Specialization Review

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Junar S. Cano, LPT

Candle Problem
• Suppose you are
presented a table
containing a box full of
tacks, a candle, and a
match box. Your challenge
is to find some way to use
these materials to mount a
candle on the wall and
illuminate the room.
• How can you do it?
Candle Problem
Candle Problem
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope

Biology
the scientific
study of life

Science: is an objective, logical, repeatable attempt, and

an ongoing process of testing and evaluating to know
the general truth about the natural world.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope

Underlying PRINCIPLES:
1. Causality – the occurrence of events
is due to natural causes
2. Uniformity – the laws of Nature
operated and always will operate in the
same way
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
Reasoning in Science
Scientific Reasoning
- the intellectual method to get the truth
 Inductive reasoning- reaching a
conclusion upon a number of observations that
is going from the specific to the general
 Deductive reasoning – reasons from
general to specific.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
Major Divisions
• Botany- study of Plants
• Zoology- study of Animals

Subdivisions:
• Anatomy – deals with the structural organization of
plants and animals.
• Bacteriology- deals with the study of bacteria.
• Biochemistry- deals with the substances found in
living things, and of the chemical reactions underlying
the processes of life.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope

Subdivisions:
• Biophysics – deals with the study of biological
phenomena and problems, using the principles and
techniques of physics.
• Biotechnology – deals with the use of organisms,
cells or cell-derived constituents for the purpose of
developing products, which are technically,
scientifically and clinically useful.
• Cytology- is the biological study concerned with the
study of the structure and function of cells as individual
units.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
Subdivisions:
• Ecology – deals with the study of the relationship of
plants and animals to their physical and biological
environment.
• Embryology – deals with the development of living
organisms.
• Entomology – is a branch of biology that deals with
the study of insects.
• Evolution – studies the process whereby all living
things on Earth have diverged.
• Genetics – deals with the study of how physical,
biochemical, and behavioural traits are transmitted
from parents to their offspring.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
Subdivisions:
• Histology – is a microscopic study of animal and plant
tissues; also groups of similar cells interrelated for
cooperative performance of a particular biological
function.
• Mammalogy – deals with the study of mammals or
animals with mammary glands.
• Neuroscience – is concerned with the embryology,
anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pharmacology, etc.,
of the nervous system.
• Paleontology – deals with the study of fossils, which
are preserved in the sedimentary rock, record.
• Parasitology – deals with the study of parasites.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
Subdivisions:
• Pharmacology – refers to the study of the origin,
nature, properties, and actions of drugs and their
effects on living things.
• Sociobiology – investigate the biological bases of the
social behaviour of animals.
• Taxonomy – deals with the classification or
organisms.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
The Scientific Method

Write an account
of what you think
happened based
on what you see
here.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
The Scientific Method

How does your

story change?
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
The Scientific Method
What do you observe?

What do you infer?

Compare what you

think now
to your earlier written
accounts.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
The Scientific Method
• Hypothesis – tentative solution or
generalization to a problem. “Educated-guess”
• Theory – general truth about the natural world
but not yet universally accepted (ex: Theory of
Evolution)
• Scientific Law – universally accepted (ex:
Law of Inertia, Law of Gravity, Law of
Interaction)
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
and Its Scope
The Scientific Method
- is a combination of the creative reasoning and
testing of hypothesis.
STEPS:
1. Identify the Problem
2. Gather Data or Information
3. Formulate a Hypothesis
4. Experiment and Series of Observation
5. Analyse gathered data and Formulate Conclusion
6. Communicate the Result
7. Apply the Result
BIOLOGY as the
SCIENCEof Life
Biosphere: all life forms on Earth.
 Biology unifies much of natural life,
attempts to define life, and reveals the
hierarchical organization of living systems.

What does it mean to be

ALIVE?
2
THE Characteristics
of Life
 The Study of Life

Made of One or More Cells

 Living things are made of one or more cells.

 Cells are the basic unit of structure and function
in all living things.
 The Study of Life

Displays Organization
 Living things also display organization, which
means they are arranged in an orderly way.
 The Study of Life

Grows and Develops

 Growth results in the

addition of mass to an
organism and, in many
organisms, the
formation of new cells
and new structures.
 The Study of Life

Reproduces

 A species is a
group of
organisms that
can breed with
one another and
produce fertile
offspring.
 The Study of Life

Responds to Stimuli
 Anything that is part of the
internal or external
environments and causes
some sort of reaction by the
organism is called a
stimulus.
 The reaction to a stimulus is
a response.
 The Study of Life

Requires Energy

 Living things get their energy

from food.
 Most plants and some unicellular
organisms use light energy from
the Sun to make their own food
and fuel their activities.
 Organisms that cannot make their own food get
energy by consuming other organisms.
 The Study of Life

Maintains Homeostasis

 Regulation of an organism’s
internal conditions to maintain
life is called homeostasis.
 If anything happens within or to
an organism that affects its
normal state, processes to
restore the normal state begin.
 The Study of Life

Adaptations Evolve over Time

 An adaptation is any inherited
characteristic that results from
changes to a species over
time.
THE Theories
of Life
 The Study of Life

Divine Theory of Creation

 States that life is created by Extraordinary Being.

Abiogenesis Theory
 States that life originated from non-living matters.

Biogenesis Theory
 States that life came from pre existing life.
 The Study of Life

Mutation Theory
 Environmental mutagens (x-rays or radiations:
alcoholism; drugs and pills contribute to sudded change
in characteristics of an organism that includes the genetic
make up and physical characteristics

Theory of Evolution
 There is a gradual change in the characteristics of an
organism that includes the genetic make-up and physical
characteristics.
 The Study of Life

Theory of Evolution

Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de

Charles Robert Darwin
Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (1772-
(1809-1882)
1844)
 Chevalier de Lamarck’s
Concepts of Evolution

“Acquired
characteristics
arise after the
environment
changes”
Report of Jamaica Olazo
Chevalier de Lamarck’s
Concepts of Evolution
Theory of Needs
 the gradual change in the characteristics of an organism
is contributed by their needs. (e.g. the need for food is
the reason why giraffe is constantly stretching its neck for
it to survive)

Theory of Use and Disuse

 the constant stretching of neck by the giraffe had
contributed to the disuse of short neck because the
giraffe frequently uses its long neck in getting its food.
Chevalier de Lamarck’s
Concepts of Evolution
Theory of Inheritance of
Acquired Traits
 This means that acquired characteristics can be
transferred from generation to generation
Charles Darwin’s Natural
Selection

“Evolution is a
competitive process
by which those
organisms better
adapted to their
environment
supplant those less
well adapted”
 Charles Darwin’s Natural
Selection
The Theory of Natural Selection or “Survival
of the Fittest”
1. Overproduction. All living things have the capacity to
increase their number of species by production geometrically
2. Struggles for Existence. There is a tendency for all
organisms to compete with each other because of very
limited supply of food.
3. Variations of Characters. No two organisms are exactly
alike.
4. Survival of the Fittest. Organisms with dominant
characteristics have better chances of surviving and
increasing their number of species than those with weak
characteristics.
 Charles Darwin’s Natural
Selection
The Theory of Natural Selection or “Survival
of the Fittest”
5. Transmission of Variations of Characters. Some
characteristics are heritable through time.
CHEMICAL Composition

of LIVING
Things
Elements, Compounds, Atoms, Molecules
All substances are made of very tiny particles called atoms.
There are about one hundred substances that are made up
of just one type of atom. These are the elements.

helium
carbon

copper

The elements are the building blocks of all other substances.

 An element is a substance made up of only one type of atom.

Copper is an Carbon is an Helium is an

element made up of element made up of element made up of
copper atoms only. carbon atoms only. helium atoms only.
A compound is the substance produced when two or more
elements combine in a chemical reaction.

Two elements, hydrogen (H)

and oxygen (O), combine to
make the compound, water.

Which two elements combine

to make the compound
carbon dioxide?

A compound is always made up of two or more

different types of atom.
An element is a substance made up of only one type of atom.
In some elements, the atoms are joined in groups of two or
more. A particle containing atoms grouped in this way is
called a molecule.

Oxygen is an
element made up of
oxygen atoms only.

Other elements, that contain atoms joined in molecules are

hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine and bromine.
Composition of Living Things
Composed (99.9% by
weight) of:
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Nitrogen
 Oxygen

Report of Jamaica Olazo

 Phosphorus
 Sulphur
Sub-Atomic Particles

• Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons.

