Revision Guide Paper 2

GCSE Psychology
Paper 2
Social context and behaviour
Revision guide
NAME: ___________________________________________________________
CPAGETT 18/19
EXAM DATES
FRIDAY 24TH MAY 2019 MONDAY 3RD JUNE 2019
GOLDEN RULE
ANSWER EVERY QUESTION ON THE PAPER!
YOU CAN ONLY GAIN MARKS IF YOU WRITE SOMETHING!
EXAM AND REVISION TIPS
1. When defining a key term, do NOT use the word you are defining within your answer!
✘ ”Obedience is when people obey authority figures”

 “Obedience is when people follow orders from authority figures”
2. If you are asked to draw a graph, make sure you include a title, labelled X and Y
axis and an appropriate scale – i.e. if the data starts at 400, don’t start your axis at 0!
3. Never start a hypothesis with ‘I’! Always start it with “There will be…”
4. Use acronyms to summarise main points of theories – i.e. SPCF (sensorimotor, pre-
operational, concrete operational and formal operational – stages of development)
5. Make your revision material as concise as possible – summarise key studies & theories
onto flashcards. You could have description on the front and evaluation on the back!
6. No matter how tempting it is, avoid listening to music whilst revising. Studies have
shown that we have trouble recalling if our physical state is different from when we learnt
the material (Carter & Cassaday!).
If you use music because other things distract you, find a quiet room without the
distractions instead.
USEFUL WEBSITES
• https://illuminate.digital/aqapsychgcse/ (Use the digital access to the textbook to summarise key
concepts, catch up on missed work and practice exam questions!).
• https://learndojo.org/aqa/gcse-psychology-revision/ (A website that covers most of what you need to

know for your exam).
• www.getrevising.co.uk (Make flashcards, revision documents, steal revision material that is already
made! Just make sure you select the correct exam board [AQA] using the filters when searching).
• https://simplypsychology.org/ (An older website but still relevant! Just a warning – you don’t need to
know everything on that website).
• https://www.tutor2u.net/psychology/collections (An A-LEVEL website ran by exam performance

specialists – hundreds of free study notes with the choice to buy extra revision material).
GOLDEN RULE
ANSWER EVERY QUESTION ON THE PAPER!
YOU CAN ONLY GAIN MARKS IF YOU WRITE SOMETHING!
EXAM TIPS
Use a template like the one below to help structure your 9 mark answers
AIM: What did the researcher want to find out?
METHOD: How was the study carried out?
RESULTS: What did the researcher find?
CONCLUSION: What can the researchers now say about people in general?
EVALUATION PEE #1: EVALUATION PEE #2:

EXAM TIPS
If you struggle to remember evaluation, use the prompts below to help!
TOPIC 5 – SOCIAL INFLUENCE
What do I need to know for the social influence topic?
# Content
1 A study of conformity: Asch (1955)
2 A study of conformity: Asch (1955) - AO3
3 Explaining conformity: Social and dispositional factors
4 A study of obedience: Milgram (1963) – AO1 + AO3

Explaining obedience: Milgram’s agency theory (social
5
factor)
Explaining obedience: Adorno’s authoritarian personality
6
(dispositional factor)
7 A study of prosocial behaviour: Piliavin (1969)
Explaining prosocial behaviour: Social and dispositional
8
factors
9 A study of crowd/collective behaviour: Zimbardo (1969)
Explaining crowd/collective behaviour: Social and
10
dispositional factors
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #1 – A STUDY OF CONFORMITY – ASCH (1955)
LESSON #2 – A STUDY OF CONFORMITY – ASCH (1955) – AO3
CONFORMITY
When someone’s behaviour or thinking changes
because of group pressure. The pressure might be
real or imagined.
KEY STUDY - IMPORTANT
ASCH (1955) - CONFORMITY
AO1 DESCRIPTION AO3 EVALUATION
A To investigate how people respond to group pressure. Asch’s research only used males.
This is a weakness because the
Asch used 123 American male students in his research research doesn’t represent how
who believed they were taking part in a different females would have responded. We
experiment. can’t generalise the results to
females.
The participant was sat in a room with 6-8 confederates.
Asch’s research only used
The group were then shown two cards. One had a
Americans. This is a weakness
M ‘standard’ line and the other had three ‘comparison’ lines.
because the research doesn’t
represent how other nationalities
On each trial, the men were asked to say whether line A,
would have responded. We can’t
B or C was the same as the standard line.
generalise the results to the wider
population just because Americans
The confederates were told to give the wrong answer,
behave in a certain way.
even their answers were clearly wrong (unambiguous).
Perrin & Spencer (1980) found just
The participants gave a wrong answer 36.8% of the time. one act of conformity among 396
R
75% of participants conformed at least once. trials. This is a weakness because
their research shows that people
People are influenced by group pressure, even when the don’t conform as much as Asch
C task involves giving a wrong answer. People can resist thought, suggesting he is wrong in
conformity though. his theory.
Confederates = white circles

Participant = red circle
EXAM PRACTICE #1
1) Describe the aim, method, results and
conclusion of Asch’s study into conformity. [4
marks]
2) Evaluate Asch’s study into conformity. [4

marks]
3) Describe and evaluate Asch’s study into

conformity [9 marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #3 – EXPLAINING CONFORMITY – SOCIAL AND DISPOSITIONAL FACTORS
WHAT MAKES US CONFORM?
DISPOSITIONAL FACTORS (You conform
SOCIAL FACTORS (You conform because of the
because of your own characteristics, i.e.
characteristics of the environment)
personality)
GROUP SIZE
The more people there are in a group, the greater PERSONALITY
the pressure to conform to their opinion. Someone with an external locus of control
believes that they do not influence the things
that happen to them. Someone with an internal
locus of control believes that they do influence
the things that happen to them.
ANONYMITY In terms of conformity, people with external
When Asch give his participants anonymity (i.e. LOCs were more likely to agree with the group
write down your answer instead of saying out pressure whereas internal LOCs are more likely
loud), conformity rates decreased because you to resist the group pressure and stick to their
don’t feel the pressure to conform from the own answer.
group.
EXPERTISE
TASK DIFFICULTY Your intelligence increases your confidence in
As the task difficulty increases, the answer your opinions and knowledge so people with
becomes less obvious and people feel less greater expertise are less likely to conform to
confident about their answer so they look to group pressure. One researcher found that if
others for the right answer. someone felt good at maths, they would be less
likely to agree with incorrect answers.
EXAM PRACTICE #2
1) Identity three social factors that can affect conformity. [3 marks]
2) Simon is a confident young man who is doing well at school and is very talented at geography.
He has recently started to hang around with some boys who often get into trouble. Simon has a
geography exam in a few weeks which is worth 50% of his overall exam grade. One of the boys
has stolen the exam paper from the exams officer without him looking. The boys decide they are
going to cheat and look at the exam paper.
Explain one aspect of Simon’s disposition which would explain why he is unlikely to conform and
look at the paper. [3 marks]
3) Explain the difference between a social and dispositional factor in relation to explaining
conformity. [3 marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #4 – A STUDY OF OBEDIENCE – MILGRAM (1963)
OBEDIENCE
Following orders from an authority figure (i.e.
police, teachers).
MILGRAM (1963) - OBEDIENCE

To see whether a normal person would give another A weakness of Milgram’s research
A
person a lethal electric shock if told to do so is that some participants appeared
to have realised it was fake. This
is a weakness because if the
participants realised the study
40 male volunteers (20-50yrs) were told they were
was fake, they would show demand
taking part in memory research.
characteristics (impressing the
They were paid for their time.
researcher by changing behaviour).
The teacher (the participant) was told by the
M
experimenter (actor) to give the learner (actor) shocks A weakness of Milgram’s research
every time the learner got the answer wrong. is that it only used male
The fake electric shocks started at 15v and went up to participants. This is a weakness
450v (lethal). because we cannot generalise the
findings to females. We cannot say
that females would have reacted in
the same way. The study is
100% of people went to 300v
androcentric.
65% of people went to 450v
R
Three participants had seizures (fits) caused by A weakness of Milgram’s research
stress. is that the participants were
volunteers. This is a weakness
because Milgram would have ended
People will listen to an authority figure if they believe up with extroverts who are willing
they aren’t responsible for the consequences. People to take part in research. We can’t
C
obeyed because of the location, the pressure and the say for certain that other
situation was new to them. personality types would react in
the same way.
EXAM PRACTICE #3
1) Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of
Milgram’s study into obedience. [4 marks]
2) Evaluate Milgram’s study into obedience. [4 marks]
3) Describe and evaluate Milgram’s study into

obedience [9 marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #5 – EXPLAINING OBEDIENCE – MILGRAM’S AGENCY THEORY (SOCIAL FACTOR)
WHAT MAKES US OBEY?
“People will listen to an

AGENCY THEORY authority figure if
We obey because we are acting as an they believe they
agent for an authority figure. aren’t responsible for
the consequences.”
AUTONOMOUS STATE
Autonomous state is when AGENTIC STATE
people behave according to Agentic state is where people
their own principles and act on behalf of someone else
feels responsible for their and therefore follow their
actions. orders. They don’t feel
responsible for their actions.
GOVERN
PROXIMITY
MENT When the learner sat in the same room
COURT as the teacher, obedience rates
dropped from 65% to 40%, suggesting
that proximity increases the ‘moral
PARENTS strain’, i.e. we feel sorry for them and
responsible for our actions.
OLDER CHILDREN
We act as ‘agents’ because we don’t feel
YOUNG CHILDREN responsible for our actions
AO3 EVALUATION
The agency theory explains why atrocities such as

the Holocaust happened. This is a strength because EXAM PRACTICE #4
the theory has real life application, it helps us explain 1) Identify three features of Milgram’s
society. agency theory. [3 marks]
Hofling found that nurses would administer double 2) Explain the role of authority in
the maximum dose of a drug because of orders from Milgram’s agency theory. [3 marks]
a doctor on the phone. This is a strength because it
shows how people obey to authority like the theory 3) Describe what Milgram’s agency
states. theory shows about obedience. [3
marks]
The agency theory can give people who follow
destructive orders an excuse for their behaviour. 4) Milgram’s agency theory has been
This is a weakness because it allows people to think
criticised. Use your knowledge of
they aren’t responsible for their actions.
psychology to evaluate this theory. [4
marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #6 – EXPLAINING OBEDIENCE – ADORNO’S AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY (DISPOSITIONAL FACTORS)
WHAT MAKES US OBEY?
AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
A person who is easily influenced by authority.
They follow people above them but are hostile
to people below them. They may have
experienced harsh parenting as a child.
How do people with an authoritarian personality think? What is meant by

displacement or scapegoating?
They think in ‘black and white’ – something is either
good or bad. They don’t see that people can be They need to displace their
different. They believe in rigid stereotypes that all men anger onto something else to
are bullies and all women are emotional. relieve anxiety and hostility.
For example, they might have
What do authoritarian people experience in childhood? a bad day at school and when
you come home you take it out
The authoritarian personality is developed when a child on something/someone else
experiences strict parenting and extremely high (i.e. shouting at your sibling).
standards of achievement. They offer conditional love People with an authoritarian
(the child only receives love if they behave correctly). personality displace their
The child internalises these values and expects feelings onto those socially
everyone to behave like this and develops hostility inferior to them.
towards their parents.
AO3 EVALUATION
EXAM PRACTICE #5
The authoritarian theory can give people who 1) Identify three personality characteristics
follow destructive orders an excuse for of the authoritarian personality. [3 marks]
their behaviour. This is a weakness because
it allows people to think they aren’t 2) Explain one criticism of Adorno’s theory
responsible for their actions of the authoritarian personality. [4 marks]
Adorno believed that the authoritarian
personality is caused by strict parents but 3) Describe one dispositional factor
other researchers say that it is caused by affecting obedience. [3 marks]
lack of education. This is a weakness because
there are researchers who disagree with 4) What is meant by a ‘dispositional factor’
Adorno. in relation to obedience? [2 marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #7 – A STUDY OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR – PILIAVIN (1969)
BYSTANDER BEHAVIOUR PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

