Chapter 8 - Capacity Management
Chapter 8 - Capacity Management
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Chapter 10 : Capacity Management
(pp. 2060)
Capacity Management: Chapter Objectives
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
101 Explain the concept of capacity.
102 Describe how to compute and use capacity measures.
103 Describe longterm capacity expansion strategies.
104 Describe shortterm capacity adjustment strategies.
105 Explain the principles and logic of the Theory of Constraints.
What Do You Think?
Have you ever experienced problems with a service because of inadequate labor or equipment capacity?
Comstock/Getty Images
Capacity Management: Chapter Overview
In 2011, Fortune magazine interviewed Jeff Smisek, CEO of United Continental Holdings, Inc., the holding company created by the
merger between United Airlines and Continental Airlines. In response to a question of what the recent recession taught him and the
company, Mr. Smisek responded:
What we learned is the importance of capacity discipline. Ours has been an industry where it's very easy to add seats, through increased
frequencies, flying the aircraft longer, or taking delivery of additional aircraft. In the recession we were very disciplined in getting our
capacity down, and as we saw the recovery with high fuel prices, we've been very disciplined at United and across the industry in making
sure we've got the right level of capacity and not supplying overcapacity, driving down pricing.1
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In a general sense, capacity is a measure of the capability of a manufacturing or service system to perform its intended function. In practice,
it is measured by the amount of output that can be produced in a particular time period—for example, the number of hamburgers made
it is measured by the amount of output that can be produced in a particular time period—for example, the number of hamburgers made
during a weekday lunch hour or the number of patients that can be handled during an emergency room shift. Having sufficient capacity to
meet customer demand and provide high levels of customer service is vital to a successful business and longterm economic sustainability.
Capacity decisions cannot be taken lightly and can have profound impacts on business performance, as the introduction suggests. For
example, Airbus has decided to produce the A380 with a much greater seating capacity than other aircraft, whereas Boeing's strategy is to
make smaller planes. Clearly, more flights would be needed to achieve the same amount of passenger capacity over a fixed time period.
Larger planes might result in better economies of scale, but reduce passenger choice and schedule flexibility. The decision of how much
seating capacity to provide in new airplanes depends on forecasts of demand along global air traffic routes, the planes’ efficiencies and
operating costs, how customers will accept them, and the operational implications of boarding, disembarking, and baggage retrieval.
101 Understanding Capacity
Capacity is the capability of a manufacturing or service resource such as a facility, process, workstation, or piece of
equipment to accomplish its purpose over a specified time period. Capacity can be viewed in one of two ways:
We've been very disciplined in making sure we've got the right level of capacity and not supplying over capacity, driving down pricing.
Carlo Bollo/Alamy Limited
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1. as the maximum rate of output per unit of time; or
2. as units of resource availability.
For example, the capacity of an automobile plant might be measured as the number of automobiles capable of being produced per week,
and the capacity of a paper mill as the number of tons it can produce per year. As a resource availability measure, the capacity of a hospital
would be measured by the number of beds available, and the capacity of “cloud” storage would be measured in gigabytes.
Operations managers must decide on the appropriate levels of capacity to meet current (shortterm) and future (longterm) demand. Exhibit
10.1 provides examples of such capacity decisions. Shortterm capacity decisions usually involve adjusting schedules or staffing levels.
Longerterm decisions typically involve major capital investments. To satisfy customers in the long run, capacity must be at least as large
as the average demand. However, demand for many goods and services typically varies over time. A process may not be capable of
meeting peak demand at all times, resulting in either lost sales or customers who must wait until the good or service becomes available. At
other periods of time, capacity may exceed demand, resulting in idle processes or facilities or buildups in physical inventories.
No Food for You!
McDonald's restaurants in Britain apologized to millions of unhappy customers for running out of Big Macs during a weekend 2for1
promotion to celebrate its 25th anniversary in Britain. The demand generated by the promotion far exceeded forecasts. The promotion
caused many of the nation's 922 outlets to turn away long lines of customers.
Exhibit 10.1 Examples of Shortand LongTerm Capacity Decisions
ShortTerm Capacity Decisions LongTerm Capacity Decisions
ShortTerm Capacity Decisions LongTerm Capacity Decisions
Amount of overtime scheduled for the next week Construction of a new manufacturing plant
Number of emergency room nurses on call during a downtown Expanding the size and number of beds in a hospital
festival weekend Number of branch banks to establish in a new market
Number of call center workers to staff during the holiday season territory
Exhibit 10.1 Examples of Shortand LongTerm Capacity Decisions © Cengage Learning 2013
Clogged Courts
Court systems in most major cities are strained past their capacity with case backlogs and long delays, often resulting in freeing criminals
before they go to trial or incarcerating defendants who are subsequently acquitted for long periods of time. Civil cases, such as
foreclosures, can be stuck in court systems for years. Some court systems are turning to technology and OM principles to address these
capacity issues. For example, better computers and software for judges allow them to scan conviction and sentencing documents right from
their courtrooms rather than recess to their chambers. Police departments are also scanning reports, allowing prosecutors faster access to
information. Improved scheduling, such as blocking time for certain types of cases that are backlogged and hiring parttime retired judges,
can help also. Can you think of other OM practices that might help? 2
Andy Dean Photography/Shutterstock.com
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Operations managers must decide on the appropriate levels of capacity to meet current (shortterm) and future (longterm)
demand.
101a Economies and Diseconomies of Scale
Capacity decisions are often influenced by economies and diseconomies of scale.Economies of scale are achieved when the average unit
cost of a good or service decreases as the capacity and/or volume of throughput increases. For example, the design and construction cost
per room of building a hotel decreases as the facility gets larger because the fixed cost is allocated over more rooms, resulting in a lower
unit room cost. This lends support to building larger facilities with more capacity. Diseconomies of scale occur when the average unit
cost of the good or service begins to increase as the capacity and/or volume of throughput increases. In the hotel example, as the number
of rooms in a hotel continues to increase, the average cost per unit begins to increase, because of larger amounts of overhead and operating
expenses required by higher levels of such amenities as restaurants, parking, and recreational facilities. This suggests that some optimal
amount of capacity exists where costs are at a minimum. The pressure on global automakers for improving economies of scale is evident by
Daimler and Nissan announcing plans to share the costs of developing smallcar technology, including engines. They will swap 3.1
percent stakes in their companies with plans to generate $5.3 billion in savings over five years.3
As a single facility adds more and more goods and/or services to its portfolio, the facility can become too large and “unfocused.” At some
point, diseconomies of scale arise and unit costs increase because dissimilar product lines, processes, people skills, and technology exist in
the same facility. In trying to manage a large facility with too many objectives and missions, key competitive priorities such as delivery,
quality, customization, and cost performance can begin to deteriorate. This leads to the concept of a focused factory.
