Polymers processing technology

POLYMER PROCESSING
The processing of polymeric materials -plastics, elastomers and composites- is
characterized by a wide variety of distinct methods or techniques. Techniques
involving the continuous manufacture of a product basically have uniform cross
section, which include extrusion, extrusion covering, film blowing and
calendering; techniques involving the shaping of a deformable polymer perform
against a mold surface, which involve coating and rotational molding; and, finally,
techniques which involve the complete filling of a mold cavity, and include
casting, compression molding, transfer molding, injection molding and reaction
injection molding.

Fundamental to the choice of polymer processing technique is the question of

whether to use a high molecular mass starting material or a system that
polymerizes in the mold.

PROCEDURES AND PARAMETER VARIATIONS

This section defines the procedures utilized in the injection and compression
molding of all samples used in the study and the procedures utilized for tensile and
DMA testing. Parameter and principle differences for processing and testing
different polymer samples are also discussed.

6.1 Injection Molding

Injection Molding
The injection molding process involves the rapid pressure filling of a specific mold
cavity with a fluid material, followed by the solidification of the material into a
product. The process is used for thermoplastics, thermosetting resins, and rubbers.
Figure 6. (a) Reciprocating plunger and (b) reciprocating rotating screw. [1]
The injection molding of thermoplastics can be subdivided into a several stages. At
the plasticity stage, the feed unit operates pretty much as an extruder, melting and
homogenizing the material in the screw/barrel system. The screw however is
allowed to retract, to make room for the molten material reservoir. At the injection
state, the screw is used as a ram for the rapid transfer of the molten material from
the reservoir to the cavity between the two halves of the closed mold. Since the
mold is kept at a temperature below the solidification temperature of the material,
it is essential to inject the molten material rapidly ensure complete filling of the
cavity. A high holding packing pressure is normally exerted, to partially
compensate for the thermal contraction of the material upon cooling. After the
cooling stage, the mold can be opened and the solid product removed.
Figure 7. Typical cavity pressure variations over the entire injection molding
cycle is shown here.
The cavity pressure rises rapidly during the filling stage, which is followed by the
holding or the packing stage. Once the gate freezes off, the cavity pressure decays
with time till the part is ejected. At high pressures, a polymer melt is compressible,
allowing additional material to be packed in the mold cavity after mold filling is
complete. This is necessary to reduce non-uniform part shrinkage, which leads to
part warpage. Excessive packing results in a highly stressed part and may cause
ejection problems whereas insufficient packing causes poor surface, sink marks,
welds and non-uniform shrinkage.

All thermoplastics are, in principle, suitable for injection molding, but since fast
flow rates are needed, grades with good fluidity are normally preferable.
Significant differences in ease of molding, and the resulting structure and
properties of products are found between amorphous and crystallizing
thermoplastics; they concern problems such as shrinkage, warpage, sink marks,
flashing, and short shots.
Figure 8. Pressure history varies with position.
The pressure distribution inside the mold cavity changes with distance from the
inlet gate. The figure 8 shows a simple part geometry with pressure variations
among the points one, two and three respectively. Further away from the gate,
pressure rises slowly and it decays quicker than at the points closer to the gate. The
pressure in the mold cavity should be more uniform to minimize part warpage.
A major disadvantage of injection molded products is the incorporation of fine
details such as bosses, locating pins, mounting holes, ribs, flanges, etc., which
normally eliminates assembly and finishing operations.

Figure 9. The figure shows a typical temperature history in the cavity during
the injection molding cycle.
The gate freezes off first because it is thinner than the cavity. Once the part
temperature is well below the polymer solidification temperature, the part is
ejected.

