PSENZOIGRAMIY e nzol" Pai ee a ; aa 3 ‘GST 110} PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY; CTURE NOTES & 2 Be.’ 5 BENZENE - FOUNDER fi SEGOD» BISHOP/LEADER es ZiE FELIX «SUG (WELFARE) A IWUAMADI - DISCIPLE / Pot) bev ns aSLALOM KAAS eS Table Of Contents CHAPTER ONE be MEANING AND PURPOSE OF SCIENCE \ Zu Brut CHAPTER TWO THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS CHAPTER THREE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE CHAPTER FOUR THE BEGINNING OF SCIENCECHAPTER ONE a MEANING AND PURPOSE OF SCIENCE Etymology tury. What we now call science was earlier labeled nat ural philosophy bag only one of the branches of philosophy. The word science comes ‘from the Latin verb ‘scire' meaning “to know’ to have any form of hh state But the Latin 'scientia' (noun form of the verb scire) lone as science means true and certain knowledge based lence. body perercret ata set forth in an orderly 1 manner which isim onpurpose of sch nce to Francis on is power and if we acquire e it will help us to improve our standard of living. The primary uch is to acquire knowledge. Science seeks to learn about the world of living and non living, In science we seek to explain how, the world, event and objects around originated, how they function or operate. Thus we can say that science equips us with practical knowledge in terms of mechanism and instrumentalism, But science does not rest satisfied with just learning about the world ithas another objective which is to modify the world as far as possible application to industry (technology). With aoe man is12. Science is not democratic but makes well defined claims based on the best available evidence. 13. Science demands the honest use of scientific methods and truthful reports. t and formal object of science Material object of a science is the subject matter which the science treats or deals with. The formal object on the other hand can be defined as the the perspective from which a science studies its material object. Formal object is the specific character that distinguishes it from Sciences in the same general field or among sciences that have the material object. For example both philosophical anthropology and has man as their material object but while anthropology man as a composite being made up of body and soul, psychology tothe study ofman'sbehavion, it that is so evident or well established ‘or questions. ition or supposition (tentative guess) idence .involving its elements Other Important Defini i section we shall briefly define a few selected terms that is science and scientific propositions. Scientism: this is the belief in the universal applicability of in methods and approach and the view that empiric ig of our best theories and models, recommending | and unobservable aspects of the world described words. scientific realism is the view that the wot. Willingness to change opinion and ability to accept defeat . Creativity and open mindness Curiosity or questioning attitude or inquisitiveness . Tolerance of uncertainty and perseverance . Skepticism sii f science tae 2 major divisions or classifications namely Real (empirical) ‘ience and Formal science. science: Have within its purview, the Natural. Social and Cultural iences. Real science bases its results on empirical justification and tion of facts. It takes up some definite aspect of the world of ice through the use of some definite methodology. Real science Ys astronomy, theoretical medicine. biology. u polymer and textile ete. The cultural ae art and puacee while the social, 6. Technology has led to great discoveries in all industries especially in - showing people a more efficient way to do things which yields greater and . faster results. * ani : 1, Dependency: improvement in technology especially with the way most devices now make work easy has made some persons to rely so much on it that without it life would become meaningless, 2. Less value on human workers: advancement in technology leading to the manufacture of sophisticated devices made it possible for indust replace human labor with machines. This places less value on human labor. 3. Difficulty in integrating new technology: another disadvantage associated with technology is the difficulty in integrating new technology Some persons get so used to previous ways of doing things that they find it almost impossible to flow with anew system. logy related diseases: advancement in technology also comes a baggage of medical issues. Prolonged use of the computer and levices have adverse effects such as explosion to radiation. : this is the use of the internet to defraud other people of valuables. It isa serious crime punishable under the law in ology ay generally to a strong enthusiasm for technology 2 aS computers, the internet. mobileCHAPTER TWO THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS nod isan English form of the Greek “Methodos” which means “a way Method is therefore a way after truth, a reasonable and orderly re in attaining the twuth and certitude. It is a proper mode of aft procedt acquiring truth It should Science as we know has got various procedures and approaches, be understood therefore that within the matrix of scientific inquiry or methodology there are two major approaches, These two principal types of methods which are not opposed to each other but are supplementary are: Deductive Method and the Inductive Method Deduction asa method Deductive method of