1.

TRIGONOMETRY
1.1 Angles
Angle is a measure of rotation of a given ray about its initial point. The original ray is called the initial
side and final position of the ray after rotation is called the terminal side of the angle, the point of
rotation is called vertex. If the direction of rotation is anticlockwise (counter clockwise), the angle
is said to be positive and if the direction of rotation is clockwise then the angle is negative. One
complete revolution from initial side to terminal side is measure is 360°.

si de Initial side
inal O
m
Ter (Vertex)
O Ter
Initial side mi
(Vertex) na l si
de

1.2 Degree measure

If a rotation from the intial side to terminal side is (1/360)th of a revolution, the angle is said to have
a measure of one degree (1°). A degree is divided into 60 minutes and a minute divided into 60
seconds. One sixtieth of a degree is called minute (1`) and one sixieth of a minute is called second
(1’’).
Thus 1° = 60’; 1’ = 60’’.

1.3 Radian meausre

There is another unit for measurement of an angle, called the radian measure.

l
r


l
  radian
r
1.4 Relation between degree and radiation
Since a circle subtends at the centre an angle whose radian measure is 2  and its degree measure
is 360°. 2  radiation = 360° or  radian = 180°.
180
1 radian = = 5716’ approx.


1° = radian = 0.01746 radian
180
Illustration 1:
Convert 40° 20° into radian measure
Solution:
1
40° 20° = 40
3
  121 121
=  radian = radian
180 3 540

Illustration 2:
Convert 6 radians into degree measure
Solution:
180 180  6  7 7
6 radians =  6 degree =  343 degree
 22 11
 6 radians = 343° 38’ 11’’ approximately.

Illustration 3:
Find the radius of the circle in which a central angle of 60° intercept an are of length 37.4 cm
 22 
  
 7 
Solution:
l

r
37.4  3
 r= = 35.7 cm

Drill Exercise - 1

1. Express in radians of the angle 175° 45’

2
2. The difference between the acute angles of a right-angled triangle is  ; express the angles in
5
degrees.

3. In a circle of 5 cm radius, what is the length of arc which subtends an angle of 33° 15’ at the centre?

1.5 Signs of trigonometric functions indifferent quadrants.

I II III IV
sin  + + – –
cos  + – – +
tan  + – + –
cosec  + + – –
sec  + – – –
cot  + – + –
1.6 Domain and range of all trigonometric ratio:
Domain Range
sin  R [-1, 1]
cos  R [-1, 1]
tan  R ~ {(2n + 1)  /2} R
cosec  R ~ {n  } (-  , -1]  [1,  )
sec  R ~ {(2n + 1)  /2} (-  , -1]  [1,  )
cot  R ~ {n  ) R
Here n I.
1.7 Trigonometric functions of sum and difference of two angles
sin (A  B) = sinA cosB  cosA sinB
cos (A  B) = cosA cosB  sinA sinB
tan A  tan B
tan (A  B) =
1 tan A tan B
Drill Exercise - 2

15 12
1. If sin   and cos  = , find the value of sin(    ) , cos (    ) and tan(    ).
17 13
sin(A  B) sin(B  C) sin(C  A)
2. Prove that cos A cos B  cos B cos C  cos C cos A = 0.

2. CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY
In the co-ordinate geometry we have to recapitulate, the location of points P(x, y) in different
planes i.e. distances from x-axis and y-axis.
y
x P(x, y)
y
x’ O x

y’

2.1 Distance between two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2)

PQ  (x 2  x1 ) 2  (y 2  y1 ) 2
Illustration 4:
Find the distance between P(2, 3) and Q(3, -3).
Solution:
PQ = (3  2) 2  ( 3  3)2  1  36  37
2.2 Slope of a line
(a) Slope of a curve at a point is the slope of the tangent line drawn to the curve at that point.
(b) Slope of a straight line is the tangnet of the angle
made by the straight line with the positive direction of the 

x-axis and the angle being measured in anti-clock wise direction. Slope, m = tan 
i.e., [0,  ] ~ {  /2}
Illustration 5:
In the adjacent figure find the slope of a curve at a point.
Solution:
Slope of A = tan  B
Slope of B = tan0, A C
 
Slope of C = tan 
Slope of D = no slope
D
2.3 Slope of a line when co-ordinates of any two points on the line are given
Let P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2)
y 2  y1
 slope = x  x = tan  = m(say)
2 1

2.4 Some graph of the line y = mx + c on the basis of slopes

y y y y
m>0 m>0 m<0 m<0
c>0 c<0 c>0 c<0
x’ x x’ O x x’ x O x
O O x’

y’
y’ y’ y’
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Drill Exercise - 3
1. Find the value of x. If the distance between (x, 2) and (3, 4) is 8.
1
2. Find the slope if any line makes an angle  with the positive direction of x-axis where cos  = - .
3
3. Find the equation of the line joining the points (-1, 3) and (4, -2).