6.1.1 Operation Procedures

1. Start the injection molding machine, and set the heating temperature.
2. When temperature is about to reach the setting, fill the hopper with polymer
pellets, wait for a few minutes to let the polymer melt.
3. Pre-heat the mold if needed, then clamp the mold and sit it properly at the
injecting position of the machine. Adjust the mold position so that its feed nozzle is
directly aligned with the injecting nozzle of the machine. Then fasten the mold.
4. Pull the injecting handle down to inject polymer, and hold down the handle for a
few seconds to let the mold fully fill.
5. Release the handle and let the mold cool down, and then remove the mold, fill
the hopper for next injection cycle.
6. Open the mold and get the sample. Trim the flash and runways off, carefully
grind the flash away from the narrow section of samples using metallurgical paper.
Mark the sample with number so that it is ready to be used for tests.
6.1.2 Special Considerations
• In order to acquire samples with appropriate quality, the hopper of the injection
molding machine usually needs cleaning with LDPE before the respective polymer
pellets are filled in.
• A given polymer material needs to be squeezed multiple times before samples
with appropriate quality are obtained.
• Samples that are mixed with other materials or oil are rejected for use in tests;
samples with defects at the narrow section such as shrinkages or sink marks will be
rejected .
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN INJECTION MOLDING
There are many details to pay attention in injection molding which affects the
physical properties, they may even cause to the failure of the molding.
 Jetting occurs when polymer melt is pushed at a high velocity through
restrictive areas, such as the nozzle, runner, or gate, into open, thicker areas,
without forming contact with the mold wall. This leads to part weakness,
surface blemishes, and a multiplicity of internal defects.
 An air trap is air that is caught inside the mold cavity. It becomes trapped by
converging polymer melt fronts or because it failed to escape from the mold
vents, or mold inserts, which also act as vents.
 A short shot is a molded part that is incomplete because insufficient material
was injected into the mold. It can be caused by entrapped air, insufficient
machine injection pressure (resulting from high melt resistance and a
restricted flow path), pre-mature solidification of the polymer melt, and
machine defects.
 A sink mark is a local surface depression and a void is a vacuum bubble in
the core. Sink marks and voids are caused by localized shrinkage of the
material at thick sections without sufficient compensation when the part is
cooling.
 A weld line (also called a weld mark or a knit line) is formed when separate
melt fronts traveling in opposite directions meet. The formation of weld
lines can be caused by holes or inserts in the part, multi-gate cavity systems,
or variable wall thickness where hesitation or race tracking occurs. The weld
lines are undesirable when the strength and the surface quality are important.
PROCESSING TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT

3.1 Injection Molding

Injection molding is the most commonly used manufacturing process for the
production of plastic parts. Injection molding is capable processing a wide variety
of products, which vary greatly in their size, complexity, and application. An
injection molding machine, raw plastic material, and a mold are required in the
injection molding process. Both thermoplastic and thermoset polymers can be
processed through the injection molding.

For processing thermoplastics, the plastic is melted in the injection molding

machine and then forced into the mold, where it cools and solidifies into the final
part, and can be ejected. For processing thermosets, the material is forced into a
preheated mold and heated to form a solid part. A ram or screw type plunger is
applied to force melting plastic material into a mold cavity. Products fit the contour
of the mold and are solids or open-ended shapes. There are typical molding defects
during injection molding production, which are parting line, sprue, gate marks, and
ejector pin marks.

The advantages of injection molding are:

• High production rates
• Repeatable high tolerances
• A wide range of materials are suitable
• Low labor cost
• Minimal scrap losses
• Little need to finish parts after molding
The disadvantages of injection molding are:
• Expensive equipment
• Potentially high running costs

• Costly mold design and manufacturing (tooling)

3.1.1 Equipment—Injection Molding Machine

The injection molding machine consists of a material hopper, an injection ram or

screw-type plunger, a heating unit, and a clamping system. The clamping system
holds and clamps the mold in which the plastic material is shaped. The clamping
force generated by this system keeps the mold closed during the injection process,
which varies from less than 5 tons to over 9,000 tons. The total needed clamping
force is determined by the projected area of the part being molded. The projected
area is multiplied by a clamping force from 2 to 8 tons for each square inch of the
projected areas. Typically 4 or 5 tons/in2 can be used for most products. The
required clamping force can also be determined by the material used and the size
of the part. If the material is very stiff, a higher injection pressure will be required
and a higher clamping force will be applied. The larger the part is, the higher the
clamping force required.

3.1.2 Mold

Molds or dies are common terms describing the tooling used to produce plastic
parts in molding. Usually, molds are used in mass production where thousands of
parts are being produced, for they are expensive to manufacture. Typical molds are
constructed from hardened steel, heat-treated steel, aluminum, and/or beryllium
copper alloy. The choice of material used to build the mold is primarily one of 11
economics. Steel molds generally cost more to construct but last longer. Pre-
hardened steel molds are less wear-resistant and are used for lower volume
requirements or larger components. The molds can be manufactured either by CNC
machining or electrical discharge machining. Fig. 3.1. AB-100 desktop molder.
The injection molding machine used in the study is an AB-100 desktop molder
from AB Manufacture (Fig. 3.1).