Solved Problem
An automobile transmissionassembly factory normally operates two shifts per day, five days per week. During each shift, 400
transmissions can be completed. What is the capacity of this factory?
Capacity = (2 shifts/day)(5 days/week) × (400 transmissions/shift) × (4 weeks/month) = 16,000 transmissions/month
A focused factory is a way to achieve economies of scale without extensive investments in facilities and capacity by focusing on a narrow
A focused factory is a way to achieve economies of scale without extensive investments in facilities and capacity by focusing on a narrow
range of goods or services, target market segments, and/or dedicated processes to maximize efficiency and effectiveness. The focused
factory argues to “divide and conquer” by adopting smaller, more focused facilities dedicated to (1) a few key products, (2) a specific
technology, (3) a certain process design and capability, (4) a specific competitive priority objective such as nextday delivery, and (5)
particular market segments or customers and associated volumes.
Capacity decisions are often influenced by economies and diseconomies of scale.
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102 Capacity Measurement in Operations
Capacity measures are used in many ways in longterm planning and shortterm management activities. For example, managers
need to plan capacity contingencies for unanticipated demand and plan routine equipment and labor requirements. In this section we
present several examples of how capacity measurements are used in OM.
102a Safety Capacity
The actual utilization rates at most facilities are not planned to be 100 percent of effective capacity. Unanticipated events such as
equipment breakdowns, employee absences, or sudden shortterm surges in demand will reduce the capability of planned capacity levels
to meet demand and satisfy customers. This is evident in Exhibit 10.2. Therefore, some amount of safety capacity (often called
thecapacity cushion), defined as an amount of capacity reserved for unanticipated events such as demand surges, materials shortages,
and equipment breakdowns, is normally planned into a process or facility. In general, average safety capacity is defined by Equation 10.1.
Average safety capacity (%) =100% = Average resource utilization (%) [10.1]
Note that Equation 10.1 is based on average resource utilizations over some time period. For a factory, average safety capacity might be
computed over a year, whereas for an individual workstation, it might be updated monthly.
102b Capacity Measurement
Awork order is a specification of work to be performed for a customer or a client. It generally includes the quantity to be produced, the
processing requirements, and resources needed. Work orders may be defined for manufacturing (e.g., a job shop) or services (e.g., a patient
at a dentist's office or room maintenance at a hotel). For any production situation, setup time can be a substantial part of total system
capacity, and therefore must be included in evaluating capacity. Equation 10.2 provides a general expression for evaluating the capacity
required to meet a given production volume for one work order, i.
Capacity required (Ci) = Setup time (Si) + [Processing time (Pi) × Order size (Qi)] [10.2]
Where
Ci= capacity requirements in units of time (for instance, minutes, hours, days) for work order i.
Exhibit 10.2 The
Demand Versus Capacity Problem Structure © Cengage Learning 2013
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Si = setup or changeover time for work order i as a fixed amount that does not vary with volume.
Pi = processing time for each unit of work order i (e.g., hours/part, minutes/transaction, and so on).
Qi = size of order i in numbers of units.
If we sum the capacity requirements over all work orders, we can compute the total capacity required using Equation 10.3.
ΣCi = Σ[Si + (Pi × Qi)] [10.3]
Manufacturing work orders normally assume that one setup is necessary for each work order, and therefore, the setup time is spread over
the single work order quantity. That is, setup time is independent of order size. Some services, such as hospital surgeries, may require a
new setup for each unit (i.e., the order size is one). For example, setup time for a surgery might include sterilizing equipment, cleaning and
disinfecting the surgical suite, and preparing equipment for the next procedure. It is important to understand these differences in goods
producing and serviceproviding applications so workload is correctly computed.
102c Using Capacity Measures for Operations Planning
Capacity needs must be translated into specific requirements for equipment and labor. To illustrate this, we present a simple example. Fast
Burger, Inc. is building a new restaurant near a college football stadium. The restaurant will be open 16 hours per day, 360 days per year.
Managers have concluded that the restaurant should have the capacity to handle a peak hourly demand of 100 customers. This peak hour
of demand happens two hours before every home football game. The average customer purchase is
1 burger (4ounce hamburger or cheeseburger)
1 bag of french fries (4 ounces)
1 soft drink (12 ounces)
Consequently, management would like to determine how many grills, deep fryers, and soft drink spouts are needed.
A 36 × 36inch grill cooks 48 ounces of burgers every 10 minutes, and a singlebasket deep fryer cooks 2 pounds of french fries in 6
minutes, or 20 pounds per hour. Finally, one soft drink spout dispenses 20 ounces of soft drink per minute, or 1,200 ounces per hour. These
effective capacity estimates are based on the
Photodisc/Getty Imagess
equipment manufacturer's studies of actual use under normal operating conditions.
To determine the equipment needed to meet peak hourly demand, Fast Burger must translate expected demand in terms of customers per
hour into needs for grills, deep fryers, and soft drink spouts. First note that the peak hourly demand for burgers, french fries, and soft drinks
are as follow:
Product Peak Hourly Demand (ounces)
Burgers 400
French fries 400
Soft drinks 1,200
Because the capacity of a grill is (48 oz/10 minutes) (60 minutes/hour) = 288 ounces/hour, the number of grills needed to satisfy a peak
hourly demand of 400 ounces of burgers is
Number of grills = 400/288 = 1.39 grills
To determine the number of singlebasket deep fryers needed to meet a peak hourly demand of 400 ounces of french fries, we must first
compute the hourly capacity of the deep fryer.
Capacity of deep fryer = (20 lb/hour)(16 oz/lb) = 320 oz/hour
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Hence, the number of singlebasket deep fryers needed is 400/320 = 1.25.
Finally, the number of soft drink spouts needed to satisfy peak demand of 1,200 ounces is
Number of soft drink spouts needed = 1,200/1,200 = 1.0
After reviewing this analysis, the managers decided to purchase two 36 × 36inch grills. Grill safety capacity is 2.0 − 1.39 = 0.61 grills or
175.7 oz/hour [(.61) × (48 oz/10 minutes) × (60 minutes/hour), or about 44 hamburgers per hour. Management decided this excess safety
capacity was justified to handle demand surges and grill breakdowns. With two grills the managers reduced their risk of being unable to
fill customer demand. If they installed two french fryer machines they would have 0.75 excess machines, and that was thought to be
wasteful. However, they realized that if the one french fryer machine broke down they would not be able to cook enough fries, so they
decided to purchase two deep fryers.
Management decided to go with a twospout soft drink system. Although their analysis showed a need for only one soft drink spout, the
managers wanted to provide some safety capacity, primarily because they felt the peak hourly demand for soft drinks might have been
underestimated and customers tend to refill their drinks in this selfservice situation.