• Protons and neutrons in atomic nucleus
• Electrons in surrounding “cloud”
Molecular Bonds
Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons between
elements

Hydrogen and oxygen

bond together to from
water (H2O)
Molecular Bonds
Ionic bonds – transferring of electrons from one
molecule to another
Organic Compounds and Molecules
Carbon has bonding versatility
(accept four electrons)
- ability to form long chains.

Functional Groups
 give specific properties of the
compounds

Report of Jamaica Olazo

 Biological Molecules

Carbohydrates Nucleic Acids

Lipids Proteins
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
– These are the most abundant organic compound

Functions:
 Energy sources for
cells
 Structural components
of cells
1. Monosaccharides (Simple sugars)

Examples:
 Glucose
 Fructose
 Galactose
 2. Disaccharides (two simple sugars
bonded together)
Glycosidic linkages between two sugar molecules
create sucrose (table sugar) lactose (milk sugar), and
maltose (malt sugar).

glucose fructose
sucrose
3. Polysaccharide – consists of thousand of
monomers of glucose or other simple
sugars
Glycosidic linkages between
many sugar molecules create
complex carbohydrates, such
as starch (carbohydrate
storage in plants)
3. Polysaccharide – consists of thousand of
monomers of glucose or other simple
sugars
Cellulose – a structural polysaccharide in plants

Linen Dietary “fiber”

Cotton
Cellulose vs. Starch

We can digest starch (amylose) but not cellulose.

What difference do you see that might be the reason
behind this?
Chitin Pectin
Lipids
Lipids
– These water insoluble organic molecules that
include fats, oils, waxes, steroids, and phospholipid
Functions:
 Energy storage
 Water proof coating
 Chemical messenger
 1. Triglycerides

– These are fats and

oils

What process do you see

happening here to create
these ester bonds
between the fatty acid
chains and the glycerol in
this triglyceride?
1. Triglycerides

Saturated vs. Unsaturated

 Lipids that are solid at
room temperature are
composed mostly of
saturated fatty acids.

Stearic acid (found in wax

and lard) and butyric acid
(found in butter) are
examples of saturated fatty
acids.
Lipids that are liquid at
room temperature are
composed mostly of
unsaturated fatty acids.

Oleic acid and linoleic acid

are unsaturated fatty acids
that are common in
vegetable oils.
 A Puzzle:

Shortening and margarine labels

often brag that their products are
made with healthy, unsaturated
vegetable oils. Vegetable oils are
liquid at room temperature. So
why are shortening and
margarine solid at room
temperature?
 Trans fats?

Unsaturated fats bend Trans configuration results in

because of the cis an unsaturated fatty acid that
configuration is a straight chain like a
saturated fatty acid

Trans fats are rare in nature. Hydrogenation can create both

saturated and trans fatty acids.
2. Phospholipids

– consist of only two fatty

acids attached to a
glycerol molecule and a
phosphate group in place
of the third fatty acid
 3. Waxes
- insoluble in water, useful as waterproof coatings for
organisms, as a structural components of cell wall

4. Steroids
Proteins
Proteins
– Building and replacement materials of our body,
especially important for growing.
Functions:
 Structure
 Regulation
 Enzymatic activities
 Hormones
 Transportation
Amino acids – the building blocks of
proteins

Amino Carboxylic acid

group group
 R-groups
determine
the
properties of
individual
amino acids.
What process do you see happening here to create this
peptide bond between the two amino acids?
Some proteins, like keratin, are
structural proteins.
Actin and myosin fibers in muscle cells, spider webs, and
silk are also structural proteins.
Some proteins, such as insulin, are hormones.
 Some proteins are
enzymes that build
or break down other
molecules in living
cells.
 Some proteins are structured to transport substances,
such as hemoglobin that carries oxygen, or cell membrane
proteins that move substances across the membrane for
regulation.
 Heat, acidity, or both can denature proteins.
Denaturing changes the shape of a protein, which
changes its appearance and functionality.
Denaturing is what happens when we fry an egg (egg whites
contain albumin protein) or use acids to turn milk into cheese
(milk solids contain casein proteins).
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids
– are large organic molecules

Functions:
 Carry the genetic
information in the
form of codes
 The Study of Life

Types of nucleic acids:

 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

• DNA provides directions for its own replication

• DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA)
(Transcription) and, through mRNA, controls
protein synthesis (Transcription)
• Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes (bound or
free)
 DNA

1 Synthesis of
mRNA in the
nucleus mRNA

NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
 DNA

1 Synthesis of
mRNA in the
nucleus mRNA

NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM

mRNA
2 Movement of
mRNA into cytoplasm
via nuclear pore
 DNA

1 Synthesis of
mRNA in the
nucleus mRNA

NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM

mRNA
2 Movement of
mRNA into cytoplasm Ribosome
via nuclear pore

3 Synthesis
of protein

Amino
Polypeptide acids
• The amino acid sequence of
a polypeptide is
programmed by a unit of
inheritance called a gene
• Genes are made of DNA, a
nucleic acid
 Nucleotide – the building block of
nucleic acid

Is this a nucleotide
of DNA or RNA?
How can you tell?
 5' end

5'C

3'C

Nucleoside

Nitrogenous
base

5'C

Phosphate 3'C
group Sugar
5'C (pentose)

3'C Nucleotide

3' end
(a) Polynucleotide, or nucleic acid
 5 end
Nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines
5 C

3 C

Nucleoside

Nitrogenous
base Cytosine (C) Thymine (T, in DNA) Uracil (U, in RNA)

Purines

Phosphate
group Sugar
5 C (pentose)
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
3 C Nucleotide

Sugars
3 end
(a) Polynucleotide, or nucleic acid

Deoxyribose (in DNA) Ribose (in RNA)

Nucleoside components: sugars

 Nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines

Cytosine (C) Thymine (T, in DNA) Uracil (U, in RNA)

Purines

Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

Nucleoside components: nitrogenous bases

 Sugars

Deoxyribose (in DNA) Ribose (in RNA)

Nucleoside components: sugars

• A DNA molecule has two polynucleotides spiraling
around an imaginary axis, forming a double helix
• In the DNA double helix, the two backbones run in
opposite 5 → 3 directions from each other, an
arrangement referred to as antiparallel
• One DNA molecule includes many genes
• The nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up and form
hydrogen bonds: adenine (A) always with thymine
(T), and guanine (G) always with cytosine (C)
Fig. 5-28
5' end 3' end

Sugar-phosphate
backbones

Base pair (joined by

hydrogen bonding)

Old strands

Nucleotide
about to be
added to a
new strand
3' end

5' end

New
strands

3' end 5' end

5' end 3' end

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
ATP
the universal
energy carrier, is a
single nucleotide
(adenine) with two
extra phosphate
groups attached.
Inorganic Compounds and
Molecules
Water: The Universal Solvent
Properties:
Has a high heat vaporation
Evaporation/vaporation is the process of turning liquid into
gaseous form. Weaker intermolecular forces equates to greater
volatility.
Water: The Universal Solvent
Properties:
 Water molecules exhibit a high degree of:
 cohesion (tendency of water molecules to cling to
each other) and
 adhesion (tendency of unlike molecules to cling to each
other).
These property account for capillarity, where water
moves upward against the pull of gravity in narrow
spaces. (Transpiration in Plants)
Cohesion Adhesion Capillary Action
Water: The Universal Solvent
Properties:
Exhibits high surface tension
Surface tension is a phenomenon caused by cohesive forces
(intermolecular forces) between molecules allowing liquids to create a thin
film on its surface.
Minerals and Vitamins

• Mineral Elements are in the form of salts

and combined with protein.
– Iron
– Calcium
– Potassium
– Magnesium
– Sodium
Minerals and Vitamins

• Vitamins and minerals are substances that

are found in foods we eat.
– Vitamin D
– Vitamin A
– Vitamin C
– B vitamins
Types of Vitamins

• Fat-soluble – vitamins are stored in the fat

tissues in your liver and in your liver
(Vitamins A, D, E, and K)
• Water-soluble – vitamins that don’t get
stored in your body (Vitamin C, B vitamins –
B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), niacin, B6
(pyidoxin), folic acid, B12 (cobalamine),
biotin, and pantothenic acid)
Types of Vitamins
• Various types and benefits of vitamins in our body.