The idea that the presence of others Actions that are beneficial to other
reduces the likelihood of help being people, helping society such as helping an
offered in an emergency. old lady cross the street.
KEY STUDY -
PILIAVIN ET AL. (1969) – PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR IMPORTANT

To see whether the appearance of a victim
A
impacts whether they receive help or not.
The study took place in a natural setting (on a
NYC subway). This is a strength because the
The victim (confederate) fell over on a subway participants’ behaviour would have been as
in NYC. The participants were the people on the close to real life as possible and there would
M
subway and they were observed to see whether be no demand characteristics.
the victim was helped or not.
The study took place a considerable amount

When the victim appeared disabled, he was of time ago (1969) This is a weakness because
helped 95% of the time. When he appeared we can’t be certain we would get similar
R drunk, he was helped 50% of the time. results if the study was replicated as society
People offered help quicker when the victim has changed.
was disabled in comparison to drunk.
The participants were unaware their

behaviour was being observed. This is a
weakness because the participants couldn’t
The appearance of a victim influences whether give their consent to take part in the
C
they receive help or not. research otherwise it would have ruined it so
the researchers broke ethical guidelines
EXAM PRACTICE #6
conclusion of Piliavin’s study of prosocial
behaviour. [4 marks]
2) Evaluate Piliavin’s study of prosocial

3) Describe and evaluate Piliavin’s study of

prosocial behaviour. [9 marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #8 – EXPLAINING PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR – SOCIAL AND DISPOSITIONAL FACTORS
WHAT MAKES US HELP?
SOCIAL FACTORS (You help because of the DISPOSITIONAL FACTORS (You help because of
characteristics of the environment) your own characteristics, i.e. personality)
SIMILARITY TO VICTIM
PRESENCE OF OTHERS
We are more likely to help people who share
The more people there are, the less likely
similar characteristics to us (i.e. same
we are going to help.
gender, same race, same religion…)
We believe that someone else is going to
EVALUATION
help so we should just ignore the situation.
One strength of this explanation is that
EVALUATION
there is research supporting it. It was
One weakness of this explanation is that
found that Manchester United fans were
research (such as Piliavin) has found that
more likely to help someone if they were
the amount of people present doesn’t impact
wearing a Manchester United shirt than a
whether we help or not.
Liverpool shirt.
COST OF HELPING
The cost of helping includes possible danger
EXPERTISE
to yourself (i.e. helping a drunk person) and
Someone with special knowledge (i.e.
the effort/time it takes to help someone.
medical) will be more likely to help in an
On the other hand, not helping might make
emergency as they know what to do and feel
you feel guilty. All of these influence
more confident in helping.
whether we are likely to help. We also think
EVALUATION
about the rewards of helping (such as
One weakness of this explanation is that
feeling good about it or money).
several people still offer help even if they
EVALUATION
don’t know what to do.
One weakness of this explanation is that it
ignores other factors such as whether the
situation is an emergency.
EXAM PRACTICE #7
CPAGETT 18/19
1) Explain what is meant by the term ‘bystander behaviour’. [2 marks]
2) A study was conducted by a psychologist to investigate dispositional factors in bystander

behaviour. The psychologist recruited football fans and asked them individually to walk across
the college campus to another room. On the way they saw a runner who had fallen over and
appeared to have hurt himself. Sometimes the runner was dressed as a football fan and
sometimes he was dressed in ordinary clothes.
Use your knowledge of bystander behaviour to explain the results the psychologist is likely to
find. [3 marks]
3) Explain how the cost of helping can be used to explain bystander behaviour. [3 marks]
LESSON #9 – A STUDY OF CROWD BEHAVIOUR – ZIMBARDO (1969)
DEINDIVIDUATION/CROWD BEHAVIOUR
An individual loses their identity and takes on the identity of a
group. This makes them more likely to be antisocial as they are
at less risk of being identified and ‘everyone else’ is doing it!
ZIMBARDO (1969) – CROWD BEHAVIOUR

To see whether deindividuation impacts
A
whether someone hurts someone.
A weakness of Zimbardo’s research is that the
Zimbardo copied Milgram’s electric shock participants were volunteers. This is a weakness
study but changed a few parts: because Zimbardo would have ended up with
All the participants were female. extroverts who are willing to take part in
M Group 1 – participants wore their own clothes research. We can’t say for certain that other
and had large name tags on. Group 2 – personality types would react in the same way.
participants wore a large coat and a hood that
hid their face.
A weakness of Zimbardo’s research is that it

only used female participants. This is a
Participants in group 2 were more likely to weakness because we cannot generalise the
R give the learner a shock because they didn’t findings to males. We cannot say that males
feel responsible for their actions. would have reacted in the same way. The study
is gynocentric.
A weakness of Zimbardo’s research is that

some participants might have realised it was
Anonymity and deindividuation increases the fake. This is a weakness because if the
C participants realised the study was fake, they
likelihood that people will act antisocially.
would show demand characteristics (impressing
the researcher by changing behaviour).
EXAM PRACTICE #8
conclusion of Zimbardo’s study of crowd behaviour.
[4 marks]
2) Evaluate Zimbardo’s study of crowd behaviour.

[4 marks]
3) Describe and evaluate Zimbardo’s study of

crowd behaviour. [9 marks]
4) Describe what participants were asked to do in

a study investigating the effect of deindividuation
on antisocial behaviour. [2 marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #10 – EXPLAINING CROWD BEHAVIOUR – SOCIAL AND DISPOSITIONAL FACTORS
WHAT MAKES US CHANGE IN A GROUP?
SOCIAL FACTORS (You change because of the DISPOSITIONAL FACTORS (You change because
characteristics of the environment) of your own characteristics, i.e. personality)
SOCIAL LOAFING PERSONALITY

We behave differently in a group when it People with in internal LOC are less likely
comes to a task. If we are doing a group to change their behaviour within a group as
task, we will put less effort in than if we they are independent and have their own
were doing the task by ourselves. rules.
EVALUATION EVALUATION
One weakness of this explanation is that A weakness of this explanation is that it is
people put equal amounts of efforts into inappropriate to conclude whether someone
creative tasks (like mind maps) so this is internal or external based on one
doesn’t apply to all tasks. questionnaire.
CULTURE
MORALS
Our culture influences whether we change
People with greater morals will be less
behaviour or not. Individualistic cultures
likely to change their behaviour in a group
(UK, Germany) are used to being independent
because they are concerned about others.
whereas collectivist cultures (China, Japan)
EVALUATION
are used to working in groups. This means
A strength of this explanation is that
people who live in collectivist cultures are
there is evidence of morality shown in
less likely to change their behaviours in a
Milgram’s experiment. Someone stopped at
group because they are used to it.
150v because he had high morals.
EVALUATION
A weakness of this explanation is that we
shouldn’t make generalisations about whole
cultures as people might vary within that
culture.
EXAM PRACTICE #7
1) Distinguish between deindividuation and social loafing. [3 marks]
2) Explain how morality affects crowd and collective behaviour. [3 marks]
3) What is meant by the term ‘social loafing’? [2 marks]
4) Explain how personality affects crowd and collective behaviour. [3 marks]
5) Identify two dispositional factors that affect crowd and collective behaviour. [2 marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
KEYWORD DEFINITION
CONFORMITY
SOCIAL FACTORS
DISPOSITIONAL
FACTORS
LOCUS OF
CONTROL
OBEDIENCE
AGENCY THEORY
AGENTIC STATE
AUTONOMOUS
STATE
AUTHORITY
CULTURE
AUTHORITARIAN
PERSONALITY
COGNITIVE STYLE
DISPLACEMENT
CPAGETT 18/19
KEYWORD DEFINITION
BYSTANDER
BEHAVIOUR
PROSOCIAL
BEHAVIOUR
EXPERTISE
ANTISOCIAL
BEHAVIOUR
CROWD
BEHAVIOUR
PROSOCIAL
BEHAVIOUR
SOCIAL LOAFING
CPAGETT 18/19
TOPIC 6 – LANGUAGE
What do I need to know for the language topic?
# Content
1 Language and thought: Piaget’s theory AO1 + AO3

2 Language and thought: Sapir-Whorf hypothesis AO1 + AO3
3 Language and thought: Our view of the world
4 Human and animal communication: Von Frisch (1967)
5 Human and animal communication: Von Frisch (1967) – AO3
6 Human vs. animal communication
7 Non-verbal communication: Eye contact
8 Non-verbal communication: Body language
9 Non-verbal communication: Personal space
10 Non-verbal behaviour: Darwin’s evolutionary theory
11 Non-verbal behaviour: Innate or learned?
12 Non-verbal behaviour: Yuki (2007)
13 Non-verbal behaviour: Yuki (2007) – AO3
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #1 – LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT – PIAGET’S THEORY
LANGUAGE
THOUGHT
The method of human
An idea or opinion
communication, either
produced by thinking
spoken or written, consisting
or occurring suddenly
of the use of words in a
in the mind.
structured way.
HOW DOES THOUGHT LEAD TO LANGUAGE?

A schema is a mental structure containing info we have about one aspect of the world. For
example, a child might develop a schema for a thing that barks and has four legs. It is only
after sometime that the child learns the schema has a name (a dog). Children develop
language by matching words to their existing knowledge. The child understands the concept
first and then they learn the words.
CAN CHILDREN UNDERSTAND ALL WORDS?

Piaget said children can only understand words when they are ready. They need to be at the
right stage of cognitive development. If they learn a word they are not ready for, they are
just like a parrot – repeating words they don’t understand.
HOW DOES LANGUAGE DEVELOP?