The average expected equipment utilizations for the two grills, two fryers, and two soft drink spouts are as follows (refer to Equation 7.1 in
Chapter 7):
Grill utilization (U) = Resources used/Resources available
= 1.39/2.0 = 69.5%
Fryer utilization (U) = Resources used/Resources available
= 1.25/2.0 = 62.5%
Soft drink spout utilization (U) = Resources used/Resources available
= 1.0/2.0 = 50.0%
The managers of Fast Burger, Inc. must also staff the new restaurant for peak demand of 100 customers/hour. Assume frontcounter service
personnel can take and assemble orders at the service rate of 15 customers per hour and the target labor utilization rate for this job is 85
percent. The number of frontservice counter people that should be assigned to this peak demand period can be found using Equation 7.2
in Chapter 7:
Utilization (U) = Demand rate/
[Service rate × Number of servers]
Using the data for Fast Burger, we have
Solving this equation for the number of servers, we Obtain
(12.75)(Number of servers) = 100
Number of servers = 7.8
Given these capacity computations, Fast Burger management decides to assign eight people to the frontservice counter during this peak
demand period. Safety capacity is included in this decision in two ways. First, the target utilization labor rate is 85 percent, so there is a 15
percent safety capacity according to Equation 10.1. Second, eight people are on duty when 7.8 are needed, so there is a safety capacity of
0.2 people. The management at Fast Burger now has an equipment and labor capacity plan for this peakdemand period. Notice that
equipment capacity, which is difficult to increase in the shortterm, is high, whereas labor is more easily changed. This equipment and
labor capacity strategy must also be coupled with good forecasting of demand—the subject of the next chapter.
103 LongTerm Capacity Strategies
In developing a longrange capacity plan, a firm must make a basic economic tradeoff between the cost of capacity and the
opportunity cost of not having adequate capacity. Capacity costs include both the initial investment in facilities and equipment and the
annual cost of operating and maintaining them, much of which are fixed costs. The cost of not having sufficient capacity is the
opportunity loss incurred from lost sales and reduced market share. Having too much capacity, particularly if demand falls, can be
devastating. For example, International Paper recently closed its Franklin paper mill in Virginia. The mill had a capacity of 600,000 tons
per year, but demand had fallen 30 percent and was forecasted to continue falling, much of it a result of new technologies such as email,
Kindles and iPads, and electronic transactions.4 Too little capacity, on the other hand, can squeeze profit margins or leave a firm
vulnerable to competitors if it cannot satisfy customer orders.
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Solved Problem
A typical dentist's office has a complicated mix of dental procedures and significant setup times; thus, it is similar to a job shop. Suppose a
dentist works a ninehour day with one hour for lunch and breaks. During the first six months the practice is open, he does all the work,
bojan fatur/iStockphoto.com
including cleaning and setting up for the next dental procedure. Setup and processing times for three procedures are shown in Exhibit
10.3. Also shown are the number of appointments and demand for each type.
Exhibit 10.3 Dental Office Procedures and Times for Today
Dental Number of Setup or Changeover Time Processing Time Demand (No. of Patients
Procedure Appointments (Minutes) (Minutes) Scheduled)
Single tooth 1st 15 90 2
crown 2nd 10 30 1
Tooth whitening 1st 5 30 4
Partial denture 1st 20 30 3
2nd 10 20 0
3rd 5 30 2
Exhibit 10.3 Dental Office Procedures and Times for Today © Cengage Learning 2013
Exhibit 10.4 Dental Office
DemandCapacity Analysis Using the Excel Capacity Template* © Cengage Learning 2013
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On a particular day, there are two scheduled first appointments for single tooth crowns (see last column of Exhibit 10.3), one second
appointment for a single tooth crown, four toothwhitening appointments, three first appointments for a partial denture, and two third
appointment for a single tooth crown, four toothwhitening appointments, three first appointments for a partial denture, and two third
appointments for a partial denture. Is there sufficient capacity to perform all the work?
We may use Equation 10.3 to compute the capacity requirements. Exhibit 10.4 shows the results using the Excel Capacity template. We
see that a total of 610 minutes of work are scheduled during a 480minute workday. Therefore, there is a capacity shortage of 130 minutes.
The dentist will either have to work two hours longer or reschedule some patients.
From this analysis, we see that 21.3 percent of his total capacity is used to set up and change over from one dental procedure to the next. If
a dental assistant or technician is hired to do this work (assuming that this can be done offline while the dentist continues to work on
other patients), revenue would increase by about 20 percent. If setup times could be reduced by 50 percent, the total setup time would be
65 minutes instead of 130 minutes and the capacity shortage would only be 65 minutes, requiring only one hour of overtime.
David Lee/Alamy
Longterm capacity planning must be closely tied to the strategic direction of the organization—what products and services it offers. For
example, many goods and services are seasonal, resulting in unused capacity during the offseason. Many firms offer complementary
goods and services , which are goods and services that can be produced or delivered using the same resources available to the firm, but
whose seasonal demand patterns are out of phase with each other. Complementary goods or services balance seasonal demand cycles and
therefore use the excess capacity available, as illustrated in Exhibit 10.5. For instance, demand for lawnmowers peaks in the spring and
summer; to balance manufacturing capacity,
Exhibit 10.5
Seasonal Demand and Complementary Goods or Services © Cengage Learning 2013
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the producer might also produce leaf blowers and vacuums for the autumn season and snowblowers for the winter season.
103a Capacity Expansion
Capacity requirements are rarely static; changes in markets and product lines and competition will eventually require a firm to either plan
to increase or reduce longterm capacity. Such strategies require determining the amount, timing, and form of capacity changes. To
illustrate capacity expansion decisions, let us make two assumptions: (1) capacity is added in “chunks” or discrete increments, and (2)
demand is steadily increasing.
Four basic strategies for expanding capacity over some fixed time horizon are shown in Exhibit 10.6 (these concepts can also be applied to
capacity reduction):
1. One large capacity increase (Exhibit 10.6a)
2. Small capacity increases that match demand (Exhibit 10.6b)
3. Small capacity increases that lead demand (Exhibit 10.6c)
4. Small capacity increases that lag demand (Exhibit 10.6d)
The strategy in Exhibit 10.6a involves one large increase in capacity over a specified period. The advantage of one large capacity increase
is that the fixed costs of construction and operating system setup needs to be incurred only once, and thus the firm can allocate these costs
over one large project. However, if aggregate demand exhibits steady growth, the facility will be underutilized. The alternative is to view
capacity expansion incrementally as in Exhibit 10.6b, c, and d.
Exhibit 10.6b illustrates the strategy of matching capacity additions with demand as closely as possible. This is often called a capacity
straddle strategy. When capacity is above the demand curve, the firm has excess capacity; when it is below, there is a shortage of capacity
to meet demand. In this situation, there will be short periods of overand underutilization of resources. Exhibit 10.6c shows a capacity
expansion strategy with the goal of maintaining sufficient capacity to minimize the chances of not meeting demand. Here, capacity
expansion leads or is ahead of demand, and hence is called a capacity lead strategy. Because there is always excess capacity, safety
capacity to meet unexpected demand from large orders or new customers is provided.