3. DETERMINANTS
a1 b1  Row 1
a2 b 2  Row 2

 
Column I Column II
 a1 b1
The expression a b is called a determinant of order two, and is equal to a1b2 – a2b1.
2 2

A determinant of order three consisting of 3 rows and 3 columns is written as

a1 b1 c1
b2c2 a 2c 2 a 2b2
a2 b2 c2
and is equal to a1 b c – b1 a c + c1 a b
a3 b3 c3 3 3 3 3 3 3

= a1 (b2c3 – c2b3) – b1 (a2c3 – c2a3) + c1(a2b3 – b2a3)

The numbers ai, bi, ci (i = 1, 2, 3) are called the elements of the determinant.
Note: Whether we expand along any row or column determinant remains the same.

Illustration 6:
2 3 x y 7
Find the value of x and y when y x = 4 and 2 1  2

Solution:
2 3
Since, y x  4  2 x  3y  4 … (1)

x y 7 7
and 2 1  2  x  2 y  2 … (2)

Solving (1) and (2),

5
we get x = , y = –3.
2

Illustration 7:

1 2 3
4 5 6
Find the value of .
1 4 9
Solution:

1 2 3
4 5 6 5 6 4 6 4 5
= (-1)1 + 1 1 + (-1)1+2 2 + (-1)1+3 3 = -6.
1 4 9 4 9 1 9 1 4
 Drill Exercise - 4

4 9 7
3 5 7
1. Evaluate :
5 4 5

1 2 4
1 3 9
2. Evaluate:
1 4 16

15  x 1 10
11  3x 1 16
3. Solve the equation =0
7  x 1 13

4. NUMBER SYSTEM
(i) Natural numbers : N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . . }
(ii) Whole numbers : W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . . }
(iii) Integers : Z or I = {. . . . . –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . .}
Natural numbers are also called positive integers (denoted by Z+ or I+)
Whole numbers are also called non–negative integers.
The set of negative integers, Z– or I– = {. . .. . –3, –2, –1}.
The set of non positive integers is {…, –3, –2, –1, 0}.
Zero is neither positive nor negative but it is non–positive as well as non–negative.
(iv) Rational numbers: Numbers of the form p/q where p, q  Z and q  0 (because division
by zero is not defined). ‘Q’ represents their set.
All integers are rational numbers with q = 1
When q  1 and p, q have no common factor except 1, the rational numbers are called fractions.
Rational numbers when represented in decimal form are either ‘terminating’ or ‘non–terminating’
but repeating.
e.g., 5/4 = 1.25 (terminating)
5/3 = 1.6666 . . . . . (non terminating but repeating)
p
(v) Irrational numbers: Numbers, which cannot be represented in q form.
In decimal representation, they are neither terminating nor repeating
all surds fall into this category
1/ 3
e.g., 2 , 15 , , etc.
Note :   22/7, 22/7 is only an approximate value of  in terms of rational numbers, taken for
convenience
 Actually  = 3.14159 . . . . .
(vi) Real numbers: All rational and irrational numbers taken together form the set of real
numbers, represented by R. This is the largest set in the real world of numbers.
Also note that
Integers which give an integer on division by 2 are called even integers otherwise they are called
odd integers.
 Zero is considered as even number.
 The set of natural numbers can be divided in two ways.
(i) Odd and even natural numbers.
(ii) Prime numbers (which are not divisible by any number except 1 and themselves) and
composite numbers (which have some other factor apart from 1 and themselves).
 1 is neither prime nor composite
 2 is the only even number which is prime
Drill Exercise - 5
1. Find the number of prime numbers from 1200 to 1300

