. 2x + 2y = 2x + y
5. x y .y x  1 6. ycot x  (tan 1 x) y  1
sin x ...
7. y = (sin x)sin x

6. L' Hôpital's Rule

L' Hôpital' s Rule (First Form) :
Suppose that f(a) = g(a) = 0, that f (a) and g(a) exist, and that g(a)  0 . Then
f (x) f (a)
Lim  .
x a g(x) g(a)
 L' Hôpital' s Rule (Stronger Form) :
Suppose that f(a) = g(a) = 0 and that f and g are differentiable on an open interval I
f (x) f (x)
containing a. Suppose also that g(x)  0 on I if x  a . Then Lim  Lim . If the limit
x a g(x) x  a g (x)
on the right exists (or is  or –  )

Illustration 33 :
lim tan x. log e sin x .
Evaluate x  / 2
Solution:
log e sin x  0
Above limit = lim form : 
x  / 2 cot x  0
 1
. cos x
= lim sin x ˆ
[using L' Hopital's Rule ]
x  / 2  cos ec 2 x

lim  sin x. cos x  = 0

= x / 2

Illustration 34 :
 1 1
Find Lim   .
x 0
 sin x x 
Solution:
1 1
If x  0 , then sin x  0 and  
sin x x
Similarly, if x  0 , sin x  0
1 1
and     ( )    
sin x x
Neither form reveals what happens in the limit. To find out, we first combine the fractions.
1 1 x  sin x
  ( Common denominator is x sin x )
sin x x x sin x
ˆ
and then apply L' Hopital's Rule to the result.
 1 1 x  sin x 0
Lim     Lim
x 0
 sin x x  x  0 x sin x 0
1  cos x 0
= Lim s till
x 0 sin x  x cos x 0
sin x 0
= Lim  0
x 0 2 cos x  x sin x 2

Illustration 35 :
1
Show that Lim(1

 x) x  e .
x 0
1
Solution: The limit leads to the indeterminate form 1 . We let f(x) = (1  x) x and find Lim n f (x) .
x 0

1 1
Since n f (x) = n(1  x) = n(1  x)
x
x
ˆ
L' Hopital's Rule now applies to give
n(1  x) 0
Lim n f (x)  Lim
x 0 x 0 x 0
 1
= Lim 1  x  1
x 0 1
1
Therefore Lim(1

 x) x  Lim f (x)  Lim en f (x )  e1  e
x 0 x0 x 0

DRILL EXERCISE - 19

Evaluate the following limits :

x 2  x.nx  nx  1 e x  e3
1. Lim 2. Lxim
x 1 x 1 3 x 3

esin x  sin x  1  ex 1  x 
3. L im 4. x 0  x 2
Lim 
x 0 x2  

5. Lim xm (log x)n, m, n N

x 0
 ANSWER
DRILL EXERCISE - 1
9 9 1 sin 2
1. 2. 3. 2 4. 5.
2 14 6 (2)

DRILL EXERCISE - 2
1 1
1. 0 2. 3. 3 4.
3 2

DRILL EXERCISE - 3

1. 2 2. 3. 0 4. 1 5. 9
4

DRILL EXERCISE - 4
1 1 1
1. 2. 3. 4. -1 5. 2
120 2 16

DRILL EXERCISE - 5
1
1. 2 2. ecot a 3.
2

DRILL EXERCISE - 6
1
1. 2. 1 3. e1 / 3
e

DRILL EXERCISE - 7
5 1 
1. 2. a = 0 3. a + b 4. 1 5. -
6 8

DRILL EXERCISE - 8
5
1. NO 2. a = 8 4.
3

DRILL EXERCISE - 9
1. Discontinuous at all integral values in [–2, 2]
2. Continuous on R
3. f(x) is discontinuous at x  I
 DRILL EXERCISE - 10

 x  2, 0  x  1

1. {0, 1} 2. g(x)  2  x, 1  x  2 and g(x) is discontinuous at x = 1 and x = 2
4  x, 2  x  3

3. continuous everywhere 4. h(x) is not continuous at x = 0

DRILL EXERCISE - 11

1. cont. but not diff.at x = 0 ; diff. & conti. at x = /2

2. discontinuous & not derivable at x = 1, continuous but not derivable at x = 2
3. f is cont. but not diff. at x = 0
4. f(x) is conti. but not diff. at x = 0
5. f is conti. but not diff. at x = 1, disconti. at x = 2 & x = 3. cont.& diff.at all other points

DRILL EXERCISE - 12

1. f(x) = e2x 2. f(x) = 2x + 2 4. f(x) = x3

DRILL EXERCISE - 13
cos x dy 1
1. 2. d x = 2 sin y (1 + sin y + cos y)
4. x. sin x
1
3. 15.9 x2 + 8x7 + 3sec2 x 4. - (2x)-3/2 + 3e-x
2
5. 2x cos (x2 + 1)
DRILL EXERCISE - 14

dy 6
1. = cos 2 x  cos 4 x
2. 0
dx

3e (tan
1
x )3
(tan 1 x ) 2 x
3. 5. sin-1 x
1 x2 1 x2

DRILL EXERCISE - 15
cos   2 cos 2 
1. 1 2. t2 3. b/a 4. 5. -cot
2sin 2  sin  2

DRILL EXERCISE - 16
1
x esin x
2  1
1. 2
2. (2 ln x + 1) . x x
1 x
 (sin x)cos x .(cos 2 x  sin 2 x log sin x)
3.
sin x
 1n(cos x)  x  1 
4. (cosx)lnx   tan x 1nx   1nx 1nx  1n(1nx )
 x   
x
ex  e  ex  1
x e x
dy xe x xx e 1 x e ee x 
5. = e . x   e 1nx   e x x [1  e 1nx]  x e   e 1nx 
dx  x   x 

x
6.
( x  2) 1  x 2 tan 1 1  x 2
2

DRILL EXERCISE - 17
3
1. –3 sin x cos x 2. 3. 1
2
DRILL EXERCISE - 18

dy cos y  ysin x dy 1  y2 1 y2
1.  2.   3.
dx 1  x sin y  cos x dx 1  x2 1 x2

2y dy (y  x log y) y
4. – 5.  .
2x dx (x  y log x) x

 (tan 1 x) y 1.y 
y cot x

.cos ec 2 x.log y   2 
dy
  1 x 
6.
dx  y cot x 1
 1 y
.cot x  {(tan x) .log(tan x)} 1

dy y 2 cot x
7. =
dx 1  y log(sin x )

DRILL EXERCISE - 19
1 1
1. 2 2. e3 3. 4.
2 2
5. 0