Children only begin to speak towards the end of their first year (sensorimotor stage). Before
this time, they are developing schema. In the second stage (pre-operational), language makes
rapid progress. They talk about things such as their future and their feelings. In the third
stage (concrete operational), language becomes mature and logical. They can consider the
views of others and they question, criticise and come up with new ideas.
EXAM PRACTICE #1 AO3 EVALUATION

1) Identify two features of Piaget’s views on
language. [2 marks] Children show understanding of the words
they use as their talk is not at random (i.e.
2) Young children only start to speak after the they might say “Mommy sock” to show the
age of one. Explain what kind of thinking sock is owned by their mom. This shows
takes place without language. [2 marks] language is used when schema are there.
3) Outline in what way, according to Piaget,

language depends on thought. [3 marks] It is really difficult to prove Piaget’s
theory as we can’t know for certain
4) Piaget said that children could be taught whether someone has a schema or not.
new words before they know what the words
represent but they wouldn’t really understand Sapir & Whorf would suggest the opposite
the words. Explain what this tells us about and would say that language comes before
language and thought. [2 marks] thought – we only think about language
available to us. This is a weakness of the
theory as it’s conflicting evidence.
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #2 – LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT – SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS
Sapir and Whorf said it was impossible to think about something

without having the words for it. They suggest we only start to
think about things that we have the words to think about them.
However, there is an argument as to whether words influence our
thoughts or words determine our thoughts.
WORDS DETERMINE OUR

THOUGHTS (STRONG EFFECT)
If a language has no words for a certain
WORDS INFLUENCE
thought/object/idea, people who speak
that language will have no way of thinking OUR THOUGHTS (WEAK
about it. EFFECT)
This is why it can be very difficult to Language influences the
translate some words and ideas from one way in which people think
language to another.
It was found that one Inuit (Eskimo) about things but it doesn’t
language had 27 words for snow! This completely determine
shows they are able to think about snow what they think.
in many different ways but English
speakers just see snow as snow.
AO3 EVALUATION
EXAM PRACTICE #2
1) Outline the Sapir–Whorf
hypothesis. [3 marks] Differences between cultures may have been
exaggerated. There are really only two words
for snow in Inuit culture and actually English
2) Use your knowledge of the Sapir– has other words for different types of snow.
Whorf hypothesis to explain the way This shows that the differences aren’t that big
language develops. [6 marks] and challenges the conclusion that language
may determine thought.
3) Identify three features of the

Sapir–Whorf hypothesis. [3 marks]
Piaget would suggest the opposite and
4) Explain one criticism of the Sapir– would say that thought comes before
Whorf hypothesis. [3 marks] language. This is a weakness of the theory
as it’s conflicting evidence.
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #3 – OUR VIEW OF THE WORLD
COLOURS - BROWN & LENNEBERG

(1954) - NEW MEXICO
Zuni people have only one word for COLOURS - ROBERTSON ET AL. (2000) –
shades of yellow and orange and had NEW GUINEA
difficulty recognising and recalling these Berinmo people of New Guinea had difficulty
colours compared to English recalling and distinguishing between a variety
speakers. This suggests that their lack of of colours as they only have five words for
words for those two colours affected different colours in their own language.
their ability to distinguish between them. EVALUATION
EVALUATION A weakness is that some researchers have
A weakness with research on different found the opposite.
cultures is that there are issues with the The Dani people have only two words for
interpretation of participants’ responses. colour but were still as good as English-
The language barrier could have affected speaking participants on a colour-matching
how well the Zuni people communicated task
their understanding of colour to the This suggests that their lack of colour words
researchers. did not influence their ability to think about
colour.
EXAM PRACTICE #3 EXAM PRACTICE #3

1) Outline how 1) Psychologists have
studied the recognition
language affects the
of colour in different
recall of events in two
cultures. Describe one
cultures. [4 marks]
finding from such
research. [3 marks]
2) Describe and
evaluate variation in 2) Outline two
recognition of colours. evaluations of studying
[6 marks] the variation in recall of
events in different
cultures. [4 marks]
EVENTS - WHORF – HOPI TRIBE
Hopi language doesn’t distinguish between EVENTS - CARMICHAEL ET AL. (1932)
past, present and future. Rather than saving Two groups of participants were shown the
”I left after a week”, Hopis would say ”I same pictures but each group heard
left on the seventh day”. different descriptions. When they were
asked to draw them, the pictures drawn
Hopi Indians are unable to refer to time
reflected the labels they had heard. This
passing and therefore this influences the
suggests that language influences our
way they think about time. memory of what has happened.
EVALUATION EVALUATION
A weakness is that Whorf’s research can’t A weakness is that this research was
be generalised due to its small sample size. conducted a very long time ago, meaning it
For example, Whorf only studied one is out-dated. If the study was replicated,
individual to come to this conclusion. This there might be different results as people
means we can’t generalise the results to might be more/less influenced today.
other people.
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #4 – A STUDY OF ANIMAL COMMUNICATION – VON FRISCH (1967) – AO1
LESSON #5 – A STUDY OF ANIMAL COMMUNICATION – VON FRISCH (1967) – AO3
ANIMAL COMMUNICATION
Exchange of information between animals
within the same species using a variety of
signals such as vocal or visual.

VON FRISCH (1967)
To see how bees communicate information to each A strength is that Von Frisch’s work made
A
other. an important contribution to science.
People knew that bees danced but had no
He put food sources close to the hive as well as understanding of the meaning of the
far away. If a bee visited a food source, he would movements.
M
mark it with paint. He then observed their This shows how valuable his research was,
behaviour at the hive. he even won a Nobel prize.
Worker honey bees tell other bees where the

A weakness is that the importance of sound
pollen is by displaying one of two dances.
was overlooked.
Round dances – for food less than 100 metres
Another researcher found that when bees
away, the bees moves around in a circle.
performed dances in silence, other bees
Waggle dances – for food more than 100 metres
R would not then go on and investigate food
away, the bee moves around in a figure of 8
source.
shape. It waggles on the ‘straight’ section. The
This shows that sound-based signals also
slower the dance, the further away the pollen is.
play a part in directing other bees –
After watching a dancing bee, 60% of the bees
something that Von Frisch ignored.
watching went to find the food sources.
Another weakness is that bees do not

always respond to the waggle dance.
Bees have a sophisticated form of animal
The bees only responded to the dances 60%
C communication. The bees’ signalling system has
of the time.
evolutionary value because it helps survival.
This shows that Von Frisch’s account was
incomplete.
EXAM PRACTICE #4
conclusion of Von Frisch’s study of animal
communication. [4 marks]
2) What is meant by the term ‘animal

communication’? [2 marks]
3) Describe and evaluate Von Frisch’s study of

animal communication. [9 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #6 – HUMAN VS. ANIMAL COMMUNICATION
What are the four reasons
TERRITORY why animals communicate?
Animals mark their territory using scent
marking. They spread their urine, faeces or
other scents to discourage other animals from
invading their territory.
Rhinos lay their dung in piles to mark their FOOD
territory and they also drag their feet through Animals use signals to draw attention to food
a pile of poo to mark out a path! sources. Bees use the round dance and the
waggle dance to show other bees where the
food source is. Ants leave a pheromone (scent)
trail enabling other ants to find their way to
the food.
REPRODUCTION
SURVIVAL
Animals use mating displays to signal to other
Monkeys produce specific sounds that warn
members that they want to reproduce. The male
other monkeys of dangers, known as alarm calls.
peacock stretches out its feathers like an
If a monkey sees any of its predators (i.e. a
umbrella to reveal a colourful pattern. The
leopard) they will produce a sound to warn
brighter the feathers, the healthier the
others. Rabbits will pin their ears back and leap
peacock and therefore the more likely it will
forward to warn other rabbits of any danger.
attract a mate.
What can humans do that animals can’t?

Plan ahead Humans can use their language to plan ahead and discuss future events
and discuss (displacement) whereas animal communication tends to focus on things that are
future events physically present in the environment, such as food sources or predators.
Human language is an open system as words can be combined together in an infinite

number of ways through the sentences we use whereas animal communication
Creativity
involves a closed system as the gestures, sounds and movements only refer to very
specific events.
Single versus Human language can be expressed using a whole range of different channels such as
multiple spoken, written or sign language and all of the different types of social media
channels whereas animal communication uses single channels (i.e. pheromones).
EXAM PRACTICE #5
1) With reference to a specific type of animal, explain how they communicate about territory. [3
marks]
2) Give one example of how animals communicate in relation to reproduction. [3 marks]
3) Explain one difference between animal and human communication. [3 marks]

CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #7 – NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION: EYE CONTACT
EYE CONTACT
When two people look at each other’s eyes
at the same time. It has a number of roles.
1. CONVERSATION FLOW
Eye contact makes conversations run smoothly as it gives the other
person feedback about how interested you are in the conversation.
Kendon (1967) found that eye contact encourages ‘turn-taking’ in
conversation. If it didn’t happen, there were awkward pauses on the
conversation.
2. SIGNALLING ATTRACTION
Eye contact is used to communicate our attraction to someone. Our level
of eye contact might increase when we are talking to someone we like.
Conway 2007) found that people who maintain eye contact are judged to
be more attractive than people who do not. It is an evolutionary
behaviour that shows a potential mate you are attracted to them.
3. EXPRESSING EMOTION
Eye contact can be used to show others how we are feeling.
Adams and Kleck (2005) found that participants judge joy and anger
most intense when there was a direct gaze. Fear and sadness were most
intense when there was an averted gaze. This suggests we use eye
contact in different ways to express how intense our emotions are.
AO3 EVALUATION
Research into eye contact often uses rating scales to make judgements. Asking someone to rate
attractiveness isn’t an accurate measurement as everyone sees attractiveness differently.
Research into eye contact makes generalisations about how we use it in everyday life
based on research. This is a weakness because not everyone uses eye contact in the same
way as there are individual differences.
EXAM PRACTICE #6
1) What is meant by ‘eye contact’? [2 marks]
2) Explain two functions of eye contact. [4 marks]
3) A father and son are making eye contact when having a conversation. Explain one function of
such eye contact. [3 marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #8 – NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION: BODY LANGUAGE
BODY LANGUAGE
The way in which attitudes and feelings
are communicated to others through
unspoken movements and gestures.
OPEN AND CLOSED POSTURE

Posture is the way someone positions their body during a social
interaction. An open posture is relaxed and shows approval or
acceptance whereas a closed posture shows rejection or disagreement.
McGinley et al. (1975) found that using an open posture when discussing
view points means others are more likely to agree with you.
POSTURAL ECHO
Postural echo is when you copy or ‘mirror’ someone’s body position whilst
talking to them.
Tanner and Chartrand (2006) found that using postural echo means
that others are likely to experience positive feelings towards you
TOUCH
We use touch to flirt, express friendship and show dominance by
shaking hands, high fiving, slapping someone and so on.
Fisher et al. (1976) found that touch can affect our attitudes towards
other people.
AO3 EVALUATION
Research into body language is often conducted without the participant’s consent. This is a
weakness as it breaks many ethical guidelines such as informed consent or right to withdraw.
Research into body language makes generalisations about how we use it in everyday life.
This is a weakness because not everyone uses body language in the same way as there are
individual differences. Someone might like being touched whereas others don’t.
EXAM PRACTICE #7
1) Using your psychological knowledge, describe how you could use body language to give a
positive impression of yourself when meeting someone for the first time. [4 marks]
2) What is meant by ‘non-verbal communication’? [2 marks]
3) Imagine that you are going to conduct a study to investigate the effect that touch has on how
much someone is liked. Use your knowledge of psychology to describe: A suitable hypothesis
you could use, how you will conduct your study and the results you would expect to find in your
study. [6 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #9 – NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION: PERSONAL SPACE
PERSONAL SPACE
An invisible ‘bubble’ that surrounds each
individual. The size of the bubble depends on
gender, culture and status differences. If our
bubble is invaded, we can feel uncomfortable.
GENDER DIFFERENCES
Men prefer a large distance when interacting with other men while women
prefer a shorter distance when interacting with other women. Men prefer
to sit opposite while women prefer to sit side by side.
Fisher and Byrne (1975) found that men feel stressed if personal space is
invaded from the front while women feel stressed if it’s from the side.
CULTURE DIFFERENCES
There are different cultural norms for personal space.
Sommer (1969) found that English people prefer a personal space of 1-
1.5m whereas Arab people prefer to be closer.
STATUS DIFFERENCES
Status is someone’s rank/position within a society. for example, two
teachers have a similar status whereas a student and a head teacher have
a different status. Zahn (1991) found that people who have an equal/similar
status stand closer than people who have a different status.
AO3 EVALUATION
Personal space rules make it unclear about what to do in some situations. If a women is talking to
another woman who is of a higher status than her, should she stand close or far away?
Research into personal space makes generalisations about how much distance we prefer.
This is a weakness because the research doesn’t represent everyone. Some English people
might prefer to be stood more than 1.5m away from others.
EXAM PRACTICE #8
1) Outline the way gender differences affect personal space. [3 marks]
2) Identify one fact about personal space from psychological research and say how you could
use this in an everyday situation. [3 marks]
3) Explain one criticism of research into personal space. [3 marks]

CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #10 – NON-VERBAL BEHAVIOUR: DARWIN’S EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
EVOLUTION
The theory that animals have adapted to their
environment over millions of years. These
adaptations increase the chances of survival and
are therefore passed onto the next generation.
How has non-verbal communication been passed on?

Non-verbal communication has evolved in animals so they can
effectively express their emotions These features are adaptive as they promote survival
(i.e. scaring away predators).
Darwin states that humans and non-humans have similar behaviours. We might wrinkle our
nose when we see/smell something disgusting. This allows us to avoid breathing in
something potentially dangerous.
These are called serviceable habits. These are things that would have been adaptive to
our animal ancestors because they promote survival but not humans have developed
language we can express emotions without non-verbal communication.
AO3 EVALUATION
Darwin’s theory is supported by research into facial
expressions. Surprise, fear, disgust, anger, happiness
and sadness are recognised in every culture. This is a
strength because it suggests these emotions are
universal (all over the world) and therefore in our
A lion shows its teeth when it is warning
biology.
away other animals. A human shows
anger by showing their teeth. Darwin’s theory is supported by research of newborn
babies. Babies do not need to learn facial expressions or
eye contact when interacting. This is a strength because
it suggests NVC is present at birth and therefore in our
biology.
Darwin’s theory doesn’t explain cultural differences.
Some parts of non-verbal communication aren’t universal,
A robin shows puffs out its chest to make such as personal space rules. This is a weakness because
itself look bigger to warn others away. A it suggests that some parts of NVC aren’t in our biology,
human puffs out their chest in confrontation. otherwise it would be the same in every culture.
EXAM PRACTICE #9
1) What is meant by the term ‘adaptive’? [2 marks]
2) Identify three features of Darwin’s evolutionary theory. [3 marks]
3) Explain two ways that Darwin’s evolutionary theory can be evaluated. [4 marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #11 – NON-VERBAL BEHAVIOUR: INNATE OR LEARNED?
WE ARE BORN WITH NON-VERBAL WE LEARN NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION (IT IS INNATE) COMMUNICATION (WE DEVELOP IT)
NEONATES CONTACT VS. NON-CONTACT

Bowlby (1969) suggested neonates Hall (1966) stated that countries
(newborn babies) are born with social such as Italy, Spain and Brazil are
releasers. These are non-verbal contact cultures whereas the UK and
behaviours such as smiling. This USA are non-contact cultures.
suggests NVC is innate. People from contact cultures prefer a
small personal space whereas non-
contact culture prefer a larger one.
This suggest NVC is develop through
the environment we live in.
NEONATES
Rosenstein and Oster (1988)
found that babies show a
disgusted facial expression
when given something sour to
taste, suggesting NVC is innate.
GESTURES
Black (2011) states that pointing your
SENSORY DEPRIVED finger is interpreted differently in
Children born blind have been different cultures. In Western
found to show facial cultures, it is acceptable whereas in
Hindu culture it is offensive.
expressions such as surprise
It’s the same for the “OK” hand
and other non-verbal behaviours gesture – in Europe it means “OK” but
such as sulking. This suggests in Japan it means “money”!
NVC is innate.
EXAM PRACTICE #10

1) Outline evidence that non-verbal behaviour is learned. [4 marks]
2) What is a ‘neonate’? [1 mark]
3) Distinguish between what psychologists mean by behaviour being innate and learned. [3
marks]
4) Explain how research into the ‘sensory deprived’ can be used to support the theory that non-
verbal behaviour is innate. [4 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #12 – A STUDY OF NON-VERBAL BEHAVIOUR – YUKI (2007) – AO1
LESSON #13 – A STUDY OF NON-VERBAL BEHAVIOUR – YUKI (2007) – AO3
EMOTICON
A combination of the words emotion and icon.
It is a non-verbal way of expressing mood or
emotion within written communication.

YUKI (2007)
To find out if there is a difference in how
A emoticons are understood by people in the
East (Japan) and the West (America). A weakness is that emoticons may not represent
human facial expressions.
95 students from Japan and 118 students
Emoticons do not include those tell-tale lines on
from America – an independent groups people’s faces which give us further information
design. of how to interpret their eyes and mouth.
M Six emoticons were shown with different This means the results of the study may lack
combinations of eyes and mouths (sad, relevance to everyday life.
happy or neutral). Participants rated them
for happiness using a 9-point scale.
Japanese gave higher ratings to faces with Another weakness is the study only investigated
happy eyes than the Americans, even when two types of emotion (happy and sad).
In everyday life, faces express a whole range of
the mouth was sad.
R emotions – fear, surprise, disgust, etc.
Americans gave higher ratings when Therefore the study does not give us insight
mouths were happy even when the eyes into how the full range of emotional expressions
were sad. are interpreted by people of different cultures.
A final weakness is that rating scales may not be
This suggests that cultural groups the best method of measurement.
interpret facial expressions differently Emotions are very complex and rating scales
C
which may be due to cultural norms and reduce emotion to a single score.
expectations. Therefore Yuki et al. may have measured the
interpretation of emotions in too simple a way.
EXAM PRACTICE #11

conclusion of Yuki’s study. [4 marks]
2) Describe and evaluate Yuki’s study of

cultural differences. [9 marks]
CPAGETT 18/19
KEYWORD DEFINITION
SCHEMA
SAPIR-WHORF
HYPOTHESIS
ANIMAL
COMMUNICATION
LANGUAGE
THOUGHT
VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
EYE CONTACT
BODY LANGUAGE
OPEN POSTURE
CLOSED POSTURE
POSTURAL ECHO
GENDER
CPAGETT 18/19
KEYWORD DEFINITION
CULTURE
STATUS
PERSONAL SPACE
ADAPTIVE
EVOLUTIONARY
THEORY
SERVICEABLE
HABITS
INNATE
NEONATE
SENSORY
DEPRIVED
EMOTICONS
CPAGETT 18/19
TOPIC 7 – NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
What do I need to know for the neuropsychology topic?
# Content
1 Structure and function of the nervous system

2 The autonomic nervous system
3 The James-Lange theory of emotion
4 Neuron structure and function
5 Hebb’s theory of learning and neuronal growth
6 Structure and localisation of function in the brain
7 A study of the interpretive cortex: Penfield (1959)
8 A study of the interpretive cortex: Penfield (1959) – AO3
9 Scanning techniques to identify brain functioning
10 A study of localisation: Tulving (1989)
11 A study of localisation: Tulving (1989) – AO3
12 An introduction to neuropsychology: cognitive neuroscience
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #1 – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM
A network of neurons
and fibres which
transmit nerve impulses
between parts of the
body.
FUNCTION SUMMARY
CNS Made up of the brain and spinal cord.
BRAIN All decision making takes place here. At the base is the brain stem which controls basic functions.
SPINAL
CORD Long structure running down our back. It carries incoming & outgoing messages between brain & body.
PNS Receives and sends messages to the CNS. It is divided into the ANS and the SNS.
ANS We have no control over this system. It co-ordinates functions such as breathing, HR and digestion.
SNS We have control over this system. It controls our movement.
EXAM PRACTICE #1
1) Explain the function of the somatic nervous system. [3 marks]
2) Draw a diagram showing how the nervous system is structured. Include the following in your
diagram: somatic nervous system, peripheral nervous system, central nervous system and
autonomic nervous system. [4 marks]
3) Explain the function of the central nervous system. [3 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #2 – THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
HOMEOSTASIS
The ANS is responsible for controlling homeostasis This is the process
by which the body maintains a constant, balanced state.
One example is carbon dioxide in the blood. The level of always just
right as it is carefully controlled through breathing. The ANS keeps
our body working by controlling vital glands, muscles and organs.
AUTOMATIC AUTONOMIC
Our ANS cannot be controlled by us. Actions such as breathing and
our hearts beating are required for survival and therefore it is
important.
TWO DIVISIONS
Our ANS is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
system. One of them is always activated but they both cannot be When threatened, our
activated at the same time. sympathetic division is
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM activated. When resting,
This is when the body is in a state of physiological arousal preparing our parasympathetic
the body for fight or flight.
division is activated.
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
This is when the body is in a state of rest as there is no threat to us.
HOW DOES THE FIGHT/FLIGHT RESPONSE WORK? FIGHT OR FLIGHT

Immediate physiological
1. BRAIN DETECTS THREAT response of an animal
Our hypothalamus identifies the threatening event (perhaps
when in danger. The body
someone jumped out at you) and tells the sympathetic division
of the ANS to act. becomes physically ready
to fight the threat or run
2. ADRENALINE RELEASED away from it (flight).
The ANS changes from its normal resting state
(parasympathetic) to a state of arousal (sympathetic state).
This releases adrenaline into the bloodstream.
3. FIGHT OR FLIGHT RESPONSE
Physiological changes occur because of the adrenaline. Your
heart rate increases, your pupils dilate (expand), digestion
stops and saliva production is stopped. All these changes are
designed to help us confront the threat (fight) or run away
(flight).
4. THE THREAT HAS PASSED
The ANS changes from the state of arousal (sympathetic) back
to resting (parasympathetic). Your heart rate slows down, your
pupils constrict (narrow), digestion and saliva production
resumes. This is the ‘rest and digest’ state.
CPAGETT 18/19
EXAM PRACTICE #2
1) You are walking home at night. It is very dark with no moon or stars visible in the sky. Suddenly
you hear someone running behind you.
Explain the likely action of the autonomic nervous system. Refer to specific bodily changes that
are likely to occur. [4 marks]
2) Identify three bodily changes that occur during the fight or flight response. [3 marks]
LESSON #3 – THE JAMES-LANGE THEORY OF EMOTION
Think about the last time you experienced an extremely scary
moment (i.e. almost falling down the stairs).
You feel afraid and your body shows signs of panic, such as an
increased heart rate.
But what comes first..?
The emotion (being afraid) or the physiological changes (increased
heart rate)?
ANSWER:
The James-Lange theory would argue that the physiological
changes occur first which then cause an emotion!
AO3 EVALUATION
A weakness is that the theory is challenged by the Cannon–Bard theory. We experience some emotions
(e.g. embarrassment) at the same time as physiological arousal and not one after the other. Therefore
this theory can explain emotional situations that the James–Lange theory cannot.
A weakness is that the theory is challenged by the two-factor theory. We need arousal plus social cues
to correctly label the emotion we are feeling. Therefore the James–Lange theory does not explain how a
person ‘decides’ what emotion they are experiencing.
A strength of the theory is real-life examples. A fear of public situations (phobia) can develop as
a result of the anxiety (emotion) created from falling down in public. This shows that emotional
responses such as fear are a result of physiological arousal like increased heart rate.
EXAM PRACTICE #3
1) The James–Lange theory of emotion has been criticised. Use your knowledge of psychology to
evaluate this theory. [5 marks]
2) Outline the James–Lange theory of emotion. [3 marks]