5. SET
Any collection of well defined and distinct objects is called set.
e.g. (i) the collection of vowels in english alphabet is set.
i.e., {a, e, i, o, u}
(ii) The collection of odd natural numbers less than 10 is set. i.e., {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
Note: (i) The collection of good cricket players of India is not a set, since the term “good player is
vague and it is not well defined.”
(ii) Every set is colection of objects but every collection is not a set.
5.1 Representaion of Sets:
(i) Tabulation or Roster or Enumeration method.
e.g. A = {a, e, i, o, u}
(ii) Set builder form or Rule or property method.
e.g. If A = {a, e, i, o, u} then we write A = {x : x is vowels in the english alphabet}.
5.2 Operations on Sets:
(i) Union of sets (  )
A  B = {x : x  A or x  B}
e.g. If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7} then
A  B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}
(ii) Intersection of sets (  ) : A  B = {x : x  A and x  B}
If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7} then
 A  B = {3}
(iii) Disjoint of sets:
e.g., If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6} then A  B = 
(iv) Difference of sets:
E.g. If A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 8} B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9}
A - B = {1, 8} and B - A = {2, 9}
(v) Symmetric difference of two sets:
A  B = (A - B)  (B - A)
= {x : x  A  B}
e.g. If A = {x : x  R, 0 < x < 3}, B = {x : x  R, 1  x  5}
then A - B = {x : x  R, 0 < x < 1}
B - A = { x : x  R, 3  x  5}
A  B = (A - B)  (B - A)
= {x : x  R, 0 < x < 1 or 3  x  5}
(v) Complement of a set:
Ac = A  {x : x  U and x  A}
e.g. (i) If U = {1, 3, 5, 7} and A = {1, 3}
A  = U - A = {5, 7}
(ii) Let U = {x : x is a letter in English alphabet}
and A = {x : x is vowel}
then A  = {x : x is consonant}

Illustration 8:
If A = {a, b, c} and B = {b, c, d} then evaluate AB, AB, A – B and B – A
Solution:
AB = {x : x A or x B} = {a, b, c, d}
AB = {x : x  A and x B} = {b, c}
A – B = {x : x  A and x  B} = {a}
B – A = {x : x  B and x  A} = {d}

Drill Exercise - 6
1. Prove that (A  B)  (A  BC) = A.
2. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {2, 3, 5, 7}.
Verify (i) (A  B)’ = A’  B’ (ii) (A  B)’ = A’  B’
3. Prove that A - (B - C) = (A - B)  (A  C).
6. LOGARITHM
If a is a positive real number other than 1 and ab = c, then we write logac = b obviously c is positive.
For example log3 81 = 4  34 = 81
Note
 The expression logb a is meaningful for a > 0 and for either 0 < b < 1.
or b > 1
 a = b log b a
log c b
 logab = log c a

a1  a 2  0 if b  1
 logba1  logba2  0  a  a2 if 0  b  1
1

Brain Teaser 1 : log x2 = 2logx, is it true or false?

6.1 Formulae

(i) loga|mn| = loga|m| + loga |n| (ii) loga m = loga|m| – loga|n|

n
n
(iii) loga|m | = n log a|m| (iv) logab = logcb × logac
1
(v) log a k N = logaN
k

Illustration 9:
Find the logarithms of 0.0625 to the base ‘2’.
Solution:
1 1
Suppose 2x = 0.0625 =  4 or 2x = 2–4 or x = –4
16 2

Illustration 10:
Solve the equation a2x b3x = c5, where a, b, c R+
Solution:
Equation is a2x.b3x = c5
Taking log on both sides, we have
2x log a + 3x logb = 5 logc  x (2loga + 3 logb) = 5logc
5 log c
 x = 2 log a  3 log b 
Illustration 11:
Find the value of 5 23.4
Solution:
Let x = (23.4)1/5
1 1
 logx = log 23.4 = (1.3692159)  logx = 0.2738432
5 5
Again in the table of logarithms we find corresponding to the logarithim 2738432 , the number
1.87864 = 0.2738432
 x = 1.87864

Drill Exercise - 6
Given log2 = 0.30 103, log3 = 0.4771213 and log7 = 0.8450980.
Solve the equations
1. 2x . 3x+4 = 7x

2. 72x  2x-4 = 33x - 7

7. INTERVALS
Intervals are basically subsets of R and are of very much importance in calculus as you will get to
know shortly. If there are two numbers a, b  R such that a < b, we can define four types of
intervals as follows:
Open interval : (a, b) = {x : a < x < b} i.e., end points are not included.
Closed interval: [a, b] = {x : a  x  b} i.e., end points are also included. This is possible only when
both a and b are finite.
Open–closed Interval: (a, b] = {x : a < x  b}
Closed–open interval:[a, b) = {x : a  x < b}
The infinite intervals are defined as follows
(a, ) = {x : x > a}
[a, ) = {x : x  a}
(–, b] = {x : x  b}
intervals are particularly important in solving inequalities or in finding domains etc.