Vitamins Benefits
Vitamin A Good for the eyesight
Vitamin B Important in metabolic activity
Vitamin C Important for keeping body tissues, such
as gums and muscles in good shape
Vitamin D Good for strong bones
Vitamin E Maintains a lot of human body’s tissues
Vitamin K Good for blood clotting
CELLULAR Structures,
PROCESSES,
and Functions
In 1650, Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Jansen
produced the first microscope
• In 1665, Robert Hooke used
a microscope to
examine a thin slice of cork
(dead plant cell walls)
• Coined the term "cells”.
– because they looked like the
small rooms that monks lived
in called Cells
• In 1673, Anton van
Leeuwenhoek (a Dutch
microscope maker),
was first to view
organism (living things-
“animacules))
• Leeuwenhoek used a
simple, handheld
microscope to view
pond water &
scrapings from his
teeth.
• 1831 – Robert Brown discovered the
nucleus in cells as the central part of the cell.
• 1835 – Felix Dujardin discovered that cells
have a living substance, which he named as
sarcode (cytoplasm)
– Johannes Purkinje, gave the protoplasm to the
living component of the cell, and together with
Hugo von Mohl, established the protoplasm
concept.
• In 1838, a German botanist
named Matthias Schleiden
concluded that all plants
were made of cells
• In 1839, a German zoologist
named Theodore Schwann
concluded that all animals were
made of cells
• In 1855, a German medical
doctor named Rudolph
Virchow observed, under the
microscope, cells dividing.
“Omnis cellula e cellula”
• He reasoned that all cells
come from other pre-existing
cells by cell division
• The theory states that:
• All living things are made of one or more cells
• Cells are the basic unit of structure and
function in an organism (basic unit of life)
• Cells come from the reproduction of existing
cells (cell division)
Cellular Structure and Function
Plasma Membrane
 a selective barrier that
allows sufficient
passage of oxygen,
nutrients, and waste to
service the volume of
every cell
 The general structure
of a biological
membrane is a double
layer of
phospholipids
 (a) TEM of a plasma
Outside of cell membrane

Inside of cell
0.1 m
Carbohydrate side chains

Hydrophilic
region

Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic Phospholipid Proteins
region
(b) Structure of the plasma membrane
Nucleus
 contains most of the
cell’s genes and is
usually the most
conspicuous organelle.
Nucleus
• The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus,
separating it from the cytoplasm
• The nuclear membrane is a double membrane;
each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
 Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough ER
Pore
complex
Ribosome

Close-up
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
Nucleus

• Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules

from the nucleus
• The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the
nuclear lamina, which is composed of protein
• In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete
units called chromosomes
• Each chromosome is composed of a single
DNA molecule associated with proteins
 Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough ER
Pore
complex
Ribosome

Close-up
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
Nucleus

• The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are

together called chromatin
• Chromatin condenses to form discrete
chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide
• The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and
is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
 Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough ER
Pore
complex
Ribosome

Close-up
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
Cytoplasm
 Is the liquid portion of the cell containing small organs, the
organelles.
 Mostly (70%) water, and the rest is proteins (mostly), carbohydrates,
and nucleotides, as well as amino acids.
Element Percentage
Oxygen 65
Carbon 18
Hydrogen 10
Nitrogen 3
Calcium 2
Phosphorus 1
Other elements 1
Ribosomes

 are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein

 Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
locations
– In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
– On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or
the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 accounts for more than half of the total membrane
in many eukaryotic cells
The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear
envelope
There are two distinct regions of ER
 Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
 Rough ER, surface is studded with ribosomes
 Smooth ER
Nuclear
envelope
Rough ER

ER lumen
Cisternae Transitional ER
Ribosomes
Transport vesicle
200 nm
Smooth ER Rough ER
 Smooth ER

Rough ER Nuclear
envelope

ER lumen
Cisternae Transitional ER
Ribosomes
Transport vesicle
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Functions of Smooth ER
• The smooth ER
– Synthesizes lipids
– Metabolizes carbohydrates
– Detoxifies drugs and poisons
– Stores calcium ions
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Functions of Rough ER
• The rough ER
– Has bound ribosomes, which secrete
glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to
carbohydrates)
– Distributes transport vesicles, proteins
surrounded by membranes
– Is a membrane factory for the cell
Golgi Apparatus
 consists of flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae

Functions of the Golgi apparatus

– Modifies products of the ER
– Manufactures certain macromolecules
– Sorts and packages materials into transport
vesicles
Golgi Apparatus
cis face
(“receiving” side of 0.1 m
Golgi apparatus)
Cisternae

trans face
(“shipping” side of TEM of Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus)
 Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

Plasma
membrane
 Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

cis Golgi

Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi
 Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

cis Golgi

Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi
Lysosome

 a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that

can digest macromolecules
 Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins,
fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
 Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic
environment inside the lysosome
Lysosome
• Some types of cell can engulf another cell by
phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
• A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and
digests the molecules
• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the
cell’s own organelles and macromolecules, a
process called autophagy
Lysosome
Vesicle containing
1 m
Nucleus two damaged 1 m
organelles

Mitochondrion
fragment

Lysosome Peroxisome
fragment

Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome

Lysosome
Plasma membrane Peroxisome

Digestion

Food vacuole Mitochondrion Digestion

Vesicle

(a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy

 1 m
Nucleus

Lysosome

Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome
Plasma membrane
Digestion

Food vacuole

(a) Phagocytosis
 Vesicle containing
two damaged 1 m
organelles

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
fragment

Lysosome

Peroxisome

Mitochondrion Digestion
Vesicle

(b) Autophagy
Vacuole

 Bound by as single membrane

A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several

vacuoles, derived from endoplasmic reticulum and
Golgi apparatus
Vacuole
Functions:
• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis. It
is a digestive structure that stores food.
• Contractile vacuoles store wastes products to
be released later or used to prevent other
organisms from eating them.
• Central/Sap vacuoles, found in many mature
plant cells, hold organic compounds and water.
Vacuole
Central vacuole

Cytosol

Central
Nucleus vacuole
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Mitochondria
 are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic
process that uses oxygen to generate ATP
10 m
Intermembrane space
Outer Mitochondria
membrane

DNA

Inner
Free Mitochondrial
membrane
ribosomes DNA
in the Cristae
mitochondrial Nuclear DNA
Matrix
matrix
0.1 m
(a) Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion (b) Network of mitochondria in a protist
cell (LM)
Plastids
 Are the coloring pigments found in plant cells

Types:
• Chloroplasts – green pigments.
• Chromoplasts – red or colored pigments.
• Leucoplasts – white or colorless pigments.
• Elioplasts – oily pigments.
• Xanthophyll – pale yellow pigments.
• Carotene – orange pigment.
• Chloroplast structure includes
– Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a
granum
– Stroma, the internal fluid

Ribosomes 50 m
Stroma

Inner and outer

membranes
Granum

Chloroplasts
(red)
DNA
Thylakoid Intermembrane space 1 m
(a) Diagram and TEM of chloroplast (b) Chloroplasts in an algal cell
Cytoskeleton
 is a network of fibers extending throughout the
cytoplasm
 It organizes the cell’s structures and activities,
anchoring many organelles
 It is composed of three types of molecular structures
– Microtubules are the thickest of the three components of the
cytoskeleton
– Microfilaments also called actin filaments, are the thinnest
components
– Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a middle
range
 10 m

Column of tubulin dimers

25 nm

  Tubulin dimer
 10 m

Actin subunit

7 nm
 5 m

Keratin proteins
Fibrous subunit (keratins
coiled together)
812 nm
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells
• Basic features of all cells
– Plasma membrane
– Semifluid substance called cytoplasm
– Chromosomes (carry genes)
– Ribosomes (make proteins)
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells
• Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
– No nucleus
– DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
– No membrane-bound organelles
– Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane
 Fimbriae

Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome Cell wall

Capsule

0.5 m
(a) A typical Flagella (b) A thin section
rod-shaped through the
bacterium bacterium Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells
• Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having
– DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a
membranous nuclear envelope
– Membrane-bound organelles
– Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma
membrane and nucleus
• Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than
prokaryotic cells
 Comparing Plant and Animal Cells
Plant Cell Animal Cell
1. Usually larger with 1. Basically smaller with less
distinct out lines and a distinct boundaries and no
definite cell wall. definite wall.
2. With thin lining of 2. Consists almost entirely of
cytoplasm with large food cytoplasm. Food vacuoles are
vacuole usually small and not permanent.
3. Covered with cell wall 3. With no definite cell wall and
that consists of cellulose do not have cellulose.
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Nuclear
Rough Smooth envelope
Flagellum ER ER NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane
CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes

Microvilli
Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome

Mitochondrion Lysosome
 Nuclear Rough
envelope endoplasmic
NUCLEUS reticulum Smooth
Nucleolus endoplasmic
reticulum
Chromatin