reasoning attempts to establish a conclusive inference deduced from a general instance. In other words t! reasoning in which we conclude from a general law or | particular instance falling under the general law or knowing that all mammals suckle their young, one ¥ that a rabbit will nourish its offspring by nobelieves in the inductive sciences and induction is regarded as the hallmark of science. The five fundamental presuppositions of science Though the general method of reasoning employed by the natural science is that of induction, natural sciences resi upon certain fundamental presuppositions, Natural or experimental science cannot prove everythi Must take some things for granted. The five fundamental presuppositions which it must take for granted are: Be The physical world truly exist 2. The physical world is knowable 3. Manhasthe power to obtain reliable knowledge of the world. uniform ature is caused by something. (the principle ofverifying es. Experimentation involves manipulation and control. In an experiment, the observer controls the conditions relating to the subject ofhis study, and then he manipulates these conditions. changing one factor atatime so that he may record results. Concomitant variation method This method deals with the relationship between two phenomena that vary as a result of some common casual connection. It may be either observation or experimental. This method may show that two phenomena | increases or decreases together or that one increasesas the other decreases. Statistical method This method has to do with the collection, anal: data which may serve asa basis for inductic The method of sampling This isthe method in whi1, Problem identification Every research is about a problem, It is the problem which necessities the research and such problem could be in the form of some phenomena to be understood or an anomaly that needs rectification. Identification of research problems requires close observation in order to have a good understanding of the problem. When a problem is identified. ones energy 1s geared towards asking questions. To be of value to science, a question must be relevant and must be testable. This is done by formulation of a tentative guess to explain the phenomena. 2. Development of hypothesis This is the development or formulation of a tentative guess to guide the process of the research. ‘One guesses what the answer to the question might be. Thus there are possibilities that a random guess will be wrong. The ‘main ion of a hypothesis is to predict new experiment or new hypothesis should be reasonable, should give rise to that can be tested and should bea guide to furtherresearch. proven false, it will be discarded in favor of another of the functions of the scientific enterprise is experiment nt of a scientific guess or hypothesis. ThisAe any time dependses entially on the type ofdataone is looking for. is of data and theory formulation Analysis proceeds from the data collected during the process of expe imen tion. Once there is a fault in data collection, it will invariably: nalysis, Thus much attention is usually paid to the data is has being proven right it will be established 5 At this point the scientific investigator comes up with some sort of knowledge or key to uncovering another scientific knowledge: ientific investigator with this new discovery. might | propose : a -xplain the cause or causes of the phenomenon being invs theory is usually proposed when convincing evidence Sromileboeateeies corroborated a hypothesis, 5. Conclusion (Inference) This stage is the culmination of t the pi The inference drawn from the book as in seminar presentationCHAPTER THR PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Philosophy of science is the philosophical study of the foundations, presuppositions, assumptions and implications of s Philosophy of seience seeks to explain issues scientific statements and concepts, the way in whi if jhowscience explains, predicts and harnesses nature. In bri Pphilosophy of ¢ med to analyze the science project. ly philosophy of science is a relatively new arca of study. Its ck as recently as the “Novum Organum”, the 17" century ‘of Francis Bacon. The Novum Organum is a book of great development of modern science and the scientific ence of this discipline, the issues it treats were s the nature of y or theory of knowledge; hence it is in actual fact an us ‘science can be traced back to the debateWhile phenomenal reality is the object of scientific investigation. y is associated with philosophy. Thus with Kant, there was a formal se on between scienee and philosophy. But interestingly, Kant maintained that rather than being diametrically opposed to each other, both realms (phenomenal and noumenal) complement one another, While the phenomenal realm supplies us with knowledge of reality external to us, the noumenal realm helps us to organize the raw materials presented by our senses. This shows that while the former inereases our knowledge, the latter reminds us of the limits of our knowledge. Consequently, the latter (which is philosophy in general and philosophy of science in particular) helps us to tackle the problems that arise from the former (science). r v1 ho noumenal r Notable Philosophe ce Albert Einstein, Alfred Ayer, SAited North- Whitehead, Aristotle. August Comte, Bertrand Russell, Charles Sander Pierce, David Hume. Nagel, Fredrick Engels, Galileo Galilei, George Berkeley, Immanuel John Dewey, John Stuart Mill, Niels Bohr, Paul Fayerabend, Plato. Bacon, Rudolf Canap, Sir Francis Bacon, Sir Popper. Thomas Kuhn, William Whewell. 