7.1 Inequalities
The following are some very useful points to remember
 a  b  either a < b or a = b.
 a < b and b < c  a < c.
 a < b  a + c < b + c  cR
  a < b  –a > –b i.e., inequality sign reverses if both sides are multiplied by a negative
number.
 a < b and c < d  a + c < b + d and a – d < b – c.
 a < b  ma < mb if m > 0 and ma > mb if m < 0.
 0 < a < b  ar < br if r > 0 and ar > br if r < 0.
 1
  a    2  a > 0 and equality holds for a = 1.
 a

 1
  a    –2  a < 0 and equality holds for a = –1.
 a
 If a1 > b1, a2 > b2, a3 > b3 . . . . . , where ai > 0, bi > 0, i = 1, 2,…
Then a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . > b1 + b2 + b3 + . . . and a1a2a3 . . . > b1b2b3 . . .
 If a > b, p and q are some positive integers, then following results are evident.
 a > b  an > bn  a–n < b–n where n  N
 a > b  al/q > bl/q  ap/q > bp/q

7.2 Logarithmic inequalities

When solving logarithmic inequalities, it is neccessary to remember that the function
y = logax (a > 0, a  1, x > 0) is decreasing if 0 < a < 1 and increasing if a > 1.
Hence an inequality of the form.
loga f(x) < loga (x)
We take two cases
Case I: 0 < a < 1,
f(x) >  (x) and  (x) > 0
Case II: a > 1,
f(x) <  (x) and f(x) > 0
e.g.,
(i) log1/2 x  0  x  1 and x > 0
 x  (0, 1]
(ii) log2x  0  x  1 and x > 0  x  [1,  )

Illustration 12:
Solve for x, log1/2 (x – 2) > 2.
Solution:

1 1 9

log1/2(x – 2) > log1/2    0 < x – 2 <    2 < x <  
4 4 4

 9
So x   2, 
 4
7.3. Modulus Function
Let x  R, then the magnitude of x is called it’s absolute value and in general, denoted by |x| and
 x, x  0
defined as |x| =  x , x0

Note that x = 0 can be included either with positive values of x or with negative values of x. As we
know all real numbers can be plotted on the real number line, |x| in fact represents the distance of
number ‘x’ from the origin, measured along the number–line. Thus |x|  0 secondly, any point ‘x’
lying on the real number line will have it’s coordinate as (x, 0). Thus it’s distance from the origin is
x2
Hence |x| = x 2 . Thus we can define |x| as |x| = x 2
e.g if x = –2.5 then |x| = 2.5, if x = 3.8 then |x| = 3.8
x 1 1 1
Brain Teaser 2 : If x  R– then is ,  ,  or not defined.
4x 2 2 2 2

Basic Properties :
 ||x|| = |x|
 |x| > a  x > a or x < –a if a R+ and x  R if a  R–
 |x| < a  – a < x < a if a  R+ and no solution if a  R––{0}
 |x + y|  |x| + |y|
 |xy| = |x||y|
x |x|
 
y |y|
,y0

Illustration 13:
Solve |2x – 1| < 3.
Solution:
|2x – 1| < 3  – 3 < 2x – 1 < 3
 – 2 < 2x < 4  – 1 < x < 2.

Drill Exercise - 7
1. Solve: |x + 2| = 2(3 - x)

2. Solve the inequalities : |x + 1|  1 and |x2 + 5x| < 6

3. Solve : |x| - |x - 2| = 2

7.4 Wavy Curve Method

In order to solve inequalities of the form
 P x  P x 
 0,  0 , where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, we use the following method:
Qx  Qx 
If x1 and x2 (x1 < x2) are two consecutive distinct roots of a polynomial equation, then within this
interval the polynomial itself takes on values having the same sign. Now find all the roots of the
polynomial equations P(x) = 0 and Q(x) = 0. Ignore the common roots and write

P x  x   1 x   2 x   3 . . . . . x   n 
 f x  
Qx  x  1 x   2 x   3 . . . . . x   m  ,
Where 1, , . . . . . n,  1,  2, . . . . . ,  m are distinct real numbers. Then f(x) = 0 for x = 1,
2, . . . . . , n and f(x) is not defined for x = 1, 2, . . . . . ,  m apart from these (m + n) real numbers
f(x) is either positive or negative. Now arrange 1, 2, . . . . . , n,  1,  2, . . . . . ,  m in an increasing
order say c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, . . . . . , cm+n. Plot them on the real line. And draw a curve starting from
right of cm+n along the real line which alternately changes its position at these points. This curve is
known as the wavy curve.

The intervals in which the curve is above the real line will be the intervals for which f(x) is positive
and intervals in which the curve is below the real line will be the intervals in which f(x) is negative.

7.5 If any root obtained by P(x) = 0 and Q(x) = 0 is repeated even number of times then the expression
f(x) has same sign in both sides of the interval divided by that value of x. Otherwise alternate sign.