Ribosomes

Central vacuole
Golgi
apparatus Microfilaments
Intermediate CYTOSKELETON
filaments
Microtubules

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma membrane Chloroplast

Cell wall Plasmodesmata

Wall of adjacent cell
Cellular Processes
 Transport Mechanisms
Extracellular Fluid

Intracellular Fluid

Cytoplasm
Transport Mechanisms
Membrane (cross section)

• Gradient – the
differences in
concentration of
materials between one
area and another.
 Transport Mechanisms
• Passive Transport
 Requires no extra energy, materials move down the
gradient

Types:
Simple Diffusion
Carrier-Facilitated Diffusion
Osmosis
 Transport Mechanisms
• Simple Diffusion
 is the tendency for molecules to spread out evenly into
the available space (high concentration low concentration)
 At dynamic equilibrium, as many molecules cross
the membrane in one direction as in the other.
 Transport Mechanisms
• Simple Diffusion

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

(b) Diffusion of two solutes
 Transport Mechanisms
• Carrier-facilitated diffusion
 is the movement of
molecules that are large or
electrically charged across
membranes facilitated by
carrier molecules
Carrier proteins undergo a
subtle change in shape that
translocates the solute-binding
site across the membrane
 Transport Mechanisms
• Osmosis
 is the diffusion of water
across a selectively
permeable membrane
 Water diffuses across a
membrane from the region of
lower solute concentration to
the region of higher solute
concentration until the solute
concentration is equal on
both sides
 Transport Mechanisms
Balance of Intracellular and Extracellular
Solutes and Solvents
Solute – refers to that substance which dissolved (suspended
in another medium (e.g. water)
Solvent – refers to the medium into which the solute is
dissolved.

Isotonic Hypotonic Hypertonic

• Tonicity is the ability of a surrounding solution to
cause a cell to gain or lose water
• Isotonic solution: Solute concentration is the same
as that inside the cell; no net water movement
across the plasma membrane
• Hypertonic solution: Solute concentration is
greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water
• Hypotonic solution: Solute concentration is less
than that inside the cell; cell gains water
 Hypotonic Isotonic Hypertonic
solution solution solution
(a) Animal cell
H2O H2O H2O H2O

Lysed Normal Shriveled

H2O Cell wall H2O H2O H2O

(b) Plant cell

Turgid (normal) Flaccid Plasmolyzed

Osmosis
• Hypertonic or hypotonic environments create
osmotic problems for organisms
• Osmoregulation, the control of solute
concentrations and water balance, is a necessary
adaptation for life in such environments
• The protist Paramecium, which is hypertonic to its
pond water environment, has a contractile
vacuole that acts as a pump
 50 m
Contractile vacuole
• Cell walls help maintain water balance
• A plant cell in a hypotonic solution swells until
the wall opposes uptake; the cell is now turgid
(firm) (turgor pressure)
• If a plant cell and its surroundings are isotonic,
there is no net movement of water into the cell;
the cell becomes flaccid (limp), and the plant
may wilt
• In a hypertonic environment, plant cells lose
water; eventually, the membrane pulls away from
the wall, a usually lethal effect called
plasmolysis
 Transport Mechanisms
• Active Transport
 moves substances against their concentration gradients
 Active transport requires energy, usually in the form of
ATP
 Active transport is performed by specific proteins
embedded in the membranes

The sodium-potassium pump is one type of active

transport system
EXTRACELLULAR [Na] high Na
FLUID [K] low Na

Na Na Na

Na Na

Na

[Na] low ATP

CYTOPLASM Na P
[K] high P
1 2 ADP 3

K

K
K
K
K

P
6 K 5 4 Pi
 Passive transport Active transport

Diffusion Facilitated diffusion ATP

 Transport Mechanisms

• Bulk transport
– Large molecules, such as polysaccharides
and proteins, cross the membrane in bulk via
vesicles
– Bulk transport requires energy
 Transport Mechanisms
Exocytosis
• In exocytosis, transport vesicles migrate to the
membrane, fuse with it, and release their
contents
• Many secretory cells use exocytosis to export
their products
 Transport Mechanisms
Endocytosis
• In endocytosis, the cell takes in macromolecules
by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane
• Endocytosis is a reversal of exocytosis, involving
different proteins
• There are three types of endocytosis
– Phagocytosis (“cellular eating”)
– Pinocytosis (“cellular drinking”)
– Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Transport Mechanisms
• In phagocytosis a cell engulfs a particle in a
vacuole. The vacuole fuses with a lysosome to
digest the particle
• In pinocytosis, molecules are taken up when
extracellular fluid is “gulped” into tiny vesicles
• In receptor-mediated endocytosis, binding of
ligands to receptors triggers vesicle formation
• A ligand is any molecule that binds specifically to
a receptor site of another molecule
 Phagocytosis EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID Solutes

Pseudopodium Pseudopodium
of amoeba

Bacterium

1 m
Food vacuole

An amoeba engulfing a bacterium “Food”

via phagocytosis (TEM). or other
particle

Food
vacuole

CYTOPLASM
 Pinocytosis

0.5 m
Plasma
membrane

Pinocytosis vesicles forming

in a cell lining a small blood
vessel (TEM).

Vesicle
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Plasma Receptor
Coat
membrane proteins Ligand

Coat proteins

Coated
0.25 m

pit

Coated
vesicle
Top: A coated pit. Bottom: A
coated vesicle forming during
receptor-mediated endocytosis
(TEMs).
 Environment:
“Cell” 0.01 M sucrose
0.03 M sucrose 0.01 M glucose
0.02 M glucose 0.01 M fructose
Cell Reproduction
 Antimitotic Drugs for Cancers

A mitotic cell showing spindle fibers and chromosomes

Visit www.who.int how cancer affects the human
population
HeLa Cells
Henrietta’s Immortal Cells
• Henrietta Lacks died of cancer in 1951, at age 31,
but her cells (HeLa cells) are still growing in
laboratories
– HeLa cells are widely used to investigate cancer, viral
growth, and other processes important in medicine and
research
• Understanding the structures and mechanisms
that cells use to divide help us understand why
cancer cells are immortal and we are not
 Analysis
Why must cells divide?
Growth and Development
Cell Replacement
 Reproduction
How does cell division differ in prokaryotes and
eukaryotes?
Binary Fission in Bacteria
• Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a type of
cell division called binary fission.
– the chromosome replicates (beginning at the
origin of replication), and the two daughter
chromosomes actively move apart
• The plasma membrane pinches inward, dividing the cell
into two
 Origin of Cell wall
replication Plasma membrane
E. coli cell
Bacterial chromosome
1 Chromosome Two copies
replication of origin
begins.

2 Replication Origin Origin

continues.
 Origin of Cell wall
replication Plasma membrane
E. coli cell
Bacterial chromosome
1 Chromosome Two copies
replication of origin
begins.

2 Replication Origin Origin

continues.

3 Replication
finishes.
 Origin of Cell wall
replication Plasma membrane
E. coli cell
Bacterial chromosome
1 Chromosome Two copies
replication of origin
begins.

2 Replication Origin Origin

continues.

3 Replication
finishes.

4 Two daughter
cells result.
 Point to Ponder
Where do cells get the
information they need to
function?
 CHROMOSOMES
• DNA molecules in a
cell are packaged into
chromosomes
CHROMOSOMES
 KARYOTYPING
• Traditional karyotyping uses Giemsa stain to visualize
chromosomes, and then pairs and arranges homologous
chromosomes according to size and banding patterns.
K-12 Basic Education Curriculum

Why is it important to have checkpoints within each

level?
The Cell Cycle
 Point to Ponder
What are the main stages
in the Cell Cycle?
Stages of the Cell Cycle
• Interphase - cell
growth and
copying of
chromosomes in
preparation for cell
division)
Stages of the Cell Cycle
Interphase
• G1 – cell grows;
organelles are
duclicated
• S – DNA
replication
• G2 – production of
proteins necessary
for cell division
Common Cell Life Span
Cell Type Approximate Life Span

Skin Cell 14 days

Red Blood Cell 120 days
Liver Cell 300-500 days
Internal lining of 4-5 days
intestine
Smooth muscle of 16 years
intestine
Why do cell life span vary across cell types?
 Mitosis
Mitosis is the division of nucleus into two genetically
identical nuclei containing the same full set of DNA
• It happens in somatic cells (body cells)
• Diploid cells (2n)
• Divided into four phases:
– Prophase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase
 Mitosis
1. Prophase
- Chromatin condenses, this causes the chromosomes to
begin to become visible
- Centrosomes separate, moving to opposite ends of the
nucleus
- The centrosomes start to form a framework used to
separate the two sister chromatids called the spindle
fibers or mitotic spindle, that is made of microtubules
- Nucleolus disappears
 Mitosis
2. Metaphase
- Chromosomes align on an axis called the metaphase
plate
- Note: the spindle consists of microtubules, one attached to
each chromosome
 Mitosis
3. Anaphase
- Each centromere splits making two chromatids free