41 XC David Hume 1+ Bom on ers 1711 fee C piean absolute and uncontrollable necessity has determined us to judge as well asto breath and feel”. Although the problem of induction dates back to the Pyrrhonism of ancient philosophy as well as the Carvaka school of Indian philosophy. David Hume introduced it in the mid 18” century with the most notable respo ided by Karl Popper two centuries later. Karl Raimund Popper on 28" July 1902 and Died on 17™ at the age of 92. An Austro-British philosopher of science ‘ofithe 20” century with notable ideas such as bold hypothesis, fationalism, falsificationism and a few others. Among hisrelative and apparent (or seemingly so) truth and falsity of assertions and hypothesis. The problem of yerisimilitude is the problem of articulating when it takes for one false theory to be closer to the truth than another false theory. The problem was central to the philosophy of Karl Raymond Popper. Alfred Jules Ayer Born on 29" October 1910 London England and died on 27" June 1989 aged 78. A philosopher of the 20" century with notable ideas such as logical positivism, verification principle and a few others. He is known for his promotion of logical positivism particularly in his book titled Language, Truth and Logic (1936) and the Problem of Knowledge (1956) Verification principle In his book Language, Truth and Logic, Ayer presents the verification principle as the only valid basis for philosophy. Unless logical or empirical verification is possible, statements like God exits Ire no true or untrue but meaningless and may be excluded «Competing and irreconcilable accounts of reality, Our understanding of science can never sorely rely on objectivity alone. Science must for subjective perspectives 48 well since all objective ec ultimately founded upon the subjective conditioning /we researchers and participants. ‘Thestructure of scientific revolutions The structure of scientific revolution was originally printed & international encyclopedia of unified science publish of the Vienna circle, In this book, Kuhn argued that ‘not progress via a linear accumulation of new know periodic revolutions also called * ‘palais 8 in ee up into three distinct stages namely: pre- revolutionary science. _Prescience lacks a lowedend defended the idea that there are no methodological rules Ways used by scientists, He objected to any single prescriptive on the grounds that any wich method would limit the activities of the scientists and hence -1 scientific progress, In his views. science would benefit from a dose of theoretical anarchism. He particularly ruled out falsificationism saying that no interesting theory ts ever consistent with all the relevant facts. This is because falsifieationism insists that scientific theories should be rejected ifthey do not agree with known facts. Occam's razor Occam's razor is another method in the philosophy of science. 1 principle attributed to the medieval philosopher—William hypotheses (that is theories) about one or principle states that one should not mak equivalent models ofa given helps us to shelve those: eeApproach. They. demand for provable or demonstrable evidence or grounds of belieftoestablish them. “investigates reality as a whole while science investig yaches the study of reality from the perspective of tls shile science studies reality from its proximate cause knowledge is perceived as rational and concerned with essences while science arrives at knowledge through claim to knowledge and makes statements factual a factual knowledge that is 1 theoretical categories. It tries stulation and beliefCHAPTER FOUR THE BEGINNING OF SCIENCE Yort to understand his world and modify it to suit uestion is when, where and how did science began? The answe Jestion is notan easy one. Before the emergence of modern science, science was subordinate either to the tradition of philosophy or the craft. There are two sources of science namely the technical tradition practiced by the artisans and the spiritual tradition by the priests especially in Egypt and the scribes. These two traditions continued for a long time until the philosophers broke off from the priests, scribes and craftsmen. It was not until the early part of modern times that elements from these traditions metamorphosed into a new science. Science is man’s ¢ purpose. But the The content of scientific knowledge is historically. structured, E) age had the type of science appropriate to its needs. The vcs often traced to the Egyptians and the Baby’ Man's greatest discovery —the use of fire back to pre-historic times. It was began to construct the tools thatThen there was a movement of human from the Stone Age to bronze. This was necessitated by the need to develop faciliti 8 land tilling confronting the Neolithic man, In Bronze Ay from the use of wood tools to metals, Further expl ion ofits resources culminates in craft tradition. The craft tradition rea specific product ofthe Bronze Age Africa's contribution lend tof calendar marked another great stage forward in the opment of science. It was the fruit of long centuries of n of the heavenly bodies. Astronomy originated with the 1€ study of the heavens, the stats and the weather. They to plant their crops was right after the river Nile priests observed that between