Finally, Exhibit 10.6d illustrates a policy of a capacity lag strategy that results in constant capacity shortages. Such a strategy waits until
demand has increased to a point where additional capacity is necessary. It requires less investment and provides for high capacity
utilization and thus a higher rate of return on investment. However, it may also reduce longterm profitability through overtime,
subcontracting, and productivity losses that occur as the firm scrambles to satisfy demand. In the long run, such a policy can lead to a
permanent loss of market position.
Briggs & Stratton: Managing Capacity
Briggs & Stratton is the world's largest producer of aircooled gasoline engines for outdoor power equipment. The company designs,
manufactures, markets, and services these products for original equipment manufacturers worldwide. These engines are primarily
aluminum alloy gasoline engines ranging from 3 through 25 horsepower. Briggs & Stratton is a leading designer, manufacturer, and
marketer of portable generators, lawnmowers, snow throwers, pressure washers, and related accessories. It also provides engines for
manufacturers of other small enginedriven equipment such as snowmobiles, gokarts, and jet skis.
Razvan Chirnoaga/Shutterstock.com
The complementary and diverse original equipment markets for Briggs & Stratton engines allows factory managers to plan equipment and
labor capacities and schedules in a much more stable operating environment. This helps minimize manufacturing costs, stabilize workforce
levels, and even out volumes so that assembly lines can be used in a more efficient fashion.5
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Exhibit
10.6 Capacity Expansion Options © Cengage Learning 2013
104 ShortTerm Capacity Management
If shortterm demand is stable and sufficient capacity is available, then managing operations to ensure that demand is satisfied is
generally easy. However, when demand fluctuates above and below average capacity levels as was illustrated in Exhibit 10.2, firms have
two basic choices. First, they can adjust capacity to match the changes in demand by changing internal resources and capabilities. The
second approach is to manage capacity by shifting and stimulating demand.
104a Managing Capacity by Adjusting ShortTerm Capacity Levels
When shortterm demand exceeds capacity, a firm must either temporarily increase its capacity or it will be unable to meet all of the
demand. Similarly, if demand falls well below capacity, then idle resources reduce profits. Shortterm adjustments to capacity can be done
in a variety of ways and are summarized as follows:
Add or share equipment: Capacity levels that are limited by machine and equipment availability are more difficult to change in the
short run because of high capital expense. However, leasing equipment as needed can accomplish this in a costeffective manner.
Another way is through innovative partnership arrangements and capacity sharing. For example, a consortium of several hospitals
might be set up in which each hospital focuses on a particular specialty and shares services.
Sell unused capacity: Some firms might sell idle capacity, such as computer storage space and computing capacity, to outside
buyers and even to competitors. For example, hotels often develop partnership arrangements to accommodate their competitors’
guests when they are overbooked.
Change labor capacity and schedules: Labor capacity can usually be managed easily through shortterm changes in workforce
levels and
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Firms can adjust capacity to match changes in demand by changing internal resources and capabilities, or manage capacity
by shifting and stimulating demand.
schedules. Overtime, extra shifts, temporary employees, and outsourcing are common ways of increasing capacity. Adjusting workforce
schedules to better coincide with demand patterns is another. Many quickservice restaurants employ large numbers of parttime
employees with varying work schedules.
Change labor skill mix: Hiring the right people who can learn quickly and adjust to changing job requirements and crosstraining
them to perform different tasks provides the flexibility to meet fluctuating demand. In supermarkets, for example, it is common for
employees to work as cashiers during busy periods and to assist with stocking shelves during slow periods.
Shift work to slack periods: Another strategy is to shift work to slack periods. For example, hotel clerks prepare bills and perform
other paperwork at night, when checkin and check out activity is light. This allows more time during the daytime hours to service
customers. Manufacturers often build up inventory during slack periods and hold the goods for peak demand periods.
104b Managing Capacity by Shifting and Stimulating Demand
Some general approaches to influence customers to shift demand from periods without adequate capacity to periods with excess capacity,
or to fill times with excess capacity, include the following:
Vary the price of goods or services: Price is the most powerful way to influence demand. For example, hotels might offer cheaper
rates on the weekend; airlines might offer better prices for midweek flights; a restaurant might cut its meal prices in half after 9:00
P.M. In a similar fashion, manufacturers typically offer sales and rebates of overstocks to stimulate demand, smooth production
schedules and staffing requirements, and reduce inventories.
Where Can I Park?
Finding a parking space in San Francisco is difficult because most spaces are privately owned—driveways, parking lots, carports. These
same spaces are empty most of the day while the owners are at work or out of town. One company, Park Circa, asks these parking space
owners to register their spaces, set a parking fee rate, and tell Park Circa when the spaces are free via a cell phone application. Customers
hunting for parking spots also use the cell phone app to locate and find good parking spaces. Park Circa coordinates all parking space
payments, requests, and reservations using its software. What general approaches to managing capacity by stimulating demand does this
example demonstrate?
Martin Hospach/fStop/Jupiter Images
Provide customers with information: Many call centers, for example, send notes to customers on their bills or provide an
automated voice message recommending the best times to call. Amusement parks such as Disney World use signs and literature
informing customers when certain rides are extremely busy.
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Advertising and promotion: Afterholiday sales are heavily advertised in an attempt to draw customers to periods of traditionally
low demand. Manufacturer or service coupons are strategically distributed to increase demand during periods of low sales or excess
capacity.
Add peripheral goods and/or services: Movie theaters offer rentals of their auditoriums for business meetings and special events at
offpeak times. Fastfood chains offer birthday party planning services to fill up slow demand periods between peak meal times.
Extended hours also represent a peripheral service; many supermarkets remain open 24/7 and encourage customers to shop during
latenight hours to reduce demand during peak times.
Provide reservations: A reservation is a promise to provide a good or service at some future time and place. Typical examples are
reservations for hotel rooms, airline seats, and scheduled surgeries and operating rooms. Reservations reduce the uncertainty for
both the good or service provider and the customer. With advance knowledge of when customer demand will occur, operations
managers can better plan their equipment and workforce schedules and rely less on forecasts.
104c Revenue Management Systems (RMS)
Many types of organizations manage perishable assets, such as a hotel room, an airline seat, a rental car, a sporting event or concert seat, a
room on a cruise line, the capacity of a restaurant catering service or electric power generation, or broadcast advertising space. For such
assets, which essentially represent service capacity, high utilization is the key to financial success.
Arevenue management system (RMS) consists of dynamic methods to forecast demand, allocate perishable assets across market
segments, decide when to overbook and by how much, and determine what price to charge different customer (price) classes. These four
components of RMS—forecasting, allocation, overbooking, and pricing—must work in unison if the objective is to maximize the revenue
generated by a perishable asset. The ideas and methods surrounding RMS are often called yield management. Revenue management
systems integrate a wide variety of decisions and data into a decision support system used mainly by serviceproviding businesses.
