MODULE 3

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

1. Identify the intellectual revolutions that shaped society’s across time;
2. Discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud changed the
way how humans see the world
3. Explain why most intellectual ideas controversial

INTRODUCTION

This section reviews the intellectual revolutions that changed the way people perceive
the influence of science on society in general. It focuses on the most intellectual revolutions in
history: Copernican, Darwinian and Freudian. By discussing these topics in the context of
science, technology and society, the attention of students are drawn again toward the complex
interplay of the various social contexts and the development of modern science. The section
also engages students in a critical analysis of ongoing intellectual and scientific revolutions,
which they may find themselves to be part of.

Human beings have undertaken scientific activities in order to understand how the
nature works. They have persistently studied physical and natural world to find meaning and
answers to their question. Over the years, society has been reformed by new ideas of science.
We learn more and more about global warming, outer space, and technology. However, this
pattern of gaining knowledge did not pick up significantly until the Scientific Revolution. In the
sixteenth and seventeenth century, the Scientific Revolution started, which concerned the fields
of astronomy, mechanics, and medicine. These new scientists used mathematics and
observations strongly contradicting religious thought at the time, which was dependent on the
Aristotelian-Ptolemy theory.

Source: http://www.actforlibraries.org/difference-between-heliocentric-and-geocentric-
models-of-the-universe/

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 The geocentric model of the universe was formulated by the Greek philosopher
Ptolemy around 140 AD. The sun, moon, planets and stars all revolved around the earth in
circular orbits. There were problems with this model because the planets do not move on
circular orbits and they wander among stars. Their speed varies, their orbits wobble, and they
occasionally reverse their direction of travel, what is known as "retrograde" motion. At that time
it was believed that planetary motion must be based on circles. Plato had argued that heavenly
bodies were governed by different laws than those that governed the motion of objects on earth.

The Copernican Revolution

The view of geocentric universe could not answers irregularities of the movement of the
earth, until the early sixteenth century when the Polish astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus,
develop a different model. According to him, the apparent movement of the heavens was an
illusion, caused by the movement of the observer. He went on to argue that the wandering
motion of the planets could be explained if they were orbiting the sun rather than the earth. This
led to heliocentric theory that the earth was itself just another planet orbiting the sun. This idea
was rejected at first by public. It shocked many since their religious belief taught them the Earth
was created first before all other things. He was even persecuted as a heretic because his
teachings were against what was widely accepted by religion at that time. After some time,
astronomers realized that the Copernicus model simplified the orbits for planets. It also
answered issues that could not be explained using the geocentric model.

Being a distinguished churchman, Copernicus knew how tenaciously it held geocentric

theory. In proposing heliocentric theory, he was not just challenging orthodox science; he was
challenging the established religious view of reality, which in those days held even greater sway
than the scientific view. So, fearing the wrath of the church, he kept his ideas to himself for thirty
years. Only as he was nearing death, he finally decided to publish his book On the Revolutions
of the Celestial Spheres. This is the start of scientific revolution a period which was called the
birth of modern astronomy which resulted in the transformation of society’s thoughts and
beliefs. But his book was immediately placed on the list of forbidden books.

Other works that supported this model started to emerged as well. After eighty years, an
Italian scientist Galileo Galilee took up an interest in planetary motions. Utilizing the newly
invented telescope, he found convincing evidence in favor of the Copernican model. He saw
that Venus had phases, just like the moon, when only half, or just a crescent, of it would be lit,
which is what would happen if Venus orbited the sun. He also found that Jupiter had its own
moons in orbit around it, dispelling the idea that everything went around the earth. Under threat
of torture, he was forced to detest the absurd view that the earth moves around the sun. He was
then put under house-arrest so that he could be watched and remained there till his death.

A German mathematician, Johannes Kepler, put into place another key piece of the
puzzle. He formulated three major laws of planetary motion, conventionally designated as
follows: (1) the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus; (2) the time necessary
to traverse any arc of a planetary orbit is proportional to the area of the sector between the
central body and that arc; and (3) there is an exact relationship between the squares of the
planets’ periodic times and the cubes of the radii of their orbits.

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 Kepler himself did not call these discoveries “laws,” as
would become customary after Isaac Newton derived his
mathematical description of gravity for planetary motion.
He regarded them as celestial harmonies that reflected
God’s design for the universe.

Kepler and Newton’s discoveries turned Nicolaus

Copernicus’s Sun-centred system into a dynamic universe,
with the Sun actively pushing the planets around in
noncircular orbits.
https://earthsky.org/human-world/
johannes-kepler-birthday-dec-27-
1571

Darwinian Revolution

Charles Robert Darwin, English naturalist popularized theory of evolution by natural

selection became the foundation of modern evolutionary studies. In 1859, he published his book
entitled “On the Origin of Species.” His theory sets about explaining the progressive changes
that occur within species down the generations, as well as the formation of new species, when
environmental pressures have differential effects on the reproductive success of all individuals.
However, this theory became very controversial as people perceived it to be against the
church’s teaching that the source of life is a powerful Creator and that God created us and all
other forms of living things during creation week. His theory developed at a time when most
people believed and accepted the Biblical version of creation. This conflict resulted to division
among many – some believed that the theory explained the origin of life, but the religious group
strongly contested it. The conflict even resulted to massive debate between science and
religion. It was only after some time that people came to understand that Darwin’s theory of
evolution was not in fact against the teaching of the church and both can coexist.

Source:
https://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/sep/18/c
harles-darwin-victorian-mythmaker-review-an-
wilson

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Darwin's Observations

1. All species have such great potential fertility that their population size would increase
exponentially if all individuals will reproduce successfully.