each overflow the ted 12 moons or months and figured out They knew the year was approximately 365 of the lunar calendar which was earliest fixed date in thelandmark is the Elber's papyrus. It contains a description of the vessels that carry air, water and blood from the heart to the various parts of the body. Homer the Greek historian in the odyssey confirmed Egyptian supremacy in the field of medicine saying that in Egypt the men are more skilled in medicine than any of human kind, The physician of antiquity of any fame was the black Egyptian Imohtep who lived about 2900BC during the third dynasty yet the western world claims Hippocrates from Greece as father of medicine despite the fact that he appeared about 2000 years afier imohtep. Imohtep designed the step pyramid which was built in about 2980BC and thus i ed the pyramid age in Egypt. Hippocratic Oath This is an oath historically taken by physicians. Itis one 0 known Greek medical texts. In its original form. i to swear by anumber of healing gods, to uphokk Development of writing , ‘Writing was necessary to keep record of product of craft. It is important to no’ recorded aswere the lonians I world following the ideas they had 1 world. Their main con was to {beings and to attempt to discove; The earliest Greek philosophers attention to nature, the external gathered from Egypt and the orienta investigate the changes ot succession 0) ‘what was the constant element in the midst of all these ¢ hanges. They n, what is the world made off therefore the Ionian cosmology was attempt to decide what was the primitive material element or - origin of the nature of most things, B: 'y bodies Thales predicted the eclipse of le observed the method of land cae cludedregarded as one of the earliest evolutior ‘ s ¢ Greeks to represent the earth ona map th « of map making (o: iphy) was known in Egypt and Babylon. According to Anaxinvander the earth is cylindrical like a drum Anaximenes ximenes was the third Ionian explain the origin or primary stuff of all things in the universe. For him Air was the original or primary stuff condensation and rarefaction, All things come from Air and dissolves into Air. The Air is what keeps the earth in place and according to him the earth is flat. Pythagoras composed of numbers on various shapes mathematical observatory. 1come into being it would come from being or tone being then it already being hence cannot come int, from non being, then it is nothing because jt ij being. For anything to being. If it comes from being again but if it comes only nothing that comes from nothing. Empedocles . Empedoeles identified four elements that constitute the universe, The eternal elements are ait, earth, water and fire. The unification ang separating of these elements explain the being or non- being or coming ang ‘going of all things. He further classified two forces responsible for both unification and separation of the four elements. The forces are: love and ‘strife (hate). Love unifies the four elements while strife (hate) separates them thereby removing them from existence. developed the idea first advanced by his master Leucippus, Proposed that matter is made up of atoms and they are infinite and too small to be perceived by the senses, Everything in the composed of atoms which were physically indestructible, oe crcl ortuming about the earth which was at the center. Aristotle proposed geocentric univ ristotle divided the physical world into 2 reals, c and the inorganic. In biology he treated completely the life ; breeding habit of about 540 species i i | facts of life before birth (embryology) by experimenting eit stotle maintains that our knowledge starts from rom particular to the general or universal. He emphasized the ii method. Aristarchus of Samos (Alexandrian school) He flourished in 280 to 264 BC. He taught Aristarchus maintained that the planets revolved which was the centre fire. This astonishinglyCHAPTER SIX f SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE MIDDLE AGES known as the medieval period. T his epoch was and characterized by decline of science ded into: the dark ages (459. The Middle Ages is dominated by Christian theology ¢ middle or medieval period can be divi and the renaissance (9"-15"C AD). wasa product of the collapse of the ancient Greek city states great Roman Empire. The medieval era, emphasized igion provided solace for the broken hearted through sith, the medieval philosophers reconstructed faith with by the church fathers. The church was the custodian of knowledge asCHAPTER SEVEN MODERN PERIOD: SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION THE 17™ CENTURY The 15" centyry ushéred4f a new and constructive attitude towards the This was a period of the renaissance, a French word meaning At the beginning of the 17" century, the works of Bacon, Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Newton gave impetus to astronomy and phy’ sies. Their important discoveries which marked the awakening of Aristotle's authority was criticized, reduced and replaced by a1 the cosmos. Astronomy Etymologically astronomy Bee from twoHeliocentricism This is the astronomical model in which the id planets revolve around the sun at the centre of the solar s im. Historically heliocentricism was opposed to geocentricism. The notion that the revolves around the sun could be traced to Aristarchus of Samos in the ancient world butit attracted little attention. It