- Each chromatid moves toward a pole

- Cell begins to elongate, caused by microtubules not

associated with the kinetochore
 Mitosis
4. Telophase
• Formation of nuclear membrane and nucleolus

• Short and thick chromosomes begin to elongate to form

long and thin chromatin

• Formation of the cleavage furrow - a shallow groove in

the cell near the old metaphase plate

Cytokinesis = division of the cytoplasm

Mitosis in an onion root
 Aster
Centrosome
Sister
chromatids
Microtubules Chromosomes Metaphase
plate

Kineto-
chores

Overlapping
nonkinetochore Kinetochore
microtubules microtubules
Centrosome 1 µm 0.5 µm
 Chromosome
movement Kinetochore

Tubulin
Microtubule Motor subunits
protein
Chromosome
 Mitosis
Cytokinesis: A Closer Look
• In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a
process known as cleavage, forming a
cleavage furrow
• In plant cells, a cell plate forms during
cytokinesis
 100 µm
Cleavage furrow

Contractile ring of Daughter cells

microfilaments

Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)

Mitosis
Vesicles Wall of 1 µm
forming parent cell
cell plate Cell plate New cell wall

Daughter cells
Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM)
 The Cell Cycle Control
System
• The sequential events of the cell cycle are
directed by a distinct cell cycle control system,
which is similar to a clock
• The clock has specific checkpoints where the
cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is
received
• For many cells, the G1 checkpoint seems to be
the most important one
 G1 checkpoint

Control
system S
G1

M G2

M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
 G0

G1 checkpoint

G1 G1

If a cell receives a go-ahead If a cell does not receive a

signal at the G1 checkpoint, go-ahead signal at the G1
the cell continues on in the checkpoint, the cell exits the
cell cycle. cell cycle and goes into G0, a
nondividing state.
 Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in
Cancer Cells
• Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s control
mechanisms
• Cancer cells form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within
otherwise normal tissue
• If abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is
called a benign tumor
• Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can
metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the
body, where they may form secondary tumors
 MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a form of cell division that involves the
formation of sex cells.
• Haploid cells (n)
• Reduction division
• Divided into 2 stages:
– Meiosis 1
– Meiosis 2
 MEIOSIS
• Living organisms are distinguished by their
ability to reproduce their own kind
• Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and
variation
• Heredity is the transmission of traits from one
generation to the next
• Variation is demonstrated by the differences in
appearance that offspring show from parents
and siblings
Figure 13.1
 MEIOSIS
• In a literal sense, children do not inherit
particular physical traits from their parents
• It is genes that are actually inherited
 MEIOSIS
• Genes are the units of heredity, and are made
up of segments of DNA
• Genes are passed to the next generation via
reproductive cells called gametes (sperm and
eggs)
• Each gene has a specific location called a
locus on a certain chromosome
• Most DNA is packaged into chromosomes
• In asexual reproduction, a single
individual passes genes to its offspring
without the fusion of gametes
• In sexual reproduction, two parents give
rise to offspring that have unique
combinations of genes inherited from the
two parents
Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
• Human somatic cells (any cell other than a gamete)
have 23 pairs of chromosomes
• A karyotype is an ordered display of the pairs of
chromosomes from a cell
• The two chromosomes in each pair are called
homologous chromosomes, or homologs
• Chromosomes in a homologous pair are the same
length and shape and carry genes controlling the same
inherited characters
APPLICATION

TECHNIQUE
Pair of homologous 5 m
duplicated chromosomes

Centromere

Sister
chromatids

Metaphase
chromosome
Pair of homologous 5 m
duplicated chromosomes

Centromere

Sister
chromatids

Metaphase
chromosome
5 m
• The sex chromosomes, which determine the sex of the
individual, are called X and Y
• Human females have a homologous pair of X
chromosomes (XX)
• Human males have one X and one Y chromosome
• The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called
autosomes
• Each pair of homologous chromosomes includes one
chromosome from each parent
• The 46 chromosomes in a human somatic cell are two
sets of 23: one from the mother and one from the father
• A diploid cell (2n) has two sets of chromosomes
• For humans, the diploid number is 46 (2n = 46)
• In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred, each
chromosome is replicated
• Each replicated chromosome consists of two identical
sister chromatids
Figure 13.4

Key
Maternal set of
2n  6 chromosomes (n  3)
Paternal set of
chromosomes (n  3)

Sister chromatids
of one duplicated
chromosome
Centromere

Two nonsister Pair of homologous

chromatids in chromosomes
a homologous pair (one from each set)
• A gamete (sperm or egg) contains a single set
of chromosomes, and is haploid (n)
• For humans, the haploid number is 23 (n = 23)
• Each set of 23 consists of 22 autosomes and a
single sex chromosome
• In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sex
chromosome is X
• In a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may be
either X or Y
 Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the
Human Life Cycle
• Fertilization is the union of gametes (the sperm
and the egg)
• The fertilized egg is called a zygote and has
one set of chromosomes from each parent
• The zygote produces somatic cells by mitosis
and develops into an adult
• At sexual maturity, the ovaries and testes
produce haploid gametes
• Gametes are the only types of human cells
produced by meiosis, rather than mitosis
• Meiosis results in one set of chromosomes in
each gamete
• Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life
cycles to maintain chromosome number
Key Haploid gametes (n  23)
Haploid (n) Egg (n)
Diploid (2n)

Sperm (n)

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

Ovary Testis

Diploid
zygote
(2n  46)

Mitosis and
development

Multicellular diploid
adults (2n  46)
 MEIOSIS
• Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by the replication of
chromosomes
• Meiosis takes place in two sets of cell divisions, called
meiosis I and meiosis II
• The two cell divisions result in four daughter cells,
rather than the two daughter cells in mitosis
• Each daughter cell has only half as many
chromosomes as the parent cell
 MEIOSIS
• After chromosomes duplicate, two divisions
follow
– Meiosis I (reductional division): homologs pair up
and separate, resulting in two haploid daughter
cells with replicated chromosomes
– Meiosis II (equational division) sister chromatids
separate
• The result is four haploid daughter cells with
unreplicated chromosomes
Interphase

Pair of homologous
chromosomes in
diploid parent cell

Duplicated pair Chromosomes

of homologous duplicate
chromosomes

Sister
Diploid cell with
chromatids
duplicated
chromosomes
Figure 13.7-2
Interphase

Pair of homologous
chromosomes in
diploid parent cell

Duplicated pair Chromosomes

of homologous duplicate
chromosomes

Sister
Diploid cell with
chromatids
duplicated
chromosomes
Meiosis I

1 Homologous
chromosomes separate
Haploid cells with
duplicated chromosomes
Figure 13.7-3
Interphase

Pair of homologous
chromosomes in
diploid parent cell

Duplicated pair Chromosomes

of homologous duplicate
chromosomes

Sister
Diploid cell with
chromatids
duplicated
chromosomes
Meiosis I

1 Homologous
chromosomes separate
Haploid cells with
duplicated chromosomes
Meiosis II
2 Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid cells with unduplicated chromosomes

 MEIOSIS
• Meiosis I is preceded by interphase, when the
chromosomes are duplicated to form sister
chromatids
• The sister chromatids are genetically identical
and joined at the centromere
• The single centrosome replicates, forming two
centrosomes
 MEIOSIS
• Division in meiosis I occurs in four phases
– Prophase I
– Metaphase I
– Anaphase I
– Telophase I and cytokinesis
 MEIOSIS I
Prophase I
• Prophase I typically occupies more than 90% of the time
required for meiosis
• Chromosomes begin to condense
• In synapsis, homologous chromosomes loosely pair up, aligned
gene by gene
• In crossing over, nonsister chromatids exchange DNA
segments
• Each pair of chromosomes forms a tetrad, a group of four
chromatids
• Each tetrad usually has one or more chiasmata, X-shaped
regions where crossing over occurred
 Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I and
Prophase I
Cytokinesis
Centrosome
(with centriole pair) Sister chromatids
remain attached
Sister Chiasmata Centromere
chromatids (with kinetochore)
Spindle
Metaphase
plate