CPAGETT 18/19
3) Explain the role of the autonomic nervous system in the James–Lange theory of emotion. [3 marks]
LESSON #4 – NEURON STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
NEURONS
Cells that send
messages through
electrical and chemical
signals throughout the
nervous system. There
are three different
types: sensory, relay
and motor.
When a neuron is
resting, the inside is
negatively charged
compared to the
outside.
When a neuron fires,
the electrical charge
changes for a split
second, causing an
action potential.
This creates an
electrical signal
(impulse) that travels
down the axon to the
end of the neuron,
ready to be passed into
another neuron.
This process is called

synaptic transmission
and is on the next page.
EXAM PRACTICE #4
1) Explain the process of synaptic transmission. [4 marks]
2) Sketch a diagram which shows how synaptic transmission occurs. [3 marks]
3) Identify three types of neuron and explain the function of each. [6 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #4 – SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
The way that neurons communicate
with each other. It involves a
message being passed chemically.
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #4 – SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #5 – HEBB’S THEORY OF LEARNING AND NEURONAL GROWTH
According to Hebb, the

brain never stops growing.
As we learn new
information, the brain
physically changes.
Hebb believes that when we learn new information it creates new

connections between neurons in the brain.
When we use our synaptic connections more frequently, they
become stronger.
The brain can adapt, change and form new connections as we learn
at any time, at any age with anything we are learning.
Learning leaves a temporary trace in the brain (known as an
‘engram’), this trace can be made permanent if we continually
practice the learning
During learning, groups of neurons (known as cell assemblies) fire
together and make strong synaptic connections between them, this
leaves behind a more efficient and effective brain.
AO3 EVALUATION
A strength of Hebb’s theory is that it is scientific. Hebb used brain scans and factual research to
support his theory that the brain and synaptic connections change over time. This is a strength as
factual research can be hard to disprove so it makes Hebb’s theory hard to argue with. S&C: His
research is objective.
A strength of Hebb’s theory is that it has real life application. If our brain can adapt and change
over time to develop our skills and knowledge, we can use this to our advantage and practice to
ensure we improve. This is a strength because we can use the theory in everyday life.
EXAM PRACTICE #5
1) Outline Hebb’s theory of learning. [3 marks]
2) Hebb’s theory of learning has been criticised. Use your knowledge of psychology to evaluate
this theory. [5 marks]
3) Explain what is meant by the term ‘neuronal growth’. [2 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #6 – STRUCTURE AND LOCALISATION OF FUNCTION IN THE BRAIN
The brain is divided into two halves called hemispheres,

known as left and right.
The top surface layer of the brain is called the cerebral
cortex. It is 1-2mm thick.
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #6 – STRUCTURE AND LOCALISATION OF FUNCTION IN THE BRAIN
EXAM PRACTICE #6 CPAGETT 18/19

1) Outline the difference between the parietal and occipital lobes. [3 marks]
2) Explain how knowledge about localisation of function has contributed to our understanding of
3) Using an example, explain what is meant by the term ‘localisation of function’. [3 marks]
LESSON #7 – A STUDY OF THE INTERPRETIVE CORTEX – PENFIELD (1959) – AO1
LESSON #8 – A STUDY OF THE INTERPRETIVE CORTEX – PENFIELD (1959) – AO3
INTERPRETIVE CORTEX
An area of the temporal lobe where
interpretations of memories are
stored. It contains our emotions and
feelings during certain times.
PENFIELD (1959)
To describe the responses patients gave
A when parts of their brain were electrically
stimulated. A strength of Penfield’s research is that it
has benefitted neuroscience greatly. For
Epileptic patients lay on an operating table example, Penfield was able to pinpoint exact
whilst conscious. Penfield stimulated brain locations for certain processes. This is a
different areas of the brain using the and strength because neuroscience has developed
M
recorded patients’ responses. This also considerably because of Penfield’s work.
treated their epilepsy. Over 30 years,
Penfield did this more than 1,000 times.
A weakness of Penfield’s research is that

there is contradictory research. For example,
Penfield replicated his experiment but this
time only 7% of participants reported reliving
R
an experience when their temporal lobe was
stimulated. This is a weakness because there
are inconsistent findings in this area and
therefore the research lacks reliability.
A weakness of Penfield’s research is it

The interpretive cortex (inside the temporal contained an unrepresentative sample. For
example, the patients were suffering from
lobe) is responsible for our memories.
C severe epilepsy. This is a weakness because we
Overall, this study supports the theory of can’t generalise the results to people who
localisation. don’t have epilepsy as their brains might work
differently.
EXAM PRACTICE #7
1) Describe one study that investigated localisation of function. [4 marks]
2) Describe what Penfield’s study of the interpretive cortex can tell us about localisation of
function. [2 marks]
3) Describe and evaluate Penfield’s study of the interpretive cortex. [9 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #9 – SCANNING TECHNIQUES TO IDENTIFY BRAIN FUNCTIONING
TECHNIQUE DESCRIPTION STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

Works in a similar way to
CT X-rays, allows us to see
inside the body. Useful for revealing Require more radiation
The brain is examined by abnormal structures in then traditional X-
taking a large number of the brain such as rays and therefore
X-rays of it. During the tumours or structural cannot be used often.
scan, the person lies still damage.
inside a large doughnut- The quality of images Only provide a still
shaped scanner. When all provided are of higher image of the brain, not
the images are put quality than live activity that is
together, it builds a traditional X-rays. happening.
detailed image of the
brain.
PET Measures activity in the

Shows the brain in
action which is useful
They are extremely
brain after patient is expensive and
for research.
injected with a small therefore rarely used
They can show
amount of a radioactive in research.
localisation of
substance called glucose. The results can be
function (for example,
This substance helps the difficult to interpret.
we could ask someone
PET scan see the active As people are injected
to think of an episodic
areas of the brain. Red with radioactive
memory and then we
and yellow colours show substances, it can only
could see what part of
more activity than blue. be used a few times.
the brain is active).
Expensive to use as
fMRI Works in a similar way to
Shows the brain in
they require expensive
equipment. It is only
PET scans but requires no
action which is useful useful if the patient
radioactive substance as
for research. lies extremely still so
it measures oxygen levels.
Does not use radiation might be a problem
When a brain area is
so it is a very safe for children.
active, it uses more
method of scanning There is a 5-second
oxygen so more blood is
the brain. delay in the brain
directed to the active
Images are extremely activity and it being
area of the brain and this
clear. shown on the screen,
is shown on the scan.
making it difficult to
judge.
EXAM PRACTICE #8
1) Describe and evaluate CT scans as a method used to identify brain functioning. [6 marks]
2) Explain what a CT scan does and why it has been used to identify brain functioning [3 marks]
3) Identify and explain one evaluation of using an fMRI scan to study brain functioning. [3
marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #10 – A STUDY OF LOCALISATION – TULVING (1989) – AO1
LESSON #11 – A STUDY OF LOCALISATION – TULVING (1989) – AO3
EPISODIC MEMORY SEMANTIC MEMORY

Describes a long-term memory that is Describes a long-term memory that is
based on our personal events in our lives. based on our knowledge of the world.
It contains personal information. It contains factual information.

TULVING (1989)
To see whether thinking about episodic and
A semantic memories used different parts of
the brain.
A weakness of Tulving’s research is that it
There were 6 volunteers who were injected with contained a small sample size. This is a
radioactive gold so that the active brain areas weakness because the small sample size means
would show up on a brain scan. There were 8 that we cannot generalise the results to the
M tasks/ For the episodic tasks, they were told to wider population. It lacks population validity.
think about a personal experience and for the
semantic tasks, they were told to think about
historical facts.
In three of the six participants, it was clear A weakness of Tulving’s research is that only
that different parts of the brain showed three participants support his theory. This is
R activity when thinking of episodic memories a weakness because it shows that not
(front of brain) and semantic memories (back everyone shows different brain area activity
of brain). when accessing different memories.
A strength of Tulving’s research is that he

used an objective measurement. This is a
Episodic and semantic memories are separate
strength because Tulving used brain scans
C types of long-term memory that are in
which cannot be questioned. the results were
different parts of the brain. not influence by Tulving’s opinion because they
are factual evidence.
EXAM PRACTICE #9
1) Briefly outline the method used in Tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study. [2 marks]
2) Briefly evaluate Tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study. [3 marks]
3) Describe and evaluate Tulving’s ‘gold’ memory study. [9 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #12 – AN INTRODUCTION TO NEUROPSYCHOLOGY – COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
The aim is to create a detailed ‘map’ of the
How does the structure brain so we can identify which aspects of
of the brain influence behaviour/cognition are related to which area
behaviour? of the brain.
The amygdala is an area in the
temporal lobe that processes
emotions. It can cause aggressive
behaviour. How does the structure of the brain influence
cognition?
Different memories are stored in different parts of the brain. For
How does the structure of the example, episodic memories are in the hippocampus while semantic
memories are in the temporal lobe.
brain influence mental illness?
Low levels of serotonin (a
neurotransmitter) in the brain has
been linked to depression. Low COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
serotonin causes low mood & suicidal The scientific study of how brain structures
thoughts. influence mental processes such as memory
and perception.
NEUROLOGICAL DAMAGE NEUROLOGICAL DAMAGE

An event (i.e. illness or injury) that damages
What are the effects of neurological the neurons in the brain. It can cause us to
damage on motor ability? lose functions of change our behaviour.
Damaging the motor area in the left hemisphere will
impact movement on the right side of the body and
vice versa. A damaged motor area might result in
fine movements (i.e. picking up a pen) and complex The localisation
movements (i.e. walking) being lost. theory states that
different parts of the
brain control
What are the effects of different functions.
neurological damage on This means that the
behaviour? What are the effects of a stroke? way neurological
Damaging our language areas A stroke occurs when the blood supply to damage impacts
would result in speech problems. part of your brain is interrupted due to a behaviour depends
For example, a damaged Broca’s blockage or bleed in the brain. Parts of the on which area of
area would mean the individual brain might die. Damage can be permanent
the brain it
would speak slowly and have but other areas of the brain can take over to
trouble finding the right words. recover any lost functions. damaged.
EXAM PRACTICE #10