was not until the 16" that a geometric mathematical model of a heliocentric presented by renaissance mathematician, astronomer and catholic cleric Nicolaus Copernicus leading to the Copernican revolution. In the century Johannes Kepler elaborated upon and expanded this elude elliptical orbits and Galileo Galilei presented supporting usinga telescope.controyersial wit hin his life time. The matter was investigated by the roman 1 in 1615 and they concluded it could be a possibility and not an |. He defended his views which attacked pope Urban VIII d him and the Jesuits, He was tried by the inquisition, sy, forced to recant and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. His offending publication was banned. and thu found suspect of Johannes Kepler He was born on 27" December 1571 and died on 15" November 1630. Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer. Akey figure in 17° century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of planetary motion based on his works “astronomia nova”. “harmonices mundi” and “Epitome of Copernican astronomy”. These _ works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's universal gravitation. Kepler's first major astronomical work cosmographicum” (the cosmographic mystery) was the first defense of the Copernican system. His laws of motion all planets travel about the sun in move faster in its orbits as it nears’ distances from the sun the time itNewton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority the developmentof calculus. Francis Bacon was born on 22" January 1561 in England and died on 9” April aged 65. This English philosopher, sta , jurist, orator and author served both as attorney general and [ord Chancellor of England. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism. His works for the possibility of scientific knowledge based upon inductive a ation of events in nature. He is regarded as the father of title of this work is “Novum Organum Scientiarum” ent of science” written by Francis bacon in Latin is a reference to Aristotle's work Organon In Novum Organum Bacon ior to the old ways of ‘or bacon finding theThese are those which arise within the mind of the mind is symbolically a cavern. The thoughts of the m about in the dark cave and are variously modified by ucation, habit, environment and accident. Thus the man mind to some particular branch of learning becomes possessed by his own peculiar interest and interprets all other learning according to the colors of his own devotion. 2 Idol of the ¢: individual. Th 3 Idol of the market place: These are errors arising from the false significance bestowed upon words and this classification Bacon anticipated the modern method of semantics. The constant impact « words variously used without attention to its true meaning svhich only in turn conditions the understanding and breed fallacies. 4 Idol of the theatre: These are errors which : arise due to false learning. These idols are built up in the and science and because : they arescience only references natural objects w can be perceived by the five senses or can be perceived with the aid o a © have been observed. tested and retested , observations in the format of expressions referre: sientific laws. Observations that cannot yet be tested and proven on a consistent basis are toasscientific theory. yng emphasis on mathematics over philosophy jother hallmark characteristic of modern science Observability and scientific method.CHAPTE IENTIFIC DISCOVERIE: 18”, 19" AND 20™ CENTURIES The 18" century and more precisely the years preceding the French revolution is popularly known as the age of enlightenment. The spirit of the 18" century enlightenment was drawn from the seientifie and intellectual revolution of the 17” century. The enlightenment accepted and popularized the ideas of Bacon and Descartes, of Boyle and Spinoza and more importantly Locke and Newton. It relegated tradition and exalted the powers of human reason and of science and so strongly regularity and harmony of nature and equally so’ sense of civilization and progress, During the 18” C rimarily experimentalists and Seon caneeetls applied science moved instrument makers and engineers of | France. The English astronomer Royal Bradley and empirical ybservatiSoon after the scientific discoveries of Pierre and Maria curie, JJ on and Lord Rutherford discovered a new notion of atom that atoms were not simple but complex, that various radioactive atoms were t leasing energy as they disintegrate. Max Planck a German physicist through experiments in heat came to the lusion that an atom never emits energy smoothly intermittently in definite quantities or parcels. He ordiscrete unit or bundle of energy 'a quantum’CHAPTER NINE E 3IN OF MAN The ries on the or How did life come s is a question that has generated a lot of controversy. Scientists have argued that life that life did not always existon earth. Various answers have been provided by various sections of life. We shall now look at this various theories of life. Theory of spontaneous generation: this theory holds that living being originated spontaneously from inorganic matter e.g maggot originated from carrion and mice from rubbish. Aristotle, St Thomas Aquinas and other scholastics believed with the ancients that a certain number of livi beings originated spontaneously from inorganic matter. Theory of planetic origin of life: this theory holds that some other planets. The view was expressed by Helm Holtz, L and some others. But this vi s highly proba any solution to the problem since it merely. origin of life to another planet.