Cleavage
furrow
Homologous
Homologous Fragments chromosomes
chromosomes of nuclear separate
envelope
Microtubule Each pair of homologous Two haploid
attached to chromosomes separates. cells form; each
kinetochore chromosome
Duplicated homologous Chromosomes line up still consists
chromosomes (red and blue) by homologous pairs. of two sister
pair and exchange segments; chromatids.
2n  6 in this example.
 MEIOSIS I
Metaphase I
• In metaphase I, tetrads line up at the metaphase
plate, with one chromosome facing each pole
• Microtubules from one pole are attached to the
kinetochore of one chromosome of each tetrad
• Microtubules from the other pole are attached to
the kinetochore of the other chromosome
 Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I and
Prophase I
Cytokinesis
Centrosome
(with centriole pair) Sister chromatids
remain attached
Sister Chiasmata Centromere
chromatids (with kinetochore)
Spindle
Metaphase
plate

Cleavage
furrow
Homologous
Homologous Fragments chromosomes
chromosomes of nuclear separate
envelope
Microtubule Each pair of homologous Two haploid
attached to chromosomes separates. cells form; each
kinetochore chromosome
Duplicated homologous Chromosomes line up still consists
chromosomes (red and blue) by homologous pairs. of two sister
pair and exchange segments; chromatids.
2n  6 in this example.
 MEIOSIS I
Anaphase I
• In anaphase I, pairs of homologous
chromosomes separate
• One chromosome moves toward each pole,
guided by the spindle apparatus
• Sister chromatids remain attached at the
centromere and move as one unit toward the
pole
 MEIOSIS I
Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• In the beginning of telophase I, each half of the
cell has a haploid set of chromosomes; each
chromosome still consists of two sister
chromatids
• Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously,
forming two haploid daughter cells
 MEIOSIS I
• In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; in
plant cells, a cell plate forms
• No chromosome replication occurs between
the end of meiosis I and the beginning of
meiosis II because the chromosomes are
already replicated
 MEIOSIS II
• Division in meiosis II also occurs in four
phases
– Prophase II
– Metaphase II
– Anaphase II
– Telophase II and cytokinesis
• Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
 MEIOSIS II
Prophase II
• In prophase II, a spindle apparatus forms
• In late prophase II, chromosomes (each still
composed of two chromatids) move toward
the metaphase plate
 Telophase II and
Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II
Cytokinesis

During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate;
four haploid daughter cells result, containing unduplicated chromosomes.
Sister chromatids Haploid daughter
separate cells forming
 MEIOSIS II
Metaphase II
• In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are arranged at
the metaphase plate
• Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister
chromatids of each chromosome are no longer
genetically identical
• The kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to
microtubules extending from opposite poles
 MEIOSIS II
Anaphase II
• In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate
• The sister chromatids of each chromosome now move
as two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite
poles
 MEIOSIS II
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
• In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
• Nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing

• Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm

• At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter cells, each
with a haploid set of unreplicated chromosomes
• Each daughter cell is genetically distinct from the others
and from the parent cell
A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
• Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome sets,
producing cells that are genetically identical to the
parent cell
• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets from
two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells that differ
genetically from each other and from the parent cell
Figure 13.9a

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Parent cell MEIOSIS I
Chiasma

Prophase Prophase I
Chromosome Chromosome
Duplicated duplication Homologous
duplication
chromosome 2n  6 chromosome pair

Metaphase Metaphase I

Anaphase Anaphase I
Telophase Daughter Telophase I
cells of Haploid
meiosis I n3

2n 2n MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells n n n n
of mitosis
Daughter cells of meiosis II
 Origins of Genetic Variation Among
Offspring
• The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and
fertilization is responsible for most of the variation that
arises in each generation
• Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation
– Independent assortment of chromosomes
– Crossing over
– Random fertilization
PLANT Tissues
and Organ Systems
 Plant Tissues
Cells work together to perform a specific
function form an tissue.

Types of Systems in Plants:

- Dermal system
- Ground system
- Vascular system

Major Plant Organs:

- Roots
- Stems
- Leaves
 Meristematic Tissues
Meristems – specific growing regions in plants. (e.g.
tip of the branches, roots, joint where leaves attached
to the stem)

Types of Meristems:
1. Apical Meristem – growing tissues in roots and
stems
2. Intercalary Meristem – located above the bases
of leaves and stem allowing the plants to quickly
regrow
3. Lateral Meristem – allows stems and roots to
increase in diameter.
 1. Apical Meristem
 responsible for
the increase in
length
(elongation) of
the stems and
roots.
 1. Apical Meristem
 In woody plants
like trees, the
meristematic
tissues are found
in between the
xylem and
phloem.
 2. Intercalary Meristem

 located above
the bases of
leaves and
stem allowing
the plants to
quickly regrow
 3. Lateral Meristems

 In woody plants allow

stems and roots to
increase in diameter

 Replaces the
epidermis, and add
vascular tissue.
 Types of Lateral Meristems
 Vascular Cambium
 Located between the xylem and the phloem,
are responsible for the production of
additional vascular tissues.
 Cork Cambium
 Located outside the phloem, is responsible
for the production of cork for the protection of
the plant.
 Types of Lateral Meristems
 Vascular Cambium
 Located between the
xylem and the
phloem, are
responsible for the
production of
additional vascular
tissues.
 Types of Lateral Meristems
 Cork Cambium
 Located outside the
phloem, is responsible
for the production of
cork for the protection
of the plant.
 Cork cells are dead
cells providing
protection and
preventing rapid loss of
water
II. Permanent Tissue System
Plant organs are
composed of three tissue
systems:

1. Dermal tissue
2. Vascular tissue
3. Ground tissue
 1. Dermal Tissue (Surface Tissue)
• Forms the outside covering
of a plant. It covers all parts
of the plant roots, stems,
and leaves
• (ex: Epidermis- made of
parenchyma cells, which is
usually one cell thick, and
is the outer protective
tissue of young plants and
mature non-woody plants
1. Dermal Tissue (Surface Tissue)
LOCATION:
 Above the Ground
 Cuticle: waxy coating, prevents water loss
Below the Ground
 Root hairs: increased absorption
 2. Ground Tissue
(Supporting and Conducting Tissue)
 fills the interior of the plant. It contains three
basic cell types: Dermal tissue
– Parenchyma cells
– Collenchyma cells
– Sclerenchyma cells

Ground tissue

Vascular tissue
 Parenchyma
• Characteristics
 Least specialized cell type
 Only thin primary cell wall is present
 Possess large central vacuole
 Generally alive at functional maturity
• Functions
 Make up most of the ground tissues of the plants
 Storage
 Photosynthesis
 Can help repair and replace damaged organs by
proliferation and specialization into other cells.
Parenchyma
 Collenchyma
• Characteristics
 Possess thicker primary cell walls than that of
parenchyma
 No secondary cell wall
 Generally alive at functional maturity

• Functions
 Provide support without retraining growth
Collenchyma
 Sclerenchyma
• Characteristics
 Have secondary cell walls strengthened by lignin
 Often are dead at functional maturity
 Two forms: fibers and sclereids

• Functions
 Rigid cells providing support and strength to tissues
 Sclerenchyma
• Two other sclerenchyma cells, fibers and
sclereids, are specialized entirely in support.
– Fibers are long, slender and tapered, and usually
occur in groups.
• Those from hemp fibers are used for making rope and those
from flax for weaving into linen.
– Sclereids, shorter than fibers and irregular in shape,
impart the hardness to nutshells and seed coats and
the gritty texture to pear fruits.
Fiber Cells
Sclereids
3. Vascular Tissue System
 Specialized tissues among vascular plants which are
responsible for carrying water and nutrients to the
various parts of the plant and helps support the plant.

Types of Vascular Tissue

1. Xylem
2. Phloem
3. Vascular Tissue System
Types:
1. Xylem transports water and dissolved minerals
upward from roots into the shoots. (water the
xylem)
2. Phloem transports food from the leaves to the
roots and to non-photosynthetic parts of the shoot
system. (feed the phloem)
3. Vascular Tissue System
1. Xylem
The water
conducting
elements of
xylem are the
tracheids and
vessel
elements.
3. Vascular Tissue System
1. Phloem
Food and minerals move through tubes formed by
chains of cells, sieve-tube members.
- Sieve plates
- Companion cell
 Phloem
• Sieve-tube Members
– Characteristics
• living cells arranged end-to-end to form food-
conducting cells of the phloem
• lack lignin in their cell walls
• mature cells lack nuclei and other cellular
organelles
• alive at functional maturity
– Functions
• transport products of photosynthesis
 Phloem
• Companion Cells
– Characteristics
• living cells adjacent to sieve-tube members
• connected to sieve-tube members via
plasmodesmata
– Functions
• support sieve-tube members
• may assist in sugar loading into sieve-tube
members
Food conducting cells of the phloem
 Plant Organs
Tissues work together to
perform a specific function
form an organ.