6.2 Compression Molding

Compression Molding
The compression molding process is used for temperature activated thermosetting
polymers. Compression molding basically involves the pressing of a deformable
material charge between the two halves of a heated mold, and its transformation
into a solid product under the effect of the elevated mold temperature.
Compression molding temperatures are often in the range 140-200 oC; mold
pressures can vary from 35 atm to 700 atm. Material charges are often pre-heated
to speed up the initial softening stage. Compression molding is characterized by
the show and moderate flow of the very viscous material charge to fill the cavity,
and it is not normally suitable for making complicated parts, or parts featuring
fragile inserts.

Figure 5. (1) Charge is loaded, (2) and (3) charge is compressed and cured, and (4)
part is ejected and removed.
6.2.1 Operation Procedures
1. Start the compression molding machine, set heating temperature of both platens,
continuously push down the pressure handle so that the lower platen rises until two
platens almost touch each other.
2. Pre-heat the mold if needed, fill the mold with polymer pellets, set 5 layers of
plates together in the order of (bottom to top)1-steel plate, 2-polymer plate, 3-
mold, 4-polymer plate, 5-steel plate.
3. When the soaking temperature is reached, lower the lower platen, use gloves to
put the entire mold set on the lower platen, rise the lower platen until the top of the
mold set touches the bottom of the upper platen, keep pressure at zero.
4. During the melting time, occasionally push down the pressure handle if there is
a gap between the top of the mold set and the upper platen, and keep pressure at
zero.
5. Apply pressure to the soaking pressure then release, keep on doing this until the
third time, and keep holding the pressure for the entire soaking time period.
6. Set temperature of both platens to quench temperature or lower, lower pressure
to three forth of the soaking pressure. Apply water to the machine to cool down the
mold. Keep temperature ramp rate less than 10°F per minute.
7. When temperature of both platen are below the quench temperature, stop
applying water, release pressure and lower the lower platen, and carefully remove
the mold set with gloves.
8. When temperature goes low enough, open the mold and carefully remove
samples from the mold. Trim off flash, carefully grind away the flash from the
narrow section of samples using metallurgical paper. Mark the samples so that they
are ready to be used for tests.
6.2.2 Special Considerations
• The quench temperature was always set at 200 °F for processing all groups of PP
and no matter how much the soaking temperature is; the quench temperature is
always set 180 °F for all groups of LDPE.
• Because the melting temperature for LDPE is low (185~257 °F), open the mold
when its temperature almost reaches room temperature, in order to let samples
completely cured.
• Because the quality of compressed samples are hard to control, samples with
defects such as bubbles or sink marks at the narrow section will be rejected for use
in tests.
3.2 Compression Molding

Compression molding is the most developed molding technology for fiber

reinforced composites. Preheated plastic material is placed in an open, heated mold
cavity. The mold is then closed and the material inside is forced to contact all
internal mold areas. Heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material
has cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage,
either in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.

The advantages of compression molding are:

• Capable to mold large, fairly intricate parts

• One of the lowest cost molding methods compared with others such as transfer
molding and injection molding

• Relatively little material waste, saving costs when working with expensive
compounds

• Suitable for ultra-large-size basic shape production

The disadvantages are:

• Poor product consistency, e.g., difficult to control flashing

• Not suitable for complex parts

• Fewer knit lines and smaller amount of fiber-length degradation comparing to
injection molding When first developed, compression molding was used to
manufacture composite parts which replaced metal. Making larger flat or
moderately curved parts is the common application of compression molding.
Manufacturing automotive parts such as hoods, fenders, scoops, spoilers, and also
small complex parts, are the most common applications for compression molding.

There are six important considerations in compression molding:

• Determining the proper amount of raw material

• Determining the minimum amount of energy required to heat the material

• Determining the minimum time required to heat the material

• Determining the appropriate heating technique

• Predicting the required force to ensure that shot attains the proper shape

• Designing the mold for rapid cooling after the material has been compressed into
the mold

Extrusion
The extrusion process basically is continuously shaping a fluid polymer through
the cavity of a suitable tool (die), and subsequently solidifying it into a product
(extrudate of constant cross section). In the case of thermoplastics, the feed
material, in powder or pellet form, is most commonly heated to a fluid state and
pumped into the die, through a screw extruder; it is then solidified by cooling after
exiting from the die.
Figure 1. Extrusion dies can have complex shapes to (a) compensate for die swell,
(b) distribute material across the width of a sheet, or (c) coat a wire. [1]

Extrusion products are often subdivided into groups that include filaments of
circular cross-section, profiles of irregular cross section, axisymmetric tubes and
pipes, and flat products such as films or sheets.