‘of natural selection of chance variation. Weismann's theory of germinal continuity, De Vries theory of mutation, Mendel's law of inheritance and Morgan's theory of the genes. Teilhard De Chardin's view on the origin of life: this theory explains the origin of life based onthe law of complexity and consciousness which states that increasing complexity is accompanied by increasing consciousness in the process off evolution. Thus to the considerable complexity of cells and viruses corresponds the degree of consciousness andhence ofthe manifestation of the phenomenon oflife. ty ‘Traditional philosophy and the origin of life: traditional philosophy life to the causality of a vital principle of substantial form. m are the constitutive principles of all existence. Matter is form. Matter is substratum of form, in itself the principle of on the other hand gives matter specific ris the act of all existence. the principle of perfection. thing what it is. According to traditional — le of plants and animal: from poteney of matter.There is seemingly divergent view on the origin off man, The one is biological (evolutionary theory) and the other is theological (biblical narrative- ationism). The Biblical (theological theory); this theological theory states that man was created by God. God thus created man in his own image and likeness (Genesis 1; 27. ) Biological (evolutionary) theory: in his book “origin of species” Charles Darwin he agreed with views expressed by the ancients- Anaximander, Empedocles, Anaxagoras and Aristotle that the new species evolved lower ones through a process of selection and adaptation. In his “decent man” Darwin taught that man must have evolved le organism in a long process of evolution. Charles. origin of species implied that man first cousin te Meroe iinet eias volvePithecanthropus or Java man: discovered in central Jaya in 1891 is thought to have lived about 700,000 years ago. The skull was ape-like in appearance. He was a human type-crect about the of the modern man but had a heavily browed skull and a protruded jaw. He is believed to be more skilful than an ape though he might not have been very wise. He was more acreature of impulse than reason, Pekin Man or Sinanthropus: they had very much similarity with Java man but his cranial size was slighter larger. Pekin man was thought to have been a later and more highly developed form of Java man. Culturally he had mastered the use of fire. aa) Australopithecus or Southern Ape of Africa: the cranial appearance of ecus Africanus is generally very primitive but exhibits He is said to have been an upright posture like the . Mentally he is thought to have been of the sub culturalCHAPTER TEN MAN'S RGY RESOURCES gy is the.capacity for performing work. Work on the other hand is the product of a force by the distance through which the force acts; that is to say that work eq t imes distance. For any work to be done, some form of resistance must be overconie, In the sense of the word therefore energy is the cause of work but not the work itselfand so should not have identical meaning with work. There are various kinds of energy but of greatest importance among them to living organism is heat, radiant, mechanical and chemical energy. Importance ofenergy 1 Energy isneeded to drive life’s processes 2 Energy enables us to keep going 3 Energy is needed to drive all matter 4 Man's development depend: pes tseRedewabieEnere’ Source Solar energy 2 Wood energy 3. Windand tidal energy 4. Waterenergy 5. Synthetic fuel Solar energy: this is the energy derived from the sun. It is convertible into other forms of energy for both immediate and future use. For example in photosynthesis green plants converts solar energy to chemical energy. In many industrialized nations of the world like the USA salar energy is used indriving car, heating rooms and machines and electricity. Wood energy: this is potentially source of industrial material. Great ‘quantities of wood are pulped and further disintegrated in various ways to provide raw materials for the manufacture of paper, plastics and various In wood distilling plants, wood is heated and processed to h such as charcoal, acetic acid, acetone, wood ils etc. wood is a source of heat and light energy. /hena reasonable amount of. air (wind air) hitsa ‘machine27" August 2015 Fato Past Question (Philosophy of Science) 2014/2015 s Which of these is not a feature of science (a)curiosity (b)surependity (c)irreversibility (d)criticality All the academic disciplines in a university can answer scientific because .., (a) they are awarded degrees (b)they are methodic, systematic with proper object (c)they make use of experimentation (d)they are profit oriented 3. Which type of knowledge aim at doing and making (a)theoretical (b) scientific (c) practical (d)folk . Which of these does not apply to pure science (a)to nature (b)to understand nature (c)to explain nature’ d)to determine the causation of things in nature ’ tee . Identify the fundamental natural science (b)philosophy (¢)chemistry (d)biand inthings(a)Aristotle (b)Socrat (c) Thales 14. The scientific method mainly used in Astronomy and Bot (a)experimentation (b)ttial and error (c) observation (d) statis 15. Which is the principal method of discovering and y causes, .,? (a)experimentation (b) trial and error (¢) obs (d) statistics 16. Whereas science is more analytic and descriptive in its approach. philosophy is more (a)prese (b) general (c) deterministic (d) Be eee 1¢ primary source of energy is... (a)plant (b)wind (c)water (d) (c)nuclear fission (d)solar the development of science in the western world is ( Babylon (c)Greece (d) china is concerned with uncovering the Nei ns of the scientist (a) law (b)29. Primordially speaking. science is said-to have originated from (a)fire (bystone(chw ater (d) air 30. One of th sreatest men in history that promoted “astronomy” 18... (a)Aristotle (b)Plato (c) Euclid (d) Ptolemy The main features of scientific knowledge include these except... (a)objectivity (b)universality (c)reli: ability and impersonal (d)economical Which of these is not amajor division of science (a)natural science (b)social science (c)applied science (d) technical science . The Egyptian priests contributed the following to science except in the area of ... (a)medicine (b)asironomy (c)writing (dall of the above 34. Who gave a mathematical demonstration to the heliocentric system of the universe (a)Ptolemy (b)Aristotle (¢)Pythagoras (d)Copernicus . Natural science examines objects by means of (a) speculation and theorizing (b)experience and speculation (c) eae and ee (d)experience andl esperterte t mB a a in character (a)objective (b)specul 37, Theories enable us to ... (a)of ... (a)confirmation (b)verification (c)est lishment (d) corroboration 43. Which of these refers to the technological city (a)techno-polis (b)technocracy (c)technolph ‘d)technolatry 44. Aristotelian science is not ... (a)hierarchical (b)qualitative (c)teleological (d)mechanistic 45. Energy from waste material can be harnessed in form of __ (a)wind energy (b)waterenergy (c)bio-gas (d)solar energy 46. symbols used by the Egyptians for ceremonious inscriptions called’ (a)hieroglyphics (b)ideograms (c)phonograms rewriting, method of science and experimentation is said to haye d )Newton (b)Galileo (bacon (d)Einstein paradigm shift in science is an indication that oceurred (b)science is not changeable scienceis late taken by doctors is associatedgefined knowledge + Philosop! a) Observati aspectsofreality 3, Which tific method has the character of universality and certainty? (ajdeductive Dy nductive (c)hypothesis (d) universal method 4, Mathematics and logic are classified as ., science (a) applied (b) formal (c)social (d) physical 5, Who wrote the Novum Organum? (a)R. Descartes (b) |. Newton (c) G. Berkeley (d) F. Bacon 6. For the logical positivists, Is the hallmark of science. (A) Experimentation (6) verisimilute (c) verification (d) falsification 7. The method in which we take the nature of certain members of a class as anindication of the nature of the whole membership is .... (a) Statisties (b) | {rial and error (c) sampling (d) observation y 8. These have a claim to science except .., (a) political science | (c) geography (d) Psychology | 9, The formal science rely most on .. | experience (d)induction oli 10, Which of this is the odd one. (c)Oceanlogy (d) Entomology ll. Science and non-sci investigates reality acs es J : ns (b) the, pee 4 whole while science investigates .-.- ; © whole of reality (c) experimental reality (d)can be .... (a)partially upheld (b) clearl falsifiable (d) not wholly falsifiable 19. Science provides ... t9 common sense phenomena. (ajconfir imitation (c) rejection (d)clarification 20. Which one of these is not presupposition of science? (a nature disobey physical laws (b)the world is real (c) physi ‘the real world (d)the simplest is the best explanation 21. in medieval period. science and philosophy are what.... To the (a)auditor (b)Handmaid (c)enemy (d)persecutor 22. Scientificity ordinarily does not imply ... (a) methodic (b) systematic (d) veracity the fundamental science? (a) Physics (b) philosophy Sinn with their cause inscience and technology became combined (b) scientific methodology and experimentation became universal method of science (c) fationalism pecame more acceptable in science (d) the old view of knowledge was revived 35, “Dogmatic attitude and Idols of the mind hinder scientific progress”. The above statements ... (a)false (b) partially true (c) absolutely true (d) impossible 36. Which does not apply in Darwin's theory of Evolution? (a) Natural selection (b) principle of adaptation (c)principle of purpose in nature (d) principle of survival of the fittest. 37. The essence of philosophy of science js to .... (a) Investigate knowledge (b) give factual knowledge (c) solve problems in science (d) question the validity of scientific knowledge 38. The philosopher of science of “no privileged method” of scientific enquiry is ... (a) popper (b) Kuhn (c) Bacon (d) Fayerabend 39. Atentative guess or conjecture used in science to explain certain facts is ... (a) Hypothesis (b) theory (c) Law (d) Exp! 40. Who completed the break from the founded a new inductive method of reasoning? (: (c)Kuhn (d) Popper’ 41. Which period signifies that of Kuhn? (a)Pre-paradigm (b) Cri 42. Science is 0}Involved (c) neutral (d) interested i describes the orbits of the planets was discovered by (a) Brahe (b) Copernicus (d) Newton (d) Kepler 50, The important feature of the indusirial revolution is ... (a)the switch from cottage mode of production to factory mode (b)division of labor (c)the use of'steam power(d) all of the above SECTION B ANSWERANY TWO QUESTIONS FROM THIS ‘TION 1, Give and briefly explain any five (5) characteristics of modern science. 