Illustration 14:
x  3x  2 x  5
If f(x) = x  1x  7  then find x such that
(i) f(x) > 0. (ii) f(x) < 0.
Solution:
x  3x  2 x  5
Given f(x) = x  1x  7 
(i) f(x) > 0  x  (–5, –2) (–1, 3) (7, )

-5 -2 -1 3 7
(ii) f(x) < 0  x  (–, –5)(–2, –1)(3, 7)
Illustration 15:
(x  1)2 (x  3)
0
(x  5)5 (x  6)8 
Solution: + + + +
x  (-  , 3]  (5, 6)  (6,  ) 1 3 – 5 6

Drill Exercise - 8

Solve for x:
1. (x - 1)2 (x + 1)3 (x - 4) < 0
(x  1)2 (x  1)3
2. 0
x 4 (x  2) 

x4  x 2  1
3. >0
x 2  4x  5

8. FACTOR THEOREM
Let p(x) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1 and  be a real number such that
p() = 0, then (x – ) is a factor of p(x). Conversely, if (x–) is a factor of p(x), then p() = 0.
8.1 Remainder Theorem
Let p(x) be any polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one and  be any real number. If p(x)
is divided by (x–), then the remainder is equal to p().

9. FUNCTION
It is a rule by which each element of set A is associated with unique element of set B. If y = f(x) then
x is associated by y by a rule of f. Rule is called a function. Written as f : A  B.

Domain: Set A is called domain of function.

Co-domain: Set B is called co-domain of the function.
Elements of domain are called independent variables and corresponding elements of co-domains
are called dependent variables.
Image/pre-image: Elements of co-domain which are associated with elements of domain are called
images and corresponding elements of domain are called pre-image.
Range: Set of images is called range of function.
Domain (Indentent): x-axis
Co-domain (Dependent): y-axis
Any line parallel to y-axis cannot cut the curve more than one point and any line parallel to x-axis
can cut the curve more than one point.
 not possible
Possible

x x

Note: Inputs - member of domain

Outputs - member of range.
Domain: Set of real numbers for which the given function is defined/exists.
e.g If f(x) = x , then x is defined for x  0.

Illustration 16:
1
Find the domain of f(x) = 2
x  3x
Solution:
x2 - 3x  0  x(x - 3)  0
x  R ~ {0, 3}.

9.1 Elementary Functions:

(i) Constant function: y = c where c is a constant, defined for all real x.
(ii) Power function: y  x 
(a)  is positive integer. The function is defined in the infinite interval –  < x <  .
(b)  is negative integer. The function is defined for all values of x except for x = 0.
(iii) General exponential function: y = ax, where a is positive not equal to unity. This function
is defined for all values of x.
(iv) Logarithmic function: y = logax, a > 0 but a  1. This function is defined for all x > 0.
(v) Trigonometric function: y = sinx, y = cosx defined for all real x

y = tanx, y = secx, defined for R – (2n + 1) .
2
y = cotx, y = cosecx, defined for R – n  , where nl
It must be noted that in all these function the variable x is expressed in radians. All these function
have a very important property that is Periodicity.
Brain Teaser 3 : Is sec2 θ – tan2 θ = 1 valid for all θ  R (real) ?
(vi) Algebraic function:
(a) Polynomial function: y = a0xn + a1xn–1 + … + an, where a0, a1 … an are real constants
(a0  0) and n is a positive integer, called the polynomial of degree n.
e.g. y = ax + b, a  0 (a linear function)
 y = ax2 + bx + c, a  0 (a quadratic function)
A polynomial function is defined for all real values of x.
a 0 x n  a 1 x n 1  ...  a n
(b) Rational Function y =
b 0 x m  b1 x m1  ...  b m
e.g: y = a/x (inverse variation)
The rational function is defined for all values of x except for those where the denominator becomes
zero.
2x 2  x
(c) Irrational function e.g. y =
1  5x 2
Drill Exercise - 10

x2 1
1. Find the domain and range f(x) = ,x  1
x 1
2. Find the domain and range f(x) = 9  x 2
1
3. Find the domain and range f(x) =
1 x2
x 2  2x  1
4. Find the domain of the function f(x) = .
x 2  8x  12

10. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

A point a on the real axis is called the limit point of a set X. If any neighbourhood of the point a
contains point belonging to X which are different from a, the limit point a belonging to domain of the
definitation of the function f(x).
Let lim
xa
f(x) = l (l is limiting value of f(x) may be either finite or infinite).
When x approaches ‘a’ then f(x) approaches to l. x  a does not mean that x becomes a finally..
x  a mean that difference of x and a is diminising at a time. i.e., x < a or x  a- and x > a or x
 a+ .
Limit of f(x) = xlim
a 
f(x) = Left hand limit (LHL)

Limit of f(x) = xlim

a 
f(x) = right hand limit (RHL)

Limit of f(x) = lim

xa
f(x) = limiting value of f(x).
If LHL = RHL then we say that limit exists at x = a.
If LHL  RHL then we say that limit does not exist.