2. Populations tend to remain stable in size, except for seasonal fluctuations.

3. Environmental resources for things such as food and shelter are limited.

4. Individuals of a population vary extensively in their characteristics which impacts upon

their own ability to survive and reproduce.

5. Much of this variation is genetic and is therefore heritable.

Inferences drawn from observations

1. Due to the limited resources, there is a struggle for existence among individuals - often
with only a fraction of offspring surviving through each generation to reproduce
successfully.

2. It is not a random process that determines which individuals will reproduce and which
will not, as it depends in part on the genetic / hereditary constitution of those surviving
individuals. Those individuals whose inherited characteristics best suit them to that
environment in which they live are likely to have more offspring than those that are not
so well adapted to the environment. This, by definition, is natural selection.

3. The unequal ability between individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to gradual
evolution of the population, with favorable characteristics accumulating over the
generations through natural selection.

Natural selection shapes adaptations and differentiates between the reproductive

success of individuals. Adaptations are anatomical structures, physiological processes, or
patterns of behavior that contribute to ancestral survival through the unique suitability of those
traits(Crawford, 1998).

Theory of Natural Selection

1. Natural selection is differential success in reproduction.

2. Natural selection occurs through an interaction between the environment and the
variability inherent among the individual organisms making up a population.

3. The product of natural selection in the adaptation of populations of organisms to their

environments.

Theory of Evolution

1. Evolution is not progressive - Evolution is not designed to produce the best quality
products, it only seeks to design adaptations 'that will do the job' most efficiently and

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 economically. Therefore, evolution used the 'mammal template' throughout the
development of all mammal species - eg. pentadactyl limbs, mammary glands, spinal
curvature, pelvis structure - and made the necessary modifications to suit the niche that
species lived in.

2. Evolution is not an argument for the status quo - Evolution does not dictate why things
are the way they are. It must be remembered that some of the animals features may be
by-products of the evolution of an unrelated adaptation.

3. Evolution provides constraints - What has gone before sets physical limits on what we
can do now. This is seen in the fact that we learn some things much more readily than
others. In this sense evolution has also constrained what things we are able to perceive
and attend to.
4. Evolution provides complexity from simplicity - Species that depend on each other for
food (predator - prey relationships) often enter into 'arms races', as they try to outdo
each other.

To understand the origin of whales, it's

necessary to have a basic understanding of how
natural selection works. Natural selection can
change a species in small ways, causing a
population to change color or size over the course
of several generations. This is called
"microevolution". Given enough time and enough
accumulated changes, natural selection can create
entirely new species, known as "macroevolution."
It can turn dinosaurs into birds, amphibious
mammals into whales and the ancestors of apes
into human.

Source:https://reason.kzoo.edu/biology/cour
ses/BIOL102/

Freudian Revolution

In the late 19th century, Sigmund Freud was able to change people’s perception of
psychology with his revolutionary theory of psychoanalysis. In the past psychology was
considered more of an art rather than a science. Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist
and the founder of psychoanalysis. His work and theories helped shape our views of childhood,
personality, memory, sexuality, and therapy. His ideas have become interwoven into the fabric
of our culture, with terms such as "Freudian slip", "repression", and "denial" appearing regularly
in everyday language.

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 Source: https://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html

Psychoanalysis is the study that explains human behavior. Freud explained that there
are many conscious and unconscious factors that can influence behavior and emotions. He
argued further that personality is a product of three conflicting elements: id, ego and superego.
Some scientist however, criticized the legitimacy of psychoanalysis as a science since its
concept was more of philosophical and supernatural and that it has no scientific basis as no
empirical or experimental data could support it. Despite criticisms, Freud still continued refining
his work and in fact tried to explain how psychoanalysis can be a clinical method in treating
some mental disorders. Eventually, people were able to understand the concepts of
psychoanalysis, which resulted in classifying it as a science.

One of his most enduring ideas is

the concept of the unconscious mind, which
is a reservoir of thoughts, memories, and
emotions that lie outside the awareness of
the conscious mind. He also proposed that
personality was made up of three key
elements, the id, the ego, and the superego.
Some other important Freudian theories
include his concepts of life and death
instincts, the theory of psychosexual
development, and the mechanisms of
defense. 

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/dennis43/lec-11-freudian-theory

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 ACTIVITY 3

Reflections:

1. Why do you think those intellectual ideas controversial?

2. How do intellectual revolutions transform societies?

SELF-TEST

Name :____________________________ Score:_________

Year/Course:_______________________ Time:__________

I. Match the discovery in column A to the scientist in column B.

Column A Column B
1. Planetary laws of motion A. Charles Darwin
2. Geocentric B. Galileo Galilei
3. Gravitational Fall C. Johanes Kepler
4. Heliocentric D. Nicolaus Copernicus
5. Mechanism Of Defense E. Ptolemy
6. Telescope F. Sigmund Freud
7. Theory Of Evolution G. Sir Isaac Newton

II. Modified true or false. Write T if the statement is true. If the statement is false
changed the underlined word/s to make it correct.
__________1. First philosophy has a lot to do with the physical science and logic.
__________2. Geocentric universe explains that earth and heavenly bodies are revolving
around the sun.
__________3. Heliocentric theory explains that the earth, heavens and man was created by
God for six days and he rested on the seventh day.

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__________4. The word universe means ‘wanderer’.
__________5. Nicolaus Copernicus kept his heliocentric theory for 30 years to avoid the
wrath of the church.

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