Sheet Thermoforming

Sheet thermoforming, or simply thermoforming, involves the heating of a flat

thermoplastic sheet to a softened state (above the glass transition temperature Tg
for non-crystallizing thermoplastics or near the melting temperature Tm for
crystallizing ones), followed by the deformation (forming) of the softened sheet
into a desired shape by pneumatic or mechanical means, and finally its
solidification into this shape by cooling.
Figure 3. (1) A flat plastic sheet is softened by heating; (2) the softened sheet is
placed over a concave mold cavity; (3) a vacuum draws the sheet into the cavity;
and (4) the plastic hardens on contact with the cold mold surface, and the part is
removed and subsequently trimmed from the web.

Products made by sheet thermoforming include skin and blister packs, individual
containers for jelly or cream, vials, cups, tubs, trays and lids. As many as millions
of parts per day can be produced with a tool featuring several hundred cavities.
Larger products are generally made from cut sheets at much shower rates; the
heating stage often is the limiting factor. Transparent products, such as contoured
windows, skylights and cockpit canopies, are often made by this method.

Blow Molding
The basic principle of the blow molding process is to inflate a softened
thermoplastic hollow preform against the cooled surface of a closed mold, where
the material solidifies into a hollow product.

Figure 4. (1) Injection molding of parison, (2) stretching, and (3) blowing.

Packing is the major area of application of small to medium-size disposable blow

molded products. Liquid foodstuffs are increasingly packaged in narrow neck
plastic PET bottles. Blow molded containers are also used for cosmetics, toiletries,
pharmaceutical and medical packaging and a variety of household products.

Transfer Molding

Transfer molding is often associated with compression molding, because it is used

with the same two classes of materials, temperature-activated thermosets, and
vulcanizable rubbers. In transfer molding a softened temperature-activated material
is transferred through a narrow gate into the closed cavity of a heated mold, where
it cures to a solid state.

Transfer molding is normally used with materials that have fairly high pre-curing
fluidity, facilitating the flow from the loading area to cavities. This also permits the
molding of complex parts, parts featuring fragile inserts.
EFFECT OF POLYMER PROPERTIES ON PROCESS TECHNIQUE

While processing thermoplastic melts the following factors should be taken in to

account in order both to process efficiently and obtain quality product.

1. Water absorption of raw materials

2. Physical form of raw material
3. Thermal stability of polymer
4. Flow properties
5. Adhesion of melt to metal
6. Thermal properties affecting, heating & cooling of melt
7. Compressibility and shrinkage
8. Frozen in orientation

Water Absorption:

 Water/Moisture is the greatest enemy for processing of plastics

 Hydgroscopic materials
 Absorption phenomena Ex. Nylon, POM, PC
 Adsorption phenomena Ex. HIPS, PS, ABS
 All these materials should be pre dried
 Non hygroscopic material Ex.PVC, Polyolifien etc
 Need not be pre dried. Except when completely wet during monsoon.
Actions Necessary:

 Granules as soon as the bag is opened

 Pre drying ovens, Hoper drier, dehumidifying drier can be used
  For PC-Dehumidifying drier preferable

Physical form of Raw material:

 Powder form, Granular form, lumpy/slab form

 Slab form calandering, compression molding
 Granular form preferred uniform pallet size ensures even an faster feeding
 Powder form difficult in feeding but shaving in cost because of the ability
to avoid palleting stage, special feeder attachment essential to ensure
proper feeding.

Thermal Stability of Polymers:

 PVC thermally sensitive material: Little higher melt temp. May lead to
deformation-HCL is released this can leads to corrosion and harmful to
human being. PID temperature controlled can be used. A proportional–
integral–derivative controller (PID controller or three-term controller) is a
control loop mechanism employing feedback that is widely used in
industrial control systems and a variety of other applications requiring
continuously modulated control.

For temperature controller PID, the optimal variable is maintaining the

process temperature at the setpoint for the desired period of time,
avoiding any severe changes from lag, overshoot or disturbances. The
three elements of the PID algorithm are the Proportional, the Integral, and
the Derivative.

 PMMA, POM up on depredation liberates MMA and formaldehyde

respectively-MMA volatilize and cause bubbles-Formaldehyde gas causes
eye irritation. Polyoxymethylene (POM), also known as acetal,
 polyacetal, and polyformaldehyde, is an engineering thermoplastic used
in precision parts requiring high stiffness, low friction, and excellent
dimensional stability. PMMA – Polymethylmethacrylate. PMMA is a
highly transparent thermoplastic polymer, obtained by
polymerization of the methylmethacrylate monomer.