“During the first year of RMS implementation, revenues at National Car Rental increased by $56 million.”
The earliest revenue management systems focused solely on overbooking—how many perishable assets to sell in excess of physical
capacity to optimally trade off the cost of an unsold asset versus the loss of goodwill of having more arrivals than assets. Modern RMS
software simultaneously makes changes in the forecast, allocation, overbooking, and pricing decisions in a realtime operating system.
Forecasts are constantly being revised. Allocation involves segmenting the perishable asset into target market categories, such as first,
business, and coach classes in an airline flight. Each class is defined by its size (number of seats), price, advance purchase restrictions, and
booking policies. Allocation is a realtime, ongoing method that does not end until there is no more opportunity to maximize revenue (the
night or concert is over, the airplane takes off). As happens with forecasts, bookings and time move forward,
If you don't sell or use the ticket, the revenuegenerating opportunity for that seat cannot be recaptured—it is lost forever.
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the target market categories are redefined, and prices change in an attempt to maximize revenue.
Many organizations have exploited RMS technology. Marriott improved its revenues by $25–$35 million by using RMS methods. Royal
Caribbean Cruise Lines obtained a revenue increase in excess of $20 million for one year.6 During the first year of RMS implementation,
revenues at National Car Rental increased by $56 million.7
Theater seats provide another good example of managing a perishable asset. Revenue management systems are often used to manage
theater, stadium, and concert seats. If you don't sell or use the ticket, the revenuegenerating opportunity for that seat cannot be recaptured
—it is lost forever.
105 Theory of Constraints
TheTheory of Constraints (TOC) is a set of principles that focuses on increasing total process throughput by maximizing the
utilization of all bottleneck work activities and workstations. The TOC was introduced in a fictional novel, The Goal, by Dr. Eliyahu M.
Goldratt.8 The philosophy and principles of the TOC are valuable in understanding demand and capacity management.
The traditional OM definition of throughput is the average number of goods or services completed per time period by a process. The TOC
views throughput differently: throughput is the amount of money generated per time period through actual sales. For most business
organizations the goal is to maximize throughput, thereby maximizing cash flow. Inherent in this definition is that it makes little sense to
make a good or service until it can be sold, and that excess inventory is wasteful.
In the TOC, aconstraint is anything in an organization that limits it from moving toward or achieving its goal. Constraints determine the
throughput of a facility, because they limit production output to their own capacity. There are two basic types of constraints: physical and
nonphysical.
If You Make a Reservation, Show Up or Pay!
Walt Disney World's better restaurants established a policy whereby if you make a dinner reservation and do not cancel at least 24 hours
in advance, they will charge your credit card $10 per person. This noshow policy applies to 19 Disney park restaurants. The most upscale
Disney restaurant charges $25 per person. Restaurant (service) capacity is perishable, and Disney handles the risks of idle service capacity
by overbooking and/or charging fees for abrupt cancellations and noshows! 9
Hemis.fr/SuperStock
Aphysical constraint is associated with the capacity of a resource such as a machine, employee, or workstation. Physical constraints
result in process bottlenecks.
For most business organizations the goal is to maximize throughput, thereby maximizing cash flow.
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Abottleneck (BN) work activity is one that effectively limits the capacity of the entire process. At a bottleneck, the input exceeds the
capacity, restricting the total output that is capable of being produced. Anonbottleneck (NBN) work activity is one in which idle capacity
exists.
Anonphysical constraint is environmental or organizational, such as low product demand or an inefficient management policy or
procedure. Inflexible work rules, inadequate labor skills, and poor management are all forms of constraints. Removing nonphysical
constraints is not always possible.
Because the number of constraints is typically small, the TOC focuses on identifying them; managing BN and NBN work activities
carefully; linking them to the market to ensure an appropriate product mix; and scheduling the NBN resources to enhance throughput.
These principles are summarized in Exhibit 10.7.
These principles are summarized in Exhibit 10.7.
In general, the TOC has been successful in many companies. As the TOC evolved, it has been applied not only to manufacturing but to
other areas such as distribution, marketing, and human resource management. Binney and Smith, maker of Crayola crayons, and Procter &
Gamble both use the TOC in their distribution efforts. Binney and Smith had high inventory levels yet poor customer service. By using the
TOC to better position its distribution inventories, it was able to reduce inventories and improve service. Procter & Gamble reported $600
million in savings through inventory reduction and elimination of capital improvement through the TOC. A government organization that
produces publications of labor statistics for the state of Pennsylvania used the TOC to better match work tasks to workers to reduce idle
labor and overtime requirements, and to increase throughput, job stability, and profitability.10
Kreisler ManufaCturing Corporation: Using the TOC
Kreisler Manufacturing Corporation is a small, familyrun company that makes metal components for airplanes. Its clients include Pratt &
Whitney, General Electric, Rolls Royce, and Mitsubishi. After learning about the TOC, managers identified several areas of the factory,
including the Internal Machine Shop and Supplier Deliveries, as bottlenecks, and began to focus on maximizing throughput at these
bottlenecks. Setups were videotaped to see exactly what was happening. It was discovered that 60 percent of the time it took to complete a
setup involved the worker looking for materials and tools. To remove this constraint, Kreisler assembled all the necessary materials and
tools for setup into a prepackage “kit,” thus cutting 60 percent off the setup time.
Kreisler also created a “visual factory” by installing red, yellow, and green lights on every machine. If a workstation is being starved or
production stops, the operator turns on the red light. If there is a potential crisis or a risk of starving the constraint workstation, the worker
turns on the yellow light. If all is running smoothly, the green light is on. Giving the machine operator control over these signals instilled
a sense of ownership in the process and caught the attention and interest of everyone in the factory. In the early stages of implementing the
TOC there were many red lights; today they are green. By applying the TOC, ontime deliveries increased to 97 percent from 65 percent,
and 15 percent of the factory's “hidden capacity” was revealed and freed up. In addition, WIP inventory was reduced by 20 percent and is
expected to be reduced by another 50 percent.11
Daniel Mihailescu/AFP/Getty Images
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Exhibit 10.7 Basic Principles of the Theory of Constraints
Nonbottleneck Management Principles Bottleneck Management Principles
Move jobs through nonbottleneck workstations as fast as possible until Only the bottleneck workstations are critical to achieving
the job reaches the bottleneck workstation. process and factory objectives and should be scheduled first.
At nonbottleneck workstations, idle time is acceptable if there is no work An hour lost at a bottleneck resource is an hour lost for the
to do, and therefore resource utilizations may be low. entire process or factory output.