Three Major Plant Organs

1. Root
2. Stem
3. Leaf
 A. Plant Roots
• Plant organ that typically
grows underground.

• Functions:
 Absorption
 Anchorage
 Storage of food
 Conduction
 Root Systems

Types:
1. Primary roots
2. Taproot system
3. Fibrous root system
 Root Systems
1. Primary roots
 Emerge from the
seed
 Root Systems
1. Taproot system
 Enlarged primary root.
 Can grow deep,
reaching water far
below the surface of
the ground
 (e.g. Carrot and dicot
plants
 Root Systems
1. Fibrous root system
 Monocot plants such as
grasses where roots
are numerous
extensively branched
and almost of the same
sizes.
 Prevents erosion
 Root Systems
SPECIALIZED ROOTS
1. Climbing roots
2. Aerial roots
3. Prop roots
4. Buttress roots
5. Fleshy roots
 Root Systems
SPECIALIZED ROOTS
1. Climbing roots
 Cling to the
walls or tree
trunks for
support
e.g. Ivy and vine
plants
 Root Systems
SPECIALIZED ROOTS
2. Aerial roots
 Perched on other plants
and they absorb moist
from the air
e.g. orchids
 Root Systems
SPECIALIZED ROOTS
3. Prop roots
 Usually grow in the lower
part of the stem and
support the plant for an
upright position
e.g. Corn
 Root Systems
SPECIALIZED ROOTS
4. Buttress roots
 Have wide
foundation that
makes the plant
stable.
 Root Systems
SPECIALIZED ROOTS
5. Fleshy roots
 Are enlarged
and stores food
e.g. carrot and
cassava
 External and Internal Structures in Roots
(Primary Growth in Roots)
EXTERNAL STRUCTURE:
• Root Cap: covers root tip & protects the meristem as the
root pushes through the abrasive soil during primary growth.
– The cap also secretes a lubricating slime.
• Growth in length is concentrated near the root’s tip, where
three zones of cells at successive stages of primary growth
are located.
– zone of cell division
– zone of elongation
– zone of maturation
Primary Growth of the Root
• The zone of cell
division includes
the apical
meristem and its
derivatives,
primary
meristems.
 Near the middle is the quiescent center, cells that divide
more slowly than other meristematic cells.

– These cells are relatively

resistant to damage from
radiation and toxic
chemicals.
– They may act as a
reserve that can restore
the meristem if it
becomes damaged.
• The zone of cell division
blends into the zone of
elongation where cells
elongate, sometimes to
more than ten times their
original length.
– It is this elongation of cells
that is mainly responsible for
pushing the root tip, including
the meristem, ahead.
– The meristem sustains
growth by continuously
adding cells to the youngest
end of the zone of
elongation.
• In the zone of
maturation, cells
begin to specialize in
structure and
function.
– In this root region, the
three tissue systems
produced by primary
growth complete their
differentiation, their
cells becoming
functionally mature.
 External and Internal Structures in Roots
(Primary Growth in Roots)
INTERNAL STRUCTURE:
• Vascular Cylinder-
contains xylem and
phloem
• Cortex- surrounds the
vascular cylinder
• Epidermis – is a single
layer of cells that absorb
water and minerals from
the soil.
 External and Internal Structures in Roots
(Primary Growth in Roots)
INTERNAL STRUCTURE:
• Endodermis – the layer that
separates the cortex from the
vascular cylinder
• Pericycle – is the outermost layer
of the central vascular tissue
• Vascular Cambium – produces
secondary xylem toward the
inside of the root and secondary
phloem toward the outside of the
root.
 B. Plant Stems
• Usually adapted to
support leaves

• Functions:
 Support
 Transport
 Food Storage
 Food Manufacturer
 Reproduction
 Movement od Water Through Stem
• Cohesion-Tension Theory
 Water movement in plants is driven by transpiration
pull
 Transpiration – evaporation of water
from the part of a plant exposed to
the air.
 Cohesion causes water molecules to
stick together and pull each other up
inside the xylem known as Capillarity.
 Adhesion causes water molecules to
be attracted to the xylem
Factors and Their Roles in Transpiration
1. Air Movement. Transpiration rate is faster when the wind
is stronger.
2. Air Temperature. Transpiration rate is faster when air
temperature is higher.
3. Humidity. Transpiration rate is faster when the air is dry or
non-humid.
4. Light Intensity. Transpiration rate is faster when the plant
is exposed to strong sunlight.
5. Soil Moisture. Transpiration rate is slower when there is
little moisture in the soil.
6. Soil Salinity. Transpiration rate is slower when the soil
contains a high salt level.
 Basic Kind of Stems
1. Herbaceous stems are soft and succulent
 They usually last for only one growing season
(Annuals) (e.g. grasses, and vegetables)
 Basic Kind of Stems
2. Woody stems grow in
length and forms branches
from season to season
 They live for more than
one season (many
years), which are called
Perennials
 With tough stem (e.g.
acasia and santol;
shrubs like gumamela
and santan.)
 Basic Kind of Stems

Biennials- they live for two

years
 First year is
vegetative (flowering
production)
 Second year is
reproduction (seed
production)
• Modified or Specialized stems:
– Include stolons or runners, rhizomes, tubers, fleshy stems, Corm,
Climbing stem, and bulbs, are often mistaken for roots.
– Stolons or Runners: allow plants to colonize large area and to
reproduce asexually

Pohuehue
– Rhizomes: horizontal stems that grow underground.
– Tubers: are the swollen ends of rhizomes specialized for food
storage.
– Bulbs: vertical, underground shoots consisting mostly of the swollen
bases of leaves that store food.

rhizomes
tubers bulbs
– Corm: is a short, vertical, thickened underground stem covered with
scales..
– Fleshy stem: manufactures and stores food

Corm Fleshy stem

External and Internal Structures in Stems

EXTERNAL:
• Stems
– May be vegetative (leaf bearing) or
reproductive (flower bearing).
 Node- area of stem where leaf is
born
 Internodes- stem area between
nodes
External and Internal Structures in Stems

 Buds: Stem elongation. Embryonic

tissue of leaves and stem (not
flower bud)
–Terminal bud-Located at tip of
stems or branches.
–Axillary bud- Gives rise to
branches
 Apical Dominance: Prevention of
branch formation by terminal bud
External and Internal Structures in Stems

 Leaf scar: are situated at

intervals along the twig

 Lenticels: are tiny pores or

openings allowing the air to
enter and water to escape
from the stem
External and Internal Structures in Stems

INTERNAL:
• Primary and
Secondary
Growths in
Stem
External and Internal Structures in Stems

INTERNAL:
• Primary Growth in Stem
 Vascular tissue is arranged in vascular bundles, which
contains xylem and phloem.
 Dicots, vascular bundles form a ring that divides the
ground tissue into cortex and pith
 Monocot, vascular bundles are scattered throughout the
ground tissue. Most monocots have no secondary growth.
External and Internal Structures in Stems

INTERNAL:
• Secondary Growth in Stem
 As secondary growth continues over the years, layer upon
layer of secondary xylem accumulates, producing the
tissue we call wood.
 Wood consists mainly of tracheids, vessel elements (in
angiosperms), and fibers. These cells, dead at functional
maturity, have thick, lignified walls that give wood its
hardness and strength.
Secondary Growth of a Stem
 Anatomy of a Tree Trunk
• After several
years of
secondary
growth,
several zones
are visible in
a stem.
Annual Ring
 C. Plant Leaves
• Most are thin and flat,
an adaptation that helps
them captures sunlight
for photosynthesis.