Illustration 17:
 (i) lim
x 1
(3x2 + 4x + 5)

4x 5  9x  7
(ii) lim
x 1 3x 6  x 3  1
Solution:
(i) lim
x 1
(3x2) + lim
x 1
4(x) + lim (5) = 3 × 1 + 4 × 1 + 5 = 12
x 1

lim (4x 5  9x  7) 4  9  7
x 1
(ii) lim(3x 6  x 3  1)  3  1  1  4
x 1

Some formulae used frequently:

sin x
(i) lim 1
x0 x
1
(ii) If lim f(x) = then lim
xa  x  a f (x) = 0

1
(iii) If lim = 0 then lim
x 
f(x) = 
x  x
1 1 1
(iv) If xlim    & lim    then lim = does not exist.
 0 x x 0 x x 0 x

xn  an
(v) lim = nan-1
x a x a
Drill Exercise - 11

x 2  4x  3 3
4  3n  n 6
1. Find: lim . 2. lim
x 1 x 2  3x  4 n  1  3n  2n 2
(4  x)3  64 x  3x  2
3. lim 4. lim
x 0 x x2 x2  4
sin 3x sin 3x
5. lim 6. lim
x0 4x x  0 sin 2x

11. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Let y = f(x) be a function. Putting the values of ‘x’ in this relation, we obtain the corresponding
values of ‘y’. Suppose we start putting some values of ‘x’ in increasing order. The respective
values of ‘y’ that we obtain may turn out to be in increasing order, or in decreasing order, or they
may remain constant, or they may even have a mixed trend, depending upon the type of function.
Let us take two values of x: x1 and x2(x1 < x2). So, y1 = f(x1) and y2 = f(x2)
  y 2  y1 
Then, the quantity  x  x  will tell us the average rate of change of y w.r.t. x in the interval
 2 1

[x1, x2] .
y 2  y1
Let y2 > y1  x  x is positive  Function is increasing on an average.
2 1

y 2  y1
if y2 < y1  x  x is negative  Function is decreasing on an average.
2 1

y 2  y1
If y2 = y1  x  x is zero  Function is constant on an average.
2 1

 y 2  y1 
As you can see, if x1 and x2 are sufficiently far apart, the quantity  x  x  can not give the exact
 2 1

idea of the variation of y w.r.t. x in the interval [x1, x2]. it just provides an overall information. For
example if y2 = y1 it does not necessarily mean that y is same for all x in the interval [x1, x2]. Thus,
to obtain a sufficiently accurate information, we have to choose x1 and x2 sufficiently close to each
other. This sufficiently close is the key word here. To know the rate of change of y w.r.t. x at x = x1,
y 2  y1
we take x2 very near to x1 (as much as possible), i.e., x 2 tends to x1 and then calculate x  x .
2 1

In the limiting case, we say that x2 nearly coincides with x1 and represent it as x2  x1. We use the
dy y 2  y1
notation dx for x  x as x2  x1. dx means small change in x (near x = x1) and dy means
x  x1 2 1

dy
the corresponding change in y. We call the derivative or the differential coefficient of y w.r.t. x.
dx

y2 – y1
x2 – x1

x1 x2 x

(You can understand it physically by taking x as time and y as displacement of a body,

dy
Then denotes the magnitude of velocity).
dx
dy df (x )
is also represented as f  (x) or
dx dx
 dy dy
Graphically, dx (i.e., computed at x = x1) denotes the slope of the tangent to the curve
x  x1 dx
y = f(x) at x = x1
dy
 as a rate measure
dx
(i) This rate of change of y with respect to x
dy 2 dy
(ii) 2 is rate of change of with respect to x
dx dx
dx
(iii) rate of change of x w.r.t. t.
dt

d2 x
rate of change of x w.r.t. t
dt 2
If x be the position of a particle in a straight line motion at time t is given by
dx
x = f(t) then dt = f (t1 ) = v(t1) is the instantaneous velocity of the particle at time t = t1.
t  t1

d2x
 dt 2  f (t 2 )  v ' (t ) = a(t ) is the acceleration of the particle at time t = t .
2 2 2
t t2

Position time Graph

x(t)

x = f(t1)
dx
= v(t1) = tan  x(t)
dt t  t1

t = t1
P B Q
In the position time graph, the slope of a curve
(0, 1) 
at a given time is the instantaneous velocity at that time. A C
45° 135°
t
Velocity at A = tan 45° = 1 (1, 0) (2, 0) (3, 0)
Velocity at B = tan 0 = 0
Velocity at C = tan135° = -1
In the velocity time curve, the slope of the curve
 v(t)

at a point is the arc of the particle in straight line motion.