1) Outline the effect a stroke can have on behaviour. [2 marks]
2) Describe how a stroke can lead to neurological damage. [3 marks]
3) Explain how the structure and function of the brain relates to cognition. [4 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
KEYWORD DEFINITION
NERVOUS SYSTEM
ANS
CNS
PNS
SNS
FIGHT OR FLIGHT
JAMES-LANGE
THEORY
EMOTION
NEURONS
NEUROTRANSMITTER
SYNAPTIC
TRANSMISSION
HEBB’S THEORY
CEREBELLUM
CPAGETT 18/19
KEYWORD DEFINITION
CEREBRAL CORTEX
LOCALISATION
INTERPRETIVE
CORTEX
CT SCAN
PET SCAN
FMRI SCAN
EPISODIC
MEMORY
SEMANTIC
MEMORY
COGNITIVE
NEUROSCIENCE
NEUROLOGICAL
DAMAGE
CPAGETT 18/19
TOPIC 8 – PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
What do I need to know for the psychological problems topic?
# Content
1 Understanding mental health and illness and their effects

2 Depression: Types and diagnosis
3 Depression: Biological explanation
4 Depression: Psychological explanation
5 Depression: Antidepressant medication as treatment
6 Depression: Cognitive behaviour therapy as treatment
7 Depression: A study of treatment: Wiles (2013)
8 Depression: A study of treatment: Wiles (2013) – AO3
9 Addiction: Definition and diagnosis
10 Addiction: Biological explanation (Kaij [1960])
11 Addiction: Psychological explanation
12 Addiction: Aversion therapy as treatment
13 Addiction: Self-management as treatment
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #1 – UNDERSTANDING MENTAL HEALTH AND ILLNESS AND THEIR EFFECTS
MENTAL HEALTH
The condition of being mentally &
emotionally sound and not having
a mental disorder. Individuals
with mental health feel
comfortable, have positive
feelings about others and are
able to meet the demands of life.
Mental health is seen as a scale which

people go up and down during their lives.
UK STATISTICS WHY IS MODERN LIFE MORE

The mental health organisation MIND has said CHALLENGING?
that in 2009, the following mental health Modern life makes life more challenging because
problems were this frequent: it is difficult to escape poverty which can lead to
Depression = 2.6 in 100 people mental health problems. Social isolation can also
Anxiety = 4.7 in 100 people be a problem for people (i.e. elderly people who
Eating disorders = 1.6 in 100 people struggle to get around).
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A HOW HAS SOCIAL STIGMA AROUND

MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEM? MENTAL HEALTH CHANGED?
Someone with a mental health problem might Previously, someone with a mental health
struggle to socialise with other people. They problem might be called a “lunatic”, “insane” or
might struggle to concentrate and might have “crazy”. These labels are harmful because they
problems sleeping. The symptoms change lead other people to think negative about the
depending on the mental health problem they person. In today’s society, people are more
are experiencing. accepting of people with mental health problems.
HOW DO DIFFERENT CULTURES VIEW

MENTAL HEALTH?
HOW IS MENTAL HEALTH CHANGING? People around the world believe different things
It could be said the MH is changing for the worse about mental health. For example, in the UK
as more people are being diagnosed. hearing voices is seen as a symptom of
In 2007, 24% of adults were accessing treatment schizophrenia whereas in Africa, hearing voices is
for their mental health problem. In 2014, this had a sign of being mentally healthy.
risen to 37%. There are also culture-bound syndromes which are
mental health problems that only exist in certain
cultures.
EXAM PRACTICE #1
1) Explain how modern living can influence mental health. [3 marks]
2) What is meant by the term ‘social stigma’ in relation to mental health? [2 marks]
3) Explain one effect that mental health problems can have on the individual. [4 marks]
4) Explain two effects that mental health problems can have on society. [4 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #1 – UNDERSTANDING MENTAL HEALTH AND ILLNESS AND THEIR EFFECTS
DAMAGE TO RELATIONSHIPS
MH problems affect the ability to talk to others, which affects
relationships because communication is important. MH
problems are isolating as people avoid being with others as
they feel bad about themselves and fear judgement.
DIFFICULTIES COPING WITH DAY-TO-DAY LIFE
MH problems are linked to difficulties with getting dressed,
socialising, cleaning the house, etc. This could cause a
patient little distress but it may be distressing to others.
PHYSICAL WELL-BEING
If you are anxious or stressed the body produces something
called cortisol. This prevents the immune system functioning
properly, so physical illness is more likely.
HOW DO MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS AFFECT THE INDIVIDUAL?
HOW DO MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS AFFECT THE SOCIETY THEY LIVE IN?
NEED FOR MORE SOCIAL CARE

Taxes are used to fund social care, offering people who
are in need the basic necessities, i.e. food and
warmth. Social care includes helping people to learn
how to care for themselves and teaches new social and
work skills.
INCREASED CRIME RATES
There is an increased risk of violence in people with MH
problems (up to four times greater).
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ECONOMY
Mental health care costs £22 billion a year.
Cheaper drug treatments should be researched more.
CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #2 – DEPRESSION: TYPES AND DIAGNOSIS
DEPRESSION What is the difference between feeling sad and

A mental disorder that affects the having depression?
behaviour (i.e. reduce activity), Sadness is a normal human emotion, we experience it
emotion (i.e. feelings of sadness) when we experience certain situations.
and cognition (i.e. focusing on Depression is an abnormal emotional state. When a
negatives) of an individual. person is depressed, they feel sad about everything.
What are the two types of depression?

1) Unipolar depression – the individual experiences
one emotional state (depression).
2) Bipolar depression – the individual experiences

two emotional states (depression and mania). Mania is
a frenzied activity such as rushing around everywhere,
making big plans, feeling extremely excited.
Unipolar depression is diagnosed by a doctor using a set of symptoms listed in a book called the ICD-10.
In order to be diagnosed, symptoms should be present all or most the time and for at least two weeks.
Individuals might also experience negativity, ideas of self-harm or suicide and reduced concentration.
Low mood: Depressed mood most of the day and nearly every day.
SYMPTOMS
Loss of interest/pleasure: Reduced interest/pleasure in most activities most of the day.

KEY
Reduced energy levels: This has a knock-on effect on work, education and social life.
Changes in sleep patterns: Reduced sleep (insomnia), or more need for sleep (hypersomnia).
SYMPTOMS
OTHER
Changes in appetite levels: This may increase or decrease, leading to weight gain or loss.
Decrease in self-confidence: May have a sense of self-loathing (hating themselves).
“For the past few weeks Jessica has felt

unusually fatigued and found it increasingly
MILD = 4 SYMPTOMS
difficult to concentrate at work. Her MODERATE = 5-6 SYMPTOMS
coworkers have noticed that she is often SEVERE = 7+ SYMPTOMS
irritable and withdrawn, which is quite
different from her typically upbeat and
friendly disposition. She has called in sick on “fatigued” – reduced energy levels, insomnia
several occasions, which is completely unlike
“difficult to concentrate at work” – reduced concentration
“irritable and withdrawn” – negativity
her. On those days she stays in bed all day, “called in sick” – reduced energy levels”
watching TV or sleeping” “in bed all day” – reduced energy levels, hypersomnia
EXAM PRACTICE #2 CPAGETT 18/19

1) Explain two characteristics of clinical depression. [4 marks]
2) Name one system that is used to diagnose unipolar depression. [1 mark]
3) Identify and explain two behaviours shown by someone with bipolar depression. [2 marks]
LESSON #3 – DEPRESSION: BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
WHAT CAUSES DEPRESSION? Psychological explanations look at
environmental influences such as our family,
our thinking processes or past experiences.
Biological explanations look at physical
influences such as neurotransmitters, brain
structures and genes. BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter responsible for improving mood, helping us sleep and pay
attention. This means if we don’t have enough, our mood lowers, we don’t sleep well and we
can’t pay attention.
People with depression have low serotonin levels as there is not enough serotonin entering
the post-synaptic neuron from the pre-synaptic neuron. This might be because of a gene
someone has or it might even be because of their diet.
Synaptic transmission in Synaptic transmission in

someone with depression. someone without depression.
AO3 EVALUATION
A strength of the biological explanation is that research has found lower levels of serotonin in the
brains of people with depression. This is a strength because this research provides support for the
view that depression is caused by low levels of serotonin.
A weakness of the biological explanation is that we can’t establish a cause and effect. We don’t
know whether low serotonin levels cause depression or whether having depression causes low
serotonin levels. This is a weakness because we don’t know which causes which.
A weakness of the biological explanation is that it ignores other potential causes of depression. For
example, this explanation ignores how the family environment or traumatic experiences might cause
depression. This is a weakness because it doesn’t explain all causes of depression.
EXAM PRACTICE #3
1) Explain how neurotransmitters might be involved in depression. [3 marks]
2) Explain what is meant by an ‘imbalance of neurotransmitters’. Refer to depression in your

answer. [3 marks]
3) Explain what the imbalance of neurotransmitters tells us about the biological causes of
depression. [4 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #4 – DEPRESSION: PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
WHAT CAUSES DEPRESSION? Psychological explanations look at
environmental influences such as our family,
our thinking processes or past experiences.
Biological explanations look at physical
influences such as neurotransmitters, brain
structures and genes. PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
FAULTY THINKING NEGATIVE SCHEMA ATTRIBUTIONS

When a person is depressed, A schema is a ‘package’ of ideas An attribution is when you try to
they tend to ‘see the cup as half and information that we develop explain someone’s cause of
empty’ instead of ’half full’. with experience. A self-schema behaviour. When we observe
They only pay attention to the is the information we have about someone’s behaviour, we attribute
negative part of a situation and ourselves. People with depression causes (i.e. think about why that
ignore the positives. This way of have negative self-schema about person did that). When something
thinking is inevitable, the themselves (thinking they are goes wrong for a depressed person,
depressed person can’t stop it rubbish at everything). People they experience internal attribution
and this creates feelings of with depression also have which is explaining their behaviour
hopelessness and depression. negative schema about the world because they are “stupid” or
and the future. “worthless”.
AO3 EVALUATION
A strength of the psychological explanation is that it has real life application. For example, now we
know depression can be caused by faulty thinking, we can use therapy to try and change the way
people think. This is a strength because the explanation has been used to help people.
A weakness of the psychological explanation of depression is that it doesn’t explain all types of
depression. For example, not everyone with depression has a faulty thinking style. This is a
weakness because it is not a complete explanation.
A weakness of the psychological explanation is that it ignores other potential causes of depression.
For example, this explanation ignores how low levels of serotonin might cause depression. This is a
weakness because it doesn’t explain all causes of depression.
EXAM PRACTICE #4
1) The psychological explanation of depression has been criticised. Use your knowledge of
psychology to evaluate the psychological explanation of depression. [5 marks]
2) Explain the role of attributions in depression. [3 marks]
3) Distinguish between a negative schema and an attribution. [3 marks] CPAGETT 18/19