Use smaller order (also called lot or transfer batches) sizes at Workinprocess buffer inventory should be placed in front of
nonbottleneck workstations to keep work flowing to the bottleneck bottlenecks to maximize resource utilization at the bottleneck.
resources and eventually to the marketplace to generate sales. Use large order sizes at bottleneck workstations to minimize
An hour lost at a nonbottleneck resource has no effect on total process or setup time and maximize resource utilization.
factory output and incurs no real cost. Bottleneck workstations should work at all times to maximize
throughput and resource utilization so as to generate cash from
sales and achieve the company's goal.
Exhibit 10.7 Basic Principles of the Theory of Constraints
Capacity Management: Discussion Questions
1. Provide and discuss some examples of economies and diseconomies of scale in a college environment.
2. Define useful capacity measures for a(n)
a. brewery.
b. airline.
c. movie theater.
d. pizza restaurant.
e. amusement park.
e. amusement park.
3. How might a college or university with growing enrollment use the capacity expansion strategies in Exhibit 10.6? Discuss the pros and
cons of each of these.
4. Briefly describe a business you are familiar with and explain how it might use each of the five ways to adjust its shortterm capacity
levels.
5. How would you apply the Theory of Constraints to a quickservice automobile oil change service? Explain.
Capacity Management: Problem and Activities
Note: an asterisk denotes problems for which a spreadsheet template on the CourseMate Web site may be used.
1. As the assistant manager of a restaurant, how many servers will you need given the following information for Saturday night's dinner
menu?
Demand (dinners served) = 200 dinners per hour
Server target utilization = 85%
Service rate per server = 16 dinners/hour
What does the service rate per server assume? Explain.
2. Research and write a short paper (two pages maximum) on organizations that have successfully used the focused factory concept.
3.* Medical Solutions, Inc. has the following claims it must complete in the next week. The jobs are as follows:
Given process claim capacity of 40 hours of work, can the workload be completed this week? Explain. If not, what shortterm capacity
solution would you recommend? Show all computations.
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4.* Abbott Manufacturing produces plastic cases for solar photovoltaic panels and has decided to combine orders from customers to
increase work order size, and thereby make one large production run per model type. Plastic injection molding machines are used to make
these parts and it is time consuming to clean and resetup the machines between production runs. Each molding machine and operator
works one ninehour shift with a onehour lunch break and onehalf hour for operator breaks.
What is the total workload (demand) in hours for this work order mix? How many machines will it take to do this work in one, two, or
three days? How might this process be improved?
5. Identify one example of a resource with a very low average utilization rate, and a second example with a very high average utilization
rate. Consider both service and manufacturing organizations. Write a short (onepage typed) paper that describes these situations and their
capacity implications.
6. Hickory Manufacturing Company forecasts the following demand for a product (in thousands of units) over the next five years:
Year 1 2 3 4 5
Forecast demand 60 79 81 84 84
Currently the manufacturer has seven machines that operate on a twoshift (eight hours each) basis. Twenty days per year are available for
scheduled maintenance of equipment with no process output. Assume there are 250 workdays in a year. Each manufactured good takes 30
minutes to produce.
a. What is the capacity of the factory?
b. At what capacity levels (percentage of normal capacity) would the firm be operating over the next five years based on the forecasted
demand? (Hint: Compute the ratio of demand to capacity for each year.)
c. Does the firm need to buy more machines? If so, how many? When? If not, justify.
7. The roller coaster at Treasure Island Amusement Park consists of 15 cars, each of which can carry up to three passengers. According to a
time study, each run takes 1.5 minutes and the time to unload and load riders is 3.5 minutes. What is the maximum effective capacity of the
system in number of passengers per hour?
8. Worthington Hills grocery store has five regular checkout lines and one express line (12 items or less). Based on a sampling study, it
takes 11 minutes on the average for a customer to go through the regular line and 4 minutes to go through the express line. The store is
open from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. daily.
a. What is the store's maximum capacity (customers processed per day)?
b. What is the store's capacity by day of the week if the five regular checkout lines operate according to the following schedule? (The
express line is always open.)
9. Given the following data for Albert's fabricating production area:
Fixed costs for one shift = $60,000
Unit variable cost = $7
Selling price = $12
Number of machines = 5
Number of working days in year = 340
Processing time per unit = 40 minutes
a. What is the annual capacity with a single eighthour shift?
b. What is the capacity with two shifts?
c. What is the breakeven volume with a singleshift operation?
d. What is the maximum revenue with a single shift?
e. What is the breakeven volume with a twoshift operation?
P. 222
10. The process for renewing a driver's license at the Archer County Courthouse is as follows. First, the clerk fills out the application, then
the clerk takes the driver's picture, and finally the typist types and processes the new license. It takes an average of five minutes to fill out
an application, one minute to take a picture, and seven minutes to type and process the new license.
a. If there are two clerks and three typists, where will the bottleneck in the system be? How many drivers can be processed in one hour if
the clerks and typists work at an 80 percent utilization rate?
b. If 40 drivers are to be processed each hour, how many clerks and typists should be hired assuming an 80 percent target utilization rate?
11. Due to county and state budget cuts, Archer County Courthouse (problem 10) now has only two clerks and two typists. All other
information remains the same. What is the new labor utilization for each labor type, and where is the bottleneck in this threestage
process? What is the impact of your analysis on customer service? How might the job and process design be improved?
12. You have just been promoted to manage the process defined by the five stages A to E shown in the accompanying figure. After three
months on the job you realize something is not right with process capacity because your employees experience big pileups of work, things
take too long to be processed, the opportunity for error is increasing, and the entire process is approaching chaos. Do a capacity analysis of
this process. The numbers in parentheses (#) are the time in minutes to complete one unit of work. Demand on the process averages 27
units per hour and each unit must be worked on by all five stages. Administrative clerks complete Stages A and B. The assistant manager
completes Stages D and E. Processing times per stage can be combined when labor is assigned two or more stages (i.e., the resources are
pooled). The coding specialist takes care of Stage C.
a. How many administrative clerks should be hired, assuming a target utilization for them of 90 percent?
a. How many administrative clerks should be hired, assuming a target utilization for them of 90 percent?
b. What is the current labor utilization of the coders if two coding specialists are currently on duty?
c. What is the total process (output) capacity in units per hour for the fivestage process A to E, assuming three administrative clerks, two
coding specialists, and four assistant managers are on duty?
d. Where do any bottlenecks exist, and what do you recommend to improve this process?
© Cengage Learning 2013
13. Perform a capacity analysis using the process structure defined in problem 12 with the following changes. Demand on the process has
increased to 36 units per hour and each unit must be worked on by all five stages. The administrative clerk(s) complete Stages A, B, and D.