• Functions:
 Site of
photosynthesis
 Exchange of Carbon
dioxide and Oxygen
Process of Light Capturing
The Leaf Structure
• The leaf epidermis is composed of cells
tightly locked together like pieces of a
puzzle.
– It is the first line of defense against physical
damage and pathogenic organisms
– The waxy cuticle prevents desiccation.
– Petiole: Stalk of leaf, joins leaf to node of stem
– Blade: Flattened, expanded portion of leaf.
Site of photosynthesis
Leaf Anatomy
 Leaf Stomata: Allow Gas Exchange

Guard cells
with
chloroplasts

Stomata in
Zebrina leaf
epidermis
Stoma

Subsidiary
cells
• Mesophyll- the ground tissue of the leaf,
located between the upper and lower
epidermis.
– mainly of parenchyma cells equipped with
chloroplasts and specialized for photosynthesis.
• CO2 and O2 circulate through the air spaces
• The air spaces are particularly large near
stomata, where gas exchange with the outside
air occurs.
• The vascular tissue of a leaf is continuous
with the xylem and phloem of the stem.
– Leaf traces, branches of vascular bundles in
the stem, pass through petioles and into
leaves.
– Within a leaf, veins subdivide repeatedly and
branch throughout the mesophyll.
• xylem brings water and minerals
• phloem carries sugars
• the vascular infrastructure reinforces the shape of
the leaf.
 The Leaf Margin/Outline,
Texture, Forms, Phyllotaxy, and
Venation
Modified from Biology, vol. 1. Sourcebook on Practical
Work for Teachers, UP-SMEMDP, 1998
 1. Margin/Outline
• Dentate: Having coarse teeth pointing outward
• Crenate: having scalloped with broad, rounded
teeth.
 1. Margin/Outline
• Dentate: Having coarse teeth pointing outward
• Crenate: having scalloped with broad, rounded
teeth.
 1. Margin/Outline
• Ciliate: with hair like projection at the outline
• Entire: With no coarse teeth, smooth
• Lobate: with deeply cut into fairly large portion
 2. Texture
• Fleshy: with soft and thick blade
• Succulent: having fleshy and juicy blade
• Coriaceous: with leather-like texture and firm
when touch.
 2. Texture
• Chartaceous: with paper-like texture
• Membraneous: with thin and flexible texture.
 3. Forms
• Simple leaves: have no one undivided blade per
petiole
• Reniform: kidney-shaped like and broader than it
is long.
• Linear: with long and narrow with side parallel
 3. Forms
• Ovate: like egg-shaped and broadest towards the
base.
• Cordate: are heart-shaped with a conspicuous
sinus
• Spatulate: with broad and obtuse at the apex
 3. Forms
• Compound leaves have more than one blade per
petiole. Dicot leaves can be either pinnate or
palmate.
• Pinnate and palmate refer to the arrangement of
leaflets around the petiole.
 3. Forms
• Trifoliate: with three leaflets
• Palmate: lobed and resemble the fingers and
palm of hands
• Pinnatifid: with featherlike, having smaller veins
branching off a central vein called midrib.
 3. Forms
• Odd pinnate: with terminated single leaflet.
• Evenly Pinnate: with no terminal leaflet.
4. Phyllotaxy
Leaf Arrangement on the Stem
• Alternate: leaves produced and
arranged alternately at the node.
• Opposite: two leaves are produced
and arranged directly opposite each
other at the node.
• Whorled: three or more leaves are
developed and arranged at a single
node.
5. Arrangement of Veins in a Leaf
(Venation)
Parallel Venation: are the veins
in monocots leaves as grasses
or corn plants which run parallel
from the base of the leaf to its
tip.
Net Venation is a vein in Dicots
leaves that forms a branched
network such as mango, guava,
and santol
 D. Flower
• Serves as the
reproductive structure
of plants carry out
meiosis for sexual
reproduction and
development of seed
• Sexual reproduction
differs from asexual or
vegetative
reproduction.
 D. Flower
Parts and Structures
Floral Organs
• Accessory parts – such
as calyx, sepals, corolla,
receptacle and the stalk
(reproduction)
• Essential parts – include
the pistil (the female
organ flower) and the
stamen ( the male organ
of flower)
 Male Parts and Functions
• Stamen – is the male reproductive part of a flower.
– Anther – produces pollen grains which develop sperm.
– Filament – supports the Anther.
– Pollen Grains
 Female Parts and Functions
• Pistil – is the female reproductive part of a flower.
– Stigma – sticky pollen-receptive part of the pistil.
– Style – the stalk of the pistil down which the pollen tube grows.
– Ovary – contains the ovules and becomes the fruit.
– Ovule – becomes the seeds when sperm cells fertilize the egg
cells.
 Other Parts and Functions
• Petal – colorful part of a flower used to attract insects
and birds.
• Sepal – protects the bud of a young flower.
• Receptacle – reproductive parts of a plant are
attached here.
Classification of Flowers According to the
Presence or Absence of their Parts
1. Complete Flower refers
to a flower having entire
accessory, the calyx (sepal)
and corolla (petals); and
essential (stamen and
pistil) parts.
 Classification of Flowers According to the
Presence or Absence of their Parts
2. Incomplete Flower refers to a flower lacking any of the
basic structures mentioned in the accessory and essential
parts.
1. Perfect Flower has both the reproductive parts such
as stamen and pistil. Considered as bisexual or
hermaphrodite
2. Imperfect Flower are those lacking one of the
reproductive structures. Considered unisexual.
• If the stamen is present – staminated flower.
• If pistil is present – pistillate flower.
 Terms Applied to Plants Based on their
Flowering Characteristics
1. Monoecious plants bear both staminate and pistillate
flowers on the same plant.
2. Dioecious plants bear staminate flowers on one plant
and pistillate flowers on a different
 Terms Applied to Plants Based on their
Flowering Characteristics
3. Polygamous plants bear staminate, pistillate, and
hermaphroditic flowers on the same plant.
 Symmetry of Flowers
1. Radial Symmetry. The flower is divisible into identical
halves in many directions.
2. Bilateral Symmetry. The flower is divisible into only two
identical halves
 Pollination
• is the process in which pollen is transferred in the
reproduction of plants.
Cross-pollination Self-pollination
Is when pollen is delivered to a Is when pollen from one flower
flower from a different plant. pollinates the same flower of the
same plant.
• Some methods of pollination
– Animals (birds, reptiles, mammals)
– Insects (bees and butterflies mostly)
– Wind
– WATER
Steps to Flower/Plant
Reproduction
***Reproduction of a plant takes place in the flower***
Pollination
• 1. The Anther produces pollen
• 2. That pollen is transferred to the stigma of itself or another
flower through pollination.
Fertilization
• 3. Pollen travels down the style to the ovary to fertilize the
eggs.
• The eggs grow into a seed or seeds and can now
reproduce.
 E. Fruit
Physiologically described as the protector of the
seed; aid in the dispersal and spreading of seeds by
humans, birds, and other animals.

Classification of Fruits
1. According to Composition or Structure
2. According to Consistency (Fleshy and Dry)
 E. Fruit
1. According to Composition or Structure
• Simple Fruit results from one matured ovary,
this means that it develops from ripening of
single ovary.
e.g. ponkan, dalanghita, avocado, tomato, and
mango
• Aggregate fruit is developed from several
ovaries in one flower. e.g. atis and strawberry
 E. Fruit
1. According to Composition or Structure
• Multiple or Collective Fruit is from the ovaries
of several flowers crowded together on one
stem. E.g. Pineapple
• Accessory Fruit results mostly from other floral
parts, such as the receptacle. E.g. apple and
pear
 E. Fruit
1. According to Consistency (Fleshy and Dry)
• Fleshy fruits are soft and pulpy when fully
matured. Classified to berry, drupe, pome and
pepo
• Dry fruits are hard and papery when fully
matured. Classified into dehiscent (split their
walls when matured) like legumes, capsule, and
silique; and indehiscent (do not split open when
matured) such as grain, nut, schizocarp, and
samara.
 F. Seed
Matured ovule and the final product of
reproduction in plants.
Parts and Structure:
- Seed coat
- Endosperm
- Embryo
 F. Seed
Monocot Seed. The basic structures of a monocot
seed are: with one cotyledon, large endosperm, small
embryo, rolled plumule leaves and single seed in a
fruit. E.g. Corn and Palay
Dicot Seed. The basic structures of a dicot seed are:
with two cotyledons, no endosperm, large embryo,
folded plumule leaves and with several seeds in a
fruit. e.g. Beans and Jackfruit seed
 F. Seed
Embryo of the Seed
• Cotyledon are seed leaves, which digest and
stores food. Monocotyledon plants have only one
seed leaf while dicotyledons have two seed leaf.
 F. Seed
Embryo of the Seed
• Epicotyl contains meristematic tissues responsible
for cell division, which will be developed as a shoot
when the seed germinates. The tip is known as
plumule.
 F. Seed
Embryo of the Seed
• Hypocotyl. The meristematic tissues of the
hypocotyl will be developed as the first or primary
root when the seed germinates. The growing tip is
called radicle.
Animal Tissues