LESSON #5 – DEPRESSION: BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT - SSRIs
According to the biological explanation, low levels of serotonin causes to depression. That
means to treat depression, we should increase levels of serotonin.
The most common way of doing this is by using an antidepressant called selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
SSRIs work by blocking the reuptake channel on the presynaptic neuron so the serotonin
is forced to remain in the synaptic cleft until it is absorbed into the postsynaptic neuron
SIDE EFFECTS
ANXIETY
(constant fear
NAUSEA or worry)
(feeling sick)
WEIGHT CHANGES INSOMNIA

(loss or gain) (struggle to sleep)
A
No SSRI - Picture A and B both show
Reuptake synaptic transmission in someone
channels are
open
with depression. The only
difference is that patient A is
not taking SSRIs so their
serotonin levels remain low.
B Patient B is taking SSRIs so their
SSRI
Reuptake reuptake channels are blocked,
channels meaning their serotonin levels
are blocked have increased.
AO3 EVALUATION
A weakness of this treatment is that patients can experience side effects such as anxiety, weight
gain/loss, insomnia and nausea. These severe side effects mean that patients often stop taking the
SSRI. This is a weakness because it means the patient is likely to stop taking the SSRIs so their
depression is untreated.
A weakness of this treatment is that it can take a long time for the SSRIs to start working. SSRIs can
take up to 3 months to start working so many patients give up before then. This is a weakness because if
patients stop taking the SSRIs, their depression could be even worse.
This treatment of depression is reductionist (it only focuses on one cause of depression). It ignores the
fact that people might have depression because of a traumatic experience and drugs won’t fix that.
EXAM PRACTICE #5
1) Explain the use of antidepressant medication to treat depression. [4 marks]
2) Explain one criticism of using antidepressant medication to treat depression. [4 marks]
3) What is meant by the term ‘antidepressant’? [1 mark] CPAGETT 18/19

LESSON #6 – DEPRESSION: PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENT - CBT
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY
CBT aims to change behaviour through

Negative, irrational or faulty thinking causes changing their thinking.
depression because people tend to think in The therapist will use behavioural activation
all-or-nothing terms (seeing as all bad). which is where a pleasant activity (going to
Therefore, the aim of therapy is to change see a film or friends) is planned each day.
this to rational (‘normal’) thinking to reduce This creates more positive emotions and
depression. improves mood.
HOW DOES THE THERAPIST TACKLE THE HOW DOES THE PATIENT TACKLE THE
IRRATIONAL THOUGHTS? IRRATIONAL THOUGHTS?
The therapist will dispute the irrational thoughts The client will keep a thought diary which is
shown by the patient. For example, an irrational where they record any unpleasant emotions they
thought might be “Everyone hates me”. The experience. They are then asked how much they
therapist will dispute this and ask for evidence of believe that irrational thought and asked to
this thought or explain to the patient that this produce a rational response to their irrational
thought is irrational. thoughts.
IRRATIONAL THOUGHTS
An irrational thought is a thought that
is not based on logic or clear thinking.
It is a thought someone has for no
reason at all, for example, thinking your
friend hates you because you saw them
whispering to someone else.
AO3 EVALUATION
A strength of cognitive behaviour therapy is that it is long-lasting. For example, in comparison to SSRIs, CBT
aims to change someone’s thought processes for good. Once they have learnt techniques to challenge
irrational thinking, they can use it again and again. This is a strength as it can prevent depression from
worsening in the future,
A strength of cognitive behaviour therapy is that it could be considered as a complete treatment. For
example, this therapy focuses on treating most aspects of depression rather than just low serotonin levels
that the biological therapy treats. This is a strength because it means the treatment is more likely to work.
A weakness of cognitive behaviour therapy is that it requires a lot of effort from the patient. For example, it
involves the therapist and patient meeting once a week for several months. People with depression often have
reduced energy levels so they will struggle to turn up to therapy. This is a weakness because this therapy isn’t
suitable for everyone,
EXAM PRACTICE #6
1) Angelina has been diagnosed with unipolar depression. She has been feeling very unhappy
recently. Her friend Izzy has noticed that she thinks in a very negative way and this could be
causing her low mood and change in behaviour. Outline one way that CBT could be used to treat
her depression. [3 marks]
2) Explain how negative schemas are challenged when using cognitive behaviour therapy to
treat depression. [3 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #7 – THERAPIES FOR DEPRESSION – (WILES 2013) – AO1
LESSON #8 – THERAPIES FOR DEPRESSION – (WILES 2013) – AO3
Some people with depression take SSRIs but they don’t always work. SSRIs only work for
30% of people with depression, the remaining 70% require further help. Wiles (2013)
used CBT as well as antidepressants to treat depression using the CoBaIT trial (Cognitive
behaviour therapy as an adjunct to medication for treatment-resistant depression).

WILES (2013)
To see whether antidepressants and CBT
A
work in treating depression. A weakness of this research is that the way of
469 patients who had been taking SSRIs but assessing severity of depression in this research
still showed signs of depression were used. is flawed. for example, the patients had to
They were placed into two groups. Group one complete a questionnaire that determined how
M received SSRIs only but group two received depressed they were. This is a weakness because
SSRIs as well as 12-18 sessions of CBT. They participants could have shown social desirability
were then assessed to see if their depression (lying on a questionnaire).
had improved.
22% of people in group one received a 50% A strength of this research is that it has real
reduction in the symptoms of depression life application. For example, Wiles wanted to
find the most effective way of treating
whereas for group two this was 46% of
R depression and she was successful in doing this.
people. 12 months later, those in group two This is a strength because people with
had greater levels of recovery and were depression can now receive more effective
less likely to relapse. support in order to manage their mental health.
A weakness of this research is that it had a high
drop out rate. For example, during the research,
CBT is a useful addition alongside the use
C 16% of people dropped out. This is a weakness
of antidepressants (SSRIs). because if these people remained, the results
could have been different.
WORKS IN WORKS IN
22% OF 46% OF
PEOPLE PEOPLE
EXAM PRACTICE #7
1) Explain what Wiles’ study shows about the effectiveness of CBT in treating depression. [3 marks]
2) Describe Wiles’ study into the effectiveness of CBT. [4 marks]
3) Describe and evaluate Wiles’ study into the effectiveness of CBT. [9 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #9 – ADDICTION: DEFINITION AND DIAGNOSIS
DEPENDENCE VS. ADDICTION
ADDICTION Griffiths (2005) said that depending on a substance does not
A mental health problem in which an individual necessarily mean you are addicted. For example, someone might
takes a substance or engages in a behaviour
become dependent on pain relief to manage a condition but that
doesn’t mean they are addicted. Someone becomes addicted when
that is pleasurable but eventually becomes they take the pain relief because it gives them a ‘high’.
obsessive with harmful consequences.
SUBSTANCE MISUSE VS. ABUSE
Both misuse and abuse are harmful but the difference between them
An addiction can be to pretty is the intentions of the individual. For example, substance misuse is
much anything that can give not following the guidelines for the usage (i.e.. taking more sleeping
tablets than you should because you cannot sleep). Substance
someone a ‘high’ – alcohol, abuse would be taking more sleeping tablets than you should
drugs, shopping, games… because you want to experience a ‘high’.
Addiction is diagnosed by a doctor using a set of symptoms listed in a book called the ICD-10. In order to
be diagnosed, patients must show three or more of the symptoms at the same time during the year.
1 Strong desire: the individual experiences a sense of compulsion to use the substance.
Persisting despite harm: the individual continues to take the substance despite clear
2 evidence of negative consequences, such as damage to the liver through excessive
drinking. The individual knows about this harm but still carries on.
Difficulty in controlling use: the individual has problems stopping usage and/or limiting
3 the levels of use.
Higher priority given to the substance: the individual finds the substance use matters
4 more to them than activities. Other interests are neglected.
A withdrawal state: the individual feels worse when they stop using the substance.
5 Depending on the substance, this could be vomiting, irritability and anxiety.
Evidence of tolerance: the individual requires increased doses of the substance in order
6 to achieve effects originally produced by lower doses (i.e. going from drinking 2 pints of
alcohol to 5 pints in one night because you have become used to it).
“always seems to want a cigarette” – sense of

Daryl says to his girlfriend that he is not addicted compulsion to use, difficulty in controlling use
to cigarettes. He tells her he can quit any time he “gets irritated when he can’t have one” – feels worse
wants but she is not so sure as he always seems to when they stop using the substance
want to have a cigarette and he gets irritated “knows it can cause cancer” – individual continues use
when he cant have one. He also continues to smoke despite knowledge of negative consequences
despite the fact he knows it can cause cancer. His
“smoking is the most important thing” – higher
girlfriend is reluctant to push him too hard to quit
smoking as he says smoking is the most important priority given to the substance
thing in his life. She is worried because he is now “smoking more than ever” – evidence of tolerance
smoking more than ever. “in bed all day” – reduced energy levels, hypersomnia
EXAM PRACTICE #8
1) Andy and Sue have both been prescribed antidepressant medication for their depression and both have
problems with their intake of these antidepressant drugs. Andy takes too many because he feels so sad every
day and finds that if he takes more than the prescribed dose he feels happier. Sue has also increased the
number she takes because she wants to lose weight and the increase in pills have increased her weight loss.
Identify whether Andy and Sue show signs of substance misuse or abuse. Explain your answer. [4 marks]
2. Distinguish between substance abuse and misuse. [3 marks]
3. Explain the difference between addiction and dependence. [3 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #10 – ADDICTION: BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION (KAIJ [1960] – AO1 & AO3)
Research suggests addictions can be inherited. In other words, the genetic

information passed from parents to children can make them more or less
likely to develop an addiction. However, it isn’t that simple. There isn’t one
gene for addiction – there are multiple genes which can make you vulnerable
but that doesn’t mean you will develop an addiction. Something in the
environment needs to activate the addiction (i.e. stress).
KAIJ (1960)
To see whether being addicted to alcohol is A weakness of this research is that it doesn’t
A
because of someone’s genes. explain all causes of addiction. For example, if
Male twins from Sweden were used where genes were the only answer then you would
at least one twin had experienced problems expect 100% of the alcoholic identical twins to
M with alcohol abuse. Kaij interviewed the have a twin who is also an alcoholic but this
twins to collect information about drinking wasn’t the case. This is a weakness because
habits. there must be other causes for addiction.
A strength of this research is that it has

supporting research. Kendler et al. (1997)
Among the sets of twins who had both
conducted a larger study and found that genetic
experienced alcohol abuse, 61% of them
R factors do have a big influence on alcoholism.
were identical twins and 39% of them were
This is a strength because this supporting
non-identical twins.
research means Kaij’s research is reliable
(consistent results).
A weakness of this research is that Kaij wasn’t
This suggests alcoholism is as a result of actually studying alcoholism. For example, the
hereditary factors as there are more twins in the research were contacted because
C identical twins with alcohol problems than they had been arrested in relation to being
non-identical twins so genes must play a drunk. This is a weakness because committing an
role (identical twins share 100% of genes). offence whilst being drunk doesn’t necessarily
mean you are an alcoholic.
EXAM PRACTICE #9
1) Explain what is meant by the terms ‘hereditary factors’ and ‘genetic vulnerability’. [4 marks]
2) Describe the results and conclusion of one study that investigated alcohol abuse. [4 marks]
3) Describe and evaluate Kaij’s study of alcohol abuse. [4 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #11 – ADDICTION: PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
Addictions aren’t always as a result of our biology. They can be learned from interactions with the
physical and social aspects of our environment. One of the most important factor in shaping a
young person’s behaviour is peer influence.
PEER INFLUENCE
The effect that our peers have on us. Peers
are people who share our interest, are of
similar age, social status or backgrounds to
us. When we spend more time with peers
than family, they can be very influential.
WHAT ARE THE 4 WAYS OUR PEERS MIGHT INFLUENCE US TO DEVELOP AN ADDICTION?
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY SOCIAL NORMS