The assistant manager completes Stage E. The coding specialist takes care of Stage C.
a. How many administrative clerks should be hired, assuming a target utilization for them of 90 percent?
b. What is the current labor utilization of the coders if four coding specialists are currently on duty?
c. What is the total process (output) capacity in units per hour for the fivestage process A to E, assuming seven administrative clerks, four
coding specialists, and three assistant managers are on duty?
d. Where's the bottleneck(s) and what do you recommend to improve this process?
14. Research and write a short paper (two pages maximum) on two examples of revenue management applications not in the text and
explain how they help organizations.
15. Research and write a short paper (two pages maximum) on how an organization has applied the Theory of Constraints.
Instructors may also want to consider the Greyhound Frequent Flyer Call Center Case Study at the end of Chapter 13 on staff capacity and
scheduling.
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Capacity Management: David Christopher, Orthopedic Surgeon, Case Study
David Christopher received his medical degrees from the University of Kentucky and the University of Virginia. He did his residency and
early surgeries at Duke University Medical Center. Eight years ago he set up his own orthopedic surgery clinic in Atlanta, Georgia. Today,
one other doctor has joined his clinic in addition to 12 support personnel such as Xray technicians, nurses, accounting, and office support.
The medical practice specializes in all orthopedic surgery except it does not perform spinal surgery. The clinic has grown to the point
where both orthopedic surgeons are working long hours and Dr. Christopher is wondering whether he needs to hire more surgeons.
Both surgeons are working long hours,
and Dr. Christopher is wondering whether he needs to hire more surgeons. Kiselev Andrey Valerevich/Shutterstock.com
An orthopedic surgeon is trained in the preservation, investigation, and restoration of the form and function of the extremities, spine, and
associated structures by medical, surgical, and physical means. He or she is involved with the care of patients whose musculoskeletal
problems include congenital deformities; trauma; infections; tumors; metabolic disturbances of the musculoskeletal system; deformities;
injuries; and degenerative diseases of the spine, hands, feet, knee, hip, shoulder, and elbows in children and adults. An orthopedic surgeon
is also concerned with primary and secondary muscular problems
Exhibit 10.8 Orthopedic Surgeon OneWeek Surgery Workload (This spreadsheet is available on the CourseMate Web site.)
Orthopedic Surgery Surgeon Changeover Time Surgery Time Surgeon Demand (No. of Patients Scheduled
Procedure (Minutes) (Minutes) Identity Weekly)
Rotator cuff repair 45 45 B 2
Cartilage knee repair 45 30 B 1
Fracture tibia/fibula 45 60 B 1
Achilles tendon repair 20 30 B 3
ACL ligament repair 20 60 B 4
Fractured hip 45 80 A 0
Fractured wrist 45 60 A 2
Fractured ankle 45 70 A 1
Hip replacement 60 150 A 2
Knee replacement 60 120 A 3
Shoulder replacement 120 180 B 1
Big toe replacement 45 90 B 0
Exhibit 10.8 Orthopedic Surgeon OneWeek Surgery Workload (This spreadsheet is available on the CourseMate Web site.) © Cengage
Learning 2013
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and the effects of central or peripheral nervous system lesions of the musculoskeletal system. Osteoporosis, for example, results in fractures,
especially in the hips, wrists, and spine. Treatments have been very successful in getting the fractures to heal.
Dr. Christopher collected the data in Exhibit 10.9 as an example of the clinic's typical workweek. Both surgeons work 11 hours each day
with 1 hour off for lunch, or 10 effective hours. All surgeries are performed from 7:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon, four days a week. After lunch
from noon to 1:00 p.m., the surgeons see patients in the hospital and at the clinic from 1:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m. Over the weekend and on
Fridays, the surgeons rest, attend conferences and professional meetings, and sometimes do guest lectures at a nearby medical school. The
doctors want to leave a safety capacity each week of 10 percent for unexpected problems with scheduled surgeries and emergency patient
arrivals.
The setup and changeover times in Exhibit 10.8 reflect time allowed between each surgery for the surgeons to clean themselves up, rest,
review the next patient's medical record for any lastminute issues, and prepare for the next surgery. Dr. Christopher feels these changeover
times help ensure the quality of their surgery by giving them time between operations. For example, standing on a concrete floor and
bending over a patient in a state of concentration places great stress on the surgeon's legs and back. Dr. Christopher likes to sit down for a
while between surgeries to relax. Some surgeons go quickly from one patient to the next; however, Dr. Christopher thinks this practice of
rushing could lead to medical and surgical errors. Dr. Christopher wants answers to the following questions.
Case Questions for Discussion
1. What is the clinic's current weekly workload?
2. Should the clinic hire more surgeons, and if so, how many?
3. What other options and changes could be made to maximize patient throughput and surgeries, and therefore revenue, yet not
compromise the quality of medical care?
4. What are your final recommendations? Explain your reasoning.
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Capacity Management: Reviewcard/OM4 Chapter 10 Capacity Management: Learning Outcomes
101 Explain the concept of capacity.
Capacity can be viewed in one of two ways:
1. as the maximum rate of output per unit of time, or
2. as units of resource availability.
Operations managers must decide on the appropriate levels of capacity to meet current (shortterm) and future (longterm) demand.
Exhibit 10.1 Examples of Shortand LongTerm Capacity Decisions
ShortTerm Capacity Decisions LongTerm Capacity Decisions
Amount of overtime scheduled for the next week Construction of a new manufacturing plant
Number of emergency room nurses on call during a downtown Expanding the size and number of beds in a hospital
festival weekend Number of branch banks to establish in a new market
Number of call center workers to staff during the holiday season territory
Exhibit 10.1 Examples of Shortand LongTerm Capacity Decisions © Cengage Learning 2013
As a single facility adds more and more goods and/or services to its portfolio, the facility can become too large and “unfocused.” At some
point, diseconomies of scale arise and unit cost increases because dissimilar product lines, processes, people skills, and technology exist in
the same facility. The focused factory argues to “divide and conquer” by adopting smaller, more focused facilities dedicated to a (1) few
key products, (2) a specific technology, (3) a certain process design and capability, (4) a specific competitive priority objective such as
nextday delivery, and (5) particular market segments or customers and associate volumes.
102 Describe how to compute and use capacity measures.
Average safety capacity is defined by
Average safety capacity (%) = 100% − Average resource utilization (%) [10.1]
In a job shop, setup time can be a substantial part of total system capacity, and therefore must be included in evaluating capacity. A
general expression for evaluating the capacity required to meet a given production volume for one work order, i, is
Capacity required (Ci) = Setup time (Si) + [Processing time (Pi) × Order size (Qi)] [10.2]
where
Ci = capacity requirements in units of time (for instance, minutes, hours, days) for work order i.
Si = setup or changeover time for work order i as a fixed amount that does not vary with volume.
Pi = processing time for each unit of work order i (e.g., hours/part, minutes/transaction, and so on).
Qi = size of order i in numbers of units.