2) Write on the contributions of any three of these to science {a)Hippocrates(b) Kepler (b) Newton (d) Darwin ak Explainvery briefly any five characteristics of modern technology.‘d to rely on others non renewable energy is that (a)the sources are ») ithelps in stimulating the economy (c) easy to use ating jobs of the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, people who animals, stars al heavenly bodies were called (a) ©)philosophers (d) naturalists stem of writing in which symbols or characters stand for syllables (a)Cuneiform (b)soumeries (c)syllabary (d)papyrus is ire theory? (a) personal answer (b) an explanatory account (c)speculative knowledge (d)a guess work 13. Which of these is a nee oe (a)Statistics (b)sociology (c)bidlogy (d)Economics ‘ l4, What was the Copemican revolution about? (a)gravitation (b)heliocentricism (c) relativism (d) geocentricism Ta. 15, one of the following founded a new inductive method of reaso: prepared the way of modern experimental science. (a) (c)Galileo (d)Newton ’ 16. Caesarean operations were performed in ancient Egypt as the (a) Egyptian papyrus (b)embers papyrus (c)ancient (d)Edwin smith ‘al papyrus Be 17. the renaissanceb. commensurate c. qualitative d. all of the above 28. philosophy of science deals with a. some questions in science b. most questions in science c. few questions in science d.none of the above 29. Non science is not a. systematic, objective, quantifiable b, supported by evidence. certainty j ec, subjective. quantifiable , objective d. systematic. objective, quantifiable 30, The progress in science is through Karl poppers a. fi bility bb. ferification c. paradigm shift d. deduction 31. Observations could be classified into a. spontaneous or passive b. _ spontaneous and induced c, passive and active d. active and induced 32. If the experiment shows that the first guess was wrong, the scientist a lons the project b. formulates a theory c. formulate and tests a new d.makea general conclusion of these is true of science and non science a. criticality b. experience d, testability end science and non science a. are exactly the same b. are indegreenotinkindd. all ofthe above a physical science? A. acoustic b. astronomy c. science because it could be a. tentative b.16 Who among this is the platonte crafisman in the Timaeus ? a. Apollo b. ‘euse, Dimurge d 1. God 17. Which of these baconian idols is an attack 6n authority a. idols of theaters b. idols ofthe cave ¢. idols of the market place d, idols of the tribe 18. for karl popper when a theory has hot been falsified. itis .. a. corroborated b, verified ¢ proved d.true 19. Who predicted the eclipse of the sun in the year 585BC . a. Anaximander b. Anaximenes c. Heraclitusd, Thales 30, These are scientist philosophers except a, popper b. Galileo c. Newton d, Ptolemy Section Two |. Whatis renewable energy? Explain its benefits 2. Compare and contrast philosophy and science 3. Write short notes on any of the following a. Isaac Newton b. Karl Poppere. Galileo Galilei d. Paul Feyerabend — FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF’ DIRECTORATE OF GENE) COURSE TITLE-PHILOSOPHY OF SCIE COURSE SODEGST 110Which of these is a basic na science? (a)philosophy (bjastre (c)chemistry (d)ph Ve Science is objective because {adit is public (byNot 4 product of ‘emotion and sentiment (c )not subjective (d)all ofthe above 8. Which of these is not an earth study? (a)geology (b)geography(c) voleanology (d)epidemiology 9y Before the modern times science was dominated by {a)Milesian world view (b)platonic world view (c) Aristotelian world view (d) thomistic a)pure scientist (b)philosophers (c) mediators (d) physicist es this term falsification properly belong? (a) Karl popper (eieversbend (dlakatos vith paradigm-shift? (a)Kuhn(b)Karl popper ith eect method? (a) Karl popper(b) uhn8 (b)Galileo(e)Aristode(d@atomists is forerunner of modern atomism? (a)Plato us (c Democritus (d)noneafthe abo falsifiability and not confirmability is a virtue ip Scientific theory (a)Kulin(b)popper atos (d) feyerebend Known for his work “the structure of scientific (a) laka atos (bypopper (e)Kuhn(d) yerebénd dle of civilization (a) ee Russia esope tamia (o)C ece and Persia (d)Greece an syria hich of the under listed is not a Milesian philosopher (a) rmenides (c) Anaximenes (d)Thales . philosophers were searching for purpose of nature (b)The nature of things (e)the utility of creator of nature For Aristotle, the ultimate constitution of matter which t Greek philosophers were searching for was Gan substance (d) to aperion 5 Ke _ ta @ aiiarantente aturalism ( Exper Which of the listed features (ahindicsive (ema nessconfirmed ___(a)conclusion(b)Experiment(c)problem(d)Hypothesi Not everyone se n an observation(A)Hypo. (b)conclusion(c)law (d)theors 47. The lunar calendar was the result of series of __(a)observation(b)experiment(c)hy pothesis(d)None of the abo’ . Conjecturesand refutation can be associatedto___a) Aristotle (b)Karl Bae coi one Dessartes (d)Hlume i 49. The first physician of antiquity of African descent is called, (a)Hippocrates (b)Edwin Smith (c)Imhotep(d)Mansa Musa 50. ‘The sum centered universe can be identified as___(a)solar universe Pate eicicee etneien (d) Heliocentricism ilosophy of science and explain its three objectives fe steps of scientific investigation