Bandura proposed that we learn what to do and A social norm is an unwritten rule about
think by observing other people. We imitate behaviour. We use social norms to guide us
(copy) these behaviours, especially if the when we aren’t sure of how to behave in a
person we are observing is rewarded for their situation so we look at the behaviour of others.
behaviour. Someone might develop a gambling Someone might develop alcoholism if they are
addiction if they see their friend gambling and new to a pub environment. They will simply look
winning money from it. We are more likely to at what their social group is doing and copy
imitate people who we admire (our role models). them.
SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY OPPORTUNITIES

We may feel pressure to conform to the social Our peer group might create opportunities for
norms of the peer group and this is explained an individual to take drugs, for example. They
by the social identity theory. In order to might buy it for them, provide a safe place to
maintain group membership and be accepted by consume them or give them instructions about
the group, you behave and think like them, even what to do. This could lead to someone
if this means developing an addiction. becoming addicted to the drug.
AO3 EVALUATION
A strength of this explanation is that it has real life application. For example, now we know people are influenced a great deal by their
peers, we can use this to help prevent addictions. Adverts can give people messages such as “Those around you are drinking less than
you think”. This is a strength because it means we can use this explanation to prevent addictions.
A weakness of this explanation is that it doesn’t explain all situations. For example, if an individual saw their peer losing
from their addiction (i.e. losing money from gambling, declining health from smoking) they still might develop an
addiction. This is a weakness because there must be other causes of addiction that this explanation ignores.
A strength of this explanation is that there is supporting research. Psychologists looked at several studies and found
that smoking addicts were likely to be influenced by their peers. This is a strength because it shows that smoking
addicts are indeed influenced to develop an addiction by their peers.
EXAM PRACTICE #10

1) Explain the influence of nurture on addiction. [3 marks]
2) Identify and explain one psychological factor that influences addiction. [3 marks]
3) Explain two ways the psychological explanation for addiction can be evaluated. [4 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
LESSON #12 – TREATING ADDICTION: AVERSION THERAPY
Classical conditioning is a process that explains how humans learn. It states that we learn by
associating things together. For example, if you are sprayed with water every time you hear a bell
ring, eventually you will flinch at just the sound of the bell. Psychologists use classical conditioning to
treat addictions using aversion therapy.
AVERSION THERAPY
Classical
A patient is exposed to their addictive
substances while being exposed to some conditioning
sort of discomfort. This leads to patient shown by
to associated the substance with Pavlov’s dogs
discomfort and therefore stop using it.
TREATING ALCOHOLICS
The individual is given a drug that causes them to feel extremely sick and eventually
vomit. Just before they vomit, they drink some alcohol. Eventually, the patient will
learn to associate being sick with alcohol and this will put the individual off drinking
alcohol in the future.
TREATING GAMBLERS
The individual writes down some phrases that relate to gambling behaviour (i.e. “I feel
good when I win money”) and some about non-gambling behaviour (i.e. “My favourite I feel good
food is chocolate”). The individual then shuffles the cards and when they read one when I win
related to gambling, they get an electric shock. Eventually, the gambling behaviours money
are associated with the electric shock so they are put off gambling in the future.
TREATING SMOKERS
The individual sits in a room and rapidly smokes (smokes a large amount of cigarettes
one after another). This creates feelings of disgust and sickness. The individual then
associates the feelings of disgust and sickness with cigarettes so they are put off in
the future.
AO3 EVALUATION
A weakness of aversion therapy is that it is only a short-term solution. For example, research has found that years
later, addicts revert back to their own ways. Probably because they know they aren’t going to receive an electric shock
if they gamble. This is a weakness because it suggests the therapy isn’t a long-term solution like the 12-step programme
(next page).
A weakness is that it might only work for some people. For example, the treatment involves experiences very unpleasant
feelings such as extreme sickness. This is a weakness because it means the programme isn’t suitable for everyone, people
might drop out and then it could make their problem worse.
A strength of aversion therapy is that it could be considered as a holistic approach when combined with CBT. For
example, aversion therapy deals with the addictive behaviour whilst CBT deals with the thoughts surrounding the
addiction. This is a strength because this combination provides long lasting support to the addict.
EXAM PRACTICE #11

CPAGETT 18/19
1) Outline and evaluate aversion therapy as a method to improve mental health. [6 marks]
2) Describe the way aversion therapy works as a therapy for addiction. [4 marks]
3) Explain whether aversion therapy is a holistic or reductionist method of treating addiction. [3 marks]
LESSON #13 – TREATING ADDICTION: SELF-MANAGEMENT
Some individuals prefer it if they organise their own recovery without a professional
therapist. This is called self-management. Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is an example of a
self-management programme.
SELF MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME The 12-step recovery programme is

When someone with a mental health problem
(i.e. addiction) works on their recovery
used by alcoholics although it can be
without the assistance of a professional. changed to suit any addiction.
1 Admit the addiction has power over you

HIGHER POWER
Addicts surrender their control to a ‘higher 2 Find hope and believe you can be helped
power’ such as God. Even though not everyone
3 Surrender control to those who help you
is religious, it is important to let go of your
own choices. 4 Focus on the wrongs you have done
ADMITTING AND SHARING GUILT 5 Share these wrongs with yourself & another person
The addict must accept that they have made
mistakes in life. They talk to the group about 6 Be ready to have your faults corrected by others
what they have done (maybe they stole money 7 Ask others to remove your faults
to pay for their substance) and they accept
the consequences., 8 Make a list of people who have been harmed
LIFELONG PROCESS 9 Make up for any harm you’ve caused

Recovering from an addiction is a lifelong 10 Carry on reviewing your behaviour
process where the group supports each other.
Members have a book with names and number 11 Use prayer and meditation to continue
of people they can call if they need. Share the message to others in need
12
AO3 EVALUATION
A weakness of the 12-step programme is that there is a lack of research
to support it. For example, researchers have found that there was no
difference between the effectiveness of the 12-step programme and
other treatments. This is a weakness because it means the programme
cannot be considered as effective.
A weakness is that it might only work for some people. For example, the
high demands of the 12-step programme mean that a lot of people
dropout and go back to their addiction. The self-help groups also mean
Self-help groups are used to individuals have to be open with others and willing to share. This is a
recover from addictions. It is a weakness because it means the programme isn’t suitable for everyone.
group pf people who share the A strength of 12-step programmes is that it is a lifelong process. For
same problems and use the 12- example, if individuals don’t drop out, they live by the 12-steps for the
step programme to help and rest of their lives and share the message to other people. This is a
strength because in comparison to aversion therapy, it is a long term
support each other. solution.
EXAM PRACTICE #12

1) Explain how a 12-step recovery programme may help to treat addiction. [4 marks]
2) Describe two of the steps involved in the 12-step recovery programme. [4 marks]
3) Explain one criticism of the 12-step recovery programme. [4 marks] CPAGETT 18/19
KEYWORD DEFINITION
MENTAL HEALTH
INDIVIDUAL
EFFECTS
SOCIAL EFFECTS
UNIPOLAR
DEPRESSION
BIPOLAR
DEPRESSION
ICD-10
SYNAPTIC
TRANSMISSION
SEROTONIN
FAULTY
THINKING
NEGATIVE SCHEMA
ATTRIBUTIONS
SSRIs
CBT
CPAGETT 18/19
KEYWORD DEFINITION
ADDICTION
SUBSTANCE
ABUSE
SUBSTANCE
MISUSE
GENETIC
VULNERABILITY
PEER
INFLUENCE
SOCIAL NORMS
AVERSION
THERAPY
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
12-STEP
PROGRAMME
CPAGETT 18/19

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GCSE Psychology

✘ ”Obedience is when people obey authority figures”

• https://learndojo.org/aqa/gcse-psychology-revision/ (A website that covers most of what you need to

• https://www.tutor2u.net/psychology/collections (An A-LEVEL website ran by exam performance

AIM: What did the researcher want to find out?

METHOD: How was the study carried out?

RESULTS: What did the researcher find?

EVALUATION PEE #1: EVALUATION PEE #2:

1 A study of conformity: Asch (1955)

2 A study of conformity: Asch (1955) - AO3

3 Explaining conformity: Social and dispositional factors

4 A study of obedience: Milgram (1963) – AO1 + AO3

Confederates = white circles

2) Evaluate Asch’s study into conformity. [4

3) Describe and evaluate Asch’s study into

MILGRAM (1963) - OBEDIENCE

2) Evaluate Milgram’s study into obedience. [4 marks]

3) Describe and evaluate Milgram’s study into

“People will listen to an

The agency theory explains why atrocities such as

WHAT MAKES US OBEY?

How do people with an authoritarian personality think? What is meant by

BYSTANDER BEHAVIOUR PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

AO1 DESCRIPTION AO3 EVALUATION

The study took place a considerable amount

The participants were unaware their

2) Evaluate Piliavin’s study of prosocial

3) Describe and evaluate Piliavin’s study of

2) A study was conducted by a psychologist to investigate dispositional factors in bystander

ZIMBARDO (1969) – CROWD BEHAVIOUR

A weakness of Zimbardo’s research is that it

A weakness of Zimbardo’s research is that

2) Evaluate Zimbardo’s study of crowd behaviour.

3) Describe and evaluate Zimbardo’s study of

4) Describe what participants were asked to do in

SOCIAL LOAFING PERSONALITY

2) Explain how morality affects crowd and collective behaviour. [3 marks]

3) What is meant by the term ‘social loafing’? [2 marks]

4) Explain how personality affects crowd and collective behaviour. [3 marks]

1 Language and thought: Piaget’s theory AO1 + AO3

HOW DOES THOUGHT LEAD TO LANGUAGE?

CAN CHILDREN UNDERSTAND ALL WORDS?

HOW DOES LANGUAGE DEVELOP?

EXAM PRACTICE #1 AO3 EVALUATION

3) Outline in what way, according to Piaget,

Sapir and Whorf said it was impossible to think about something

WORDS DETERMINE OUR

3) Identify three features of the

COLOURS - BROWN & LENNEBERG

EXAM PRACTICE #3 EXAM PRACTICE #3

KEY STUDY - IMPORTANT

Worker honey bees tell other bees where the

Another weakness is that bees do not

2) What is meant by the term ‘animal

3) Describe and evaluate Von Frisch’s study of

What can humans do that animals can’t?

Human language is an open system as words can be combined together in an infinite

2) Give one example of how animals communicate in relation to reproduction. [3 marks]

3) Explain one difference between animal and human communication. [3 marks]