If we sum the capacity requirements over all work orders, we can compute the total capacity required:
C = ∑Ci = ∑[Si + (Pi × Qi)] [10.3]
103 Describe longterm capacity expansion strategies.
In developing a longrange capacity plan, a firm must make a basic economic tradeoff between the cost of capacity and the opportunity
cost of not having adequate capacity. Capacity costs include both the initial investment in facilities and equipment, and the
P. RC_21
annual cost of operating and maintaining them. The cost of not having sufficient capacity is the opportunity loss incurred from lost sales
and reduced market share.
Four basic strategies for expanding capacity over some fixed time horizon are: one large capacity increase, small capacity increases that
match average demand, small capacity increases that lead demand, and small capacity increases that lag demand (see Exhibit 10.6).
104 Describe shortterm capacity adjustment strategies.
When demand fluctuates above and below average capacity levels, then firms can adjust capacity to match the changes in demand by
changing internal resources and capabilities, or manage capacity by shifting and stimulating demand. Shortterm adjustments to capacity
can be done in a variety of ways, such as adding or sharing equipment, selling unused capacity, changing labor capacity and schedules,
changing labor skill mix, and shifting work to slack periods. Some general approaches to influence customers to shift demand are varying
the price of goods or services, providing customers with information, advertising and promotion, adding peripheral goods and/or services,
and providing reservations. Revenue management systems help organizations maximize revenue by adjusting prices to influence demand.
105 Explain the principles and logic of the Theory of Constraints.
The TOC focuses on identifying bottlenecks (BN) and nonbottlenecks (NBN), managing BN and NBN work activities carefully, linking
them to the market to ensure an appropriate product mix, and scheduling the NBN resources to enhance throughput.
See Exhibit 10.7 for the basic principles of the TOC. For most business organizations the goal is to maximize throughput, thereby
maximizing cash flow. Inherent in this definition is that it makes little sense to make a good or service until it can be sold, and that excess
inventory is wasteful.
Exhibit 10.6 Capacity Expansion
Options © Cengage Learning 2013
Constraints determine the throughput of a facility, because they limit production output to their own capacity. There are two basic types of
constraints: physical and nonphysical. Physical constraints result in process bottlenecks. Inflexible work rules, inadequate labor skills, and
poor management are all forms of constraints. Removing nonphysical constraints is not always possible.
Exhibit 10.7 Basic Principles of the Theory of Constraints
Nonbottleneck Management Principles Bottleneck Management Principles
Move jobs through nonbottleneck workstations as fast as possible until Only the bottleneck workstations are critical to achieving
the job reaches the bottleneck workstation. process and factory objectives and should be scheduled first.
At nonbottleneck workstations, idle time is acceptable if there is no work An hour lost at a bottleneck resource is an hour lost for the
to do, and therefore resource utilizations may be low. entire process or factory output.
Use smaller order (also called lot or transfer batches) sizes at Workinprocess buffer inventory should be placed in front of
nonbottleneck workstations to keep work flowing to the bottleneck bottlenecks to maximize resource utilization at the bottleneck.
resources and eventually to the marketplace to generate sales. Use large order sizes at bottleneck workstations to minimize
An hour lost at a nonbottleneck resource has no effect on total process or setup time and maximize resource utilization.
factory output and incurs no real cost. Bottleneck workstations should work at all times to maximize
throughput and resource utilization so as to generate cash from
sales and achieve the company's goal.
Exhibit 10.7 Basic Principles of the Theory of Constraints © Cengage Learning 2013
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Capacity Management: Reviewcard/OM4 Chapter 10 Capacity Management: Key Terms
101
Capacity is the capability of a manufacturing or service resource such as a facility, process, workstation, or piece of equipment to
accomplish its purpose over a specified time period.
Economies of scale are achieved when the average unit cost of a good or service decreases as the capacity and/or volume of
throughput increases.
Diseconomies of scale occur when the average unit cost of the good or service begins to increase as the capacity and/or volume of
throughput increases.
A focused factory is a way to achieve economies of scale without extensive investments in facilities and capacity by focusing on a
narrow range of goods or services, target market segments, and/or dedicated processes to maximize efficiency and effectiveness.
102
Safety capacity (often called the capacity cushion), is defined as an amount of capacity reserved for unanticipated events such as
demand surges, materials shortages, and equipment breakdowns.
A work order is a specification of work to be performed for a customer or a client.
103
Complementary goods and services are goods and services that can be produced or delivered using the same resources available
Complementary goods and services are goods and services that can be produced or delivered using the same resources available
to the firm, but whose seasonal demand patterns are out of phase with each other.
104
A reservation is a promise to provide a good or service at some future time and place.
A revenue management system (RMS) consists of dynamic methods to forecast demand, allocate perishable assets across market
segments, decide when to overbook and by how much, and determine what price to charge different customer (price) classes.
105
The Theory of Constraints (TOC) is a set of principles that focuses on increasing total process throughput by maximizing the
utilization of all bottleneck work activities and workstations.
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Throughput is the amount of money generated per time period through actual sales.
A constraint is anything in an organization that limits it from moving toward or achieving its goal.
A physical constraint is associated with the capacity of a resource such as a machine, employee, or workstation.
A bottleneck (BN) work activity is one that effectively limits the capacity of the entire process.
A nonbottleneck (NBN) work activity is one in which idle capacity exists.
A nonphysical constraint is environmental or organizational, such as low product demand or an inefficient management policy or
procedure.
Footnotes
1. Fortune, April 19, 2011, http://money.cnn.com/2011/04/19/news/companies/jeff_smisek_united_continental.fortune/index.htm.
2. http://articles.baltimoresun.com/20000714/news/0007140079_1_districtcourtcriminaljusticesystemindigentdefendants
3. “Strategy: European Auto Union,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, April 19, 2010, p. 8.
4. Philip Walzer, “Analysts: Slumping Demand Why Franklin Paper Mill Closing,” The VirginianPilot, April 11, 2010.
5. http://www.briggsandstratton.com.
6. W. Liberman, “Implementing Yield Management,” ORSA/TIMS National Meeting Presentation, San Francisco, November 1992.
7. M. Geraghty and M. Johnson, “Revenue Management Saves National Car Rental,” Interfaces, 12, 7, 1997, pp. 107–127.
8. Eliyahu M. Goldratt and Jeff Cox, The Goal, 2nd rev. ed. CrotononHudson, NY: North River Press, 1992; and Eliyahu M. Goldratt,
The Theory of Constraints, CrotononHudson, NY: North River Press, 1990.
9. “Disney Restaurant NoShows Will Pay,” USA Today, October 21, 2011, p. 4D.
10. Jeremy Pastore, Sekar Sundararajan, and Emory W. Zimmers, “Innovative Application,” APICS—The Performance Advantage, 14, 3,
March 2004, pp. 32–35.
11. http://www.goldratt.com/kreisler.htm.
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© 2007 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means
graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner without the written permission of the copyright holder.