 PC & POM (Acetan) should never be process one after the other, this may
lead to explosion.

Polycarbonates (PC) are a group of thermoplastic polymers containing

carbonate groups in their chemical structures. Polycarbonates used in
engineering are strong, tough materials, and some grades are optically
transparent. They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed.

Adhesion of Melt to Metal:

 Waiting of the polymer melt against the metal wall of processing

equipment can lead to strong adhesion of polymer to metal Ex. Difficulty
in removing PVC-Mix form two roll mill.
 PVC has a strong adhesion to metal. It can take away the skin of the
barrel if not properly purged.

Thermal Properties:

In the case of polymer melts the specific heat various with temperature. For
crystalline polymers such as POM, Nylon etc. Latent heat of fusion and SP. Heat
should be taken in to account. That is total heat content (enthalpy) = LH of fusion
+ specific heat.
Table: Thermal Properties
thermal properties of polymer

Cooling Shrinkage and compressibility:

When polymers are in molten stage the vibration of the molecules result in the
polymer chain being pushed apart so that the volume occupied by a given polymer
mass is higher than when the material is solid.

Table: Density of Polymer:

Frozen in Orientation:
When polymer melts are being shaped by either injection molding or extrusion the
long polymer chains tend to be elongated or uncoiled in the direction of flow. After
shaping, the melt is usually cooled rapidly and there is seldom time for the oriented
molecules to return to a random coiled shape by the process known as relaxation.
Some orientation is thus frozen the products. Such stress parts are very weak.
Hence annealing is must.

REACTION INJECTION MOLDING PROCESS

With the Polyurethane Reaction Injection Molding Process – the Reaction

Makes All the Difference!
Plastic injection molding has almost the same name, so even experienced engineers
and designers might think they are the same. But “reaction” signals a big
difference.

Unlike plastic injection molding, the polyurethane reaction injection molding

process, or RIM molding techniques, utilize low-viscosity liquid polymers in
thermoset – not thermoplastic or thermoforming – processes. Through a variety of
chemical reactions, these polymers expand, thicken, and harden only after they’re
injected into the heated mold, accommodating much more intricate designs than
ordinary plastic injection molding.
Raw materials and polyurethane reaction techniques can be selected and even
customized to precisely deliver desired weight, strength, density, and hardness
characteristics. The result is large polyurethane parts with a much lighter weight
than those created by more commonplace processes.
ADVANTAGES OF A POLYURETHANE REACTION
INJECTION MOLDING PROCESS

The RIM molding process begins with polymer liquids (polyol and isocyanate)
stored in large storage tanks and dispensed by large, high-pressure industrial
pumps. The polymers are recirculated from the storage tanks to a multi-stream
mix-head on the machined aluminum mold and back to the storage tanks in a
continuous loop.

When each part is made, a piston or plunger inside the mix-head retracts, breaking
the continuous loop, and the polymers then mix or impinge at a high velocity –
approximately 1200 psi – to ensure the proper mixture of the polymers. The
resulting polyurethane enters the mold (polyurethane injection molding process)
through the after-mixer, which maintains the mixture’s properties while reducing
its velocity to 95-100 psi.
Reaction Injection Molding not only offers significant advantages over injection
molding, but also vacuum-forming, pressure-forming, and cast molding.

The admittedly longer production time of reaction injection molding is more than
offset by its benefits to design, flexibility, and cost-efficiency, not to mention the
wide ranges of part size, design uniqueness, and overall superiority.
Reaction Injection Moulding (RIM) is an industrial process to produce plastic parts
from the reactive polymerization of two or more monomers that are introduced
through two opposed jets in a cylindrical mixing chamber. Most used materials in
RIM are polyurethanes, in which case the liquid components for polymerization
are an isocyanate and a polyol that must be mixed in less than one second at
production rates that range from 10 to 100 kg/h. The passage times in the
cylindrical chamber are in the range of 10-100 ms and the viscosities of the
monomers range from 20 to 1000 mPa·s. The mixture of the two monomers that
leave the mixing chamber is discharged into a mould, where polymerisation
occurs. The mixing of the two monomers in the chamber is the critical step of the
RIM process since the mechanical properties of the obtained product depend on the
degree of mixing achieved before the reactive mixture is discharged into the
mould.