Derivative at a point is the slope of the curve at 
that point.
t
dy t = t0
Rate of change of y w.r.t. x =
dx

 g(x) = y
(, ) 

(, ) (, 0)
Slope = tan


Slope = Slope at P = g’(  ) = tan 

e.g.
t3 t 2
x(t) be the position of a particle with respect to time given by x(t) =  + t + 1.
3 2
(i) Find position at t = 0, t = 1.
17
x(0) = 1, x(1) =
6
(ii) Velocity at t = 0, t = 1
dx 1 2 1
v(t) =  (3t ) + (2t) + 1 + 0 = t2 + t + 1
dt 3 2
v(0) = 1 m/s, v(1) = 3m/s.
(iii) Acceleration at t = 0, t = 1
dv d2x d 2
a(t) = = 2  (t + t + 1) = 2t + 1
dt dt dt
a(0) = 1 m/s2 , a(1) = 3 m/s2

11.1 Basic Differentiation Formulae

dy
y = constant  0
dx
dy
y = xn   nx n 1
dx
dy
y = sinx   cos x
dx
 dy
y = cosx    sin x
dx
dy
y = tanx   sec 2 x
dx
dy
y = ax   a x ln a
dx
dy
y = cotx    cos ec 2 x
dx
dy x
y = ex  e
dx
dy 1
y = ln x  
dx x

11.2 Some Important Theorems

The following are very important theorems, which can be applied directly.
Theorem 1:
dy df ( x )
If a function is of the form y = k f(x), where k is a constant, then k
dx dx
Theorem 2:
The derivative of the sum or difference of a finite number of differentiable functions is equal to the
sum or difference of the derivatives of these functions.
i.e., if y = u (x) + v (x) + w(x) then y = u(x) + v(x) + w(x).

Illustration 18:
1/ 3 1
Find the derivative of y = 3x  (x ) 
x
Solution:
Here we have y = u + v + w,
1
where u = 3x , v  x 1 / 3 and w =
x
Hence we can use theorem 2
1 1
dy 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1
 3 x 2  x 3  1.x 11   
dx 2 3 2 x 3 (x ) 2 / 3 x 2
Theorem 3
The derivative of the product of two differentiable functions is equal to the product of the derivative
of the first function with the second function plus the product of the first function with the derivative
of the second function: i.e., if y = uv, then y = uv + uv.
This formula can be extended for the derivatives of the product of any (finite) number of functions.
Illustration 19:
Find the derivative of y = (a + x) ex w.r.t. x .
Solution:
Using theorem 3
dy d d
 (a  x ) e x  e x (a  x )
dx dx dx
= (a  x ) e x  e x .1  e x (a  x  1)
Theorem 4
u (x ) dy uv  uv
If y = v( x ) , then y = 
dx v2

Illustration 20:
ax
Find the derivative of y = w.r.t. x
ax
Solution:
Here by the theorem 4,

dy ( 1) (a  x )  1 (a  x )  a  x  a  x 2a
 2
 2

dx (a  x ) (a  x ) (a  x ) 2
Theorem 5
If y = uv, where u and v are functions of x, then y = vuv-1 u + uv ln u.v
Illustration 21:
Differentiate the following w.r.t x.
(i) y = xx
2
(ii) y = (sin x ) x
Solution:
dy
(i) y = xx   x.x x 1 .1  x x ln x.1  x x (1  ln x )
dx
2
(ii) y  (sin x ) x

dy 2 d 2 dx 2
 x 2 (sin x ) x 1 (sin x )  (sin x ) x ln sin x
dx dx dx
x 2 1 2

= x2 (sin x ) cos x  (sin x ) x ln sin x. 2 x.

11.3 Derivative of a Composite Function

Given a composite function y = f(x), i.e., a function represented by
y = F(u), u =  (x) or y = F[(x)],
 dy dF du
then y = 
dx du dx
This is called the chain rule. The rule can be extended to any number of composite function; e.g. if
dy df du dv
y = f(u(v)), then y =  .
dx du dv dx
Illustration 22:
Find the derivative of the following functions w.r.t. x
(i) y = sinx2
(ii) y = (lnx)3
Solution:
dy d d 2
(i) y = sin (x)2. Let u = x2  y = sin u   (sin u ) (x )  cos u.2 x  2x cosx2
dx du dx
dy d( u 3 ) du 1 3
(ii) y = (ln x)3. Let u = ln x  y = u3  =  3u 2  (ln x ) 2
dx du dx x x
11.4 Parametric Representation of a Function and it’s Derivatives
We find the trajectory of a load dropped from an aeroplane moving horizontally with uniform
velocity v0 at an altitude y0. We take the co-ordinate system as shown and assume that the load is
dropped at the instant the aeroplane cuts the y-axis.
Y
Since the horizontal translation is uniform, the position of
v0
gt 2
the load at any time t, is given x = v0t, y = y0 –
2  (x, y)

X
Those two equations are called the parametric equations of the trajectory because the two variables
x and y have been expressed in terms of the third variable t (parameter) i.e. two equations x = 
(t), y =  (t)
where t assumes values that lie in a given interval (t1, t2)
dy dy / dt ( d / dt ) ( t )
Then dx  dx / dt  (d / dt )  ( t )

Illustration 23:
The function y of x is given by, x = a cos t, y = a sin t. Find the derivative of y w.r.t. x.
Solution:
dy (a sin t ) cos t
   – cot t
dx (a cos t )  sin t

dy   dy  
If we want to compute at a particular t, say t = , then  dx    cot   1
dx 4   x / 4 4

11.5 Second Derivative of a Function

 dy
The second derivative of y w.r.t. x is the function obtained by differentiating w.r.t. x.
dx
d2y 5
dy
It is represented as 2 or y or f  (x). e.g. If y = x then = 5x4
dx dx

d 2 y d  dy  d
So, 2
   = (5x 4 ) = 5.4 x3 = 20x3
dx dx  dx  dx
The acceleration ‘a’ of a particle is the second derivative of the distance ‘s’ (given as a function of
time).
ds d 2s dv
i.e. if s = f(t) then v = = f (t) and a = 2 = = f  (t)
dt dt dt

Illustration 24:
d2y
Find , where y = sin2x
dx 2
Solution:
dy
= 2sinxcosx = sin2x
dx
d2y
= 2 cos2x
dx 2
Drill Exercise - 12

1 f (x)
1. Given a function f(x) = sin2 2x. Find
2 cos 2x
2
 x2 x2 
2. 
Simplify the expression for f(x) and then find f (x) if f(x) =   
 x2 x2 x 2  4  x  2 
Find the derivatives of the following functions:
3. y = sin (cos2 (tan3x))
1 x2 1
4. y= ln
4 x2 1

12. APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVE

 y = f(x)
(x1, f(x1))
P (x2, 0)
x
(x1, 0) R (x , 0)
3
Q(x2, f(x2)
x=
x=

 to   y = f(x) increases
 to   y = f(x) decreases

12.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

(i) Increasing Functions
If y = f(x) and x2 > x1 implies y2 > y1 for any x belonging to the interval [a, b], then y is said to be
an increasing function of x.
f(x) increases in [a, b]  f(x) > 0  x in (a, b).
(ii) Decreasing Function
If x2 > x1  y2 < y1 for any x belonging to [a, b], then y is said to be a decreasing function of x.
f(x) decreases in [a, b]  f (x) < 0  x in (a, b)
For a constant function, f (x) = 0
For a non-decreasing function f (x)  0
For a non increasing function, f (x)  0

Illustration 25: z
Find the interval of increase and decrease of the function y = x4.
Solution:
y = x4  y = 4x3
For x > 0, y > 0  the function increases in (0, ).
For x < 0, y < 0  the function decreases in (–, 0)

Illustration 26:
Separate the intervals in which f(x) = 2x3 – 15x2 + 36x + 1 is increasing or decreasing
Solution:
We have f  (x) = 6x2 – 30x + 36 = 6 (x – 2) (x – 3)
Thus for x < 2, f  (x) > 0 over 2 < x < 3, f (x) < 0 and for x > 3, f (x) > 0
Hence the given function is increasing in (–, 2) and (3, ), and decreasing in (2, 3)

Brain Teaser 4 : Is tanx always increasing x  R ?

Local Maxima (Relative Maxima)/Local Minima (Relative Minima)
(i) If f(   h ) < f (  ) < f(   h ), h > 0 very very small then y = f (x) has local maxima at x = 
and the local maximaum value at x =  is f(  ).
(ii) If f (  h) > f(  ) < f(  + h) then y = f(x) has local minima at x =  and the local minimum
value at x =  is f(  )
y = f(x), x  (a, b)
f(x1), f(x3) local maximum value and f(x2) and f(x4) are local minimum value.
y = f(x), x  [a, b]
y = f(x) has local maxima at x = x1 , x = x3 , x = b and local maximum values are f(x1) & f(x3) and
f(b). Local minimum are at x = a, x = x2 and x = x4 and the local minimum values are f(a), f(x2)
f(x4).

How to find out the local maxima and the local minima:

Method I:
(i) If y first increases then decreases then y = f(x) has local maxima. This is for continuous function.
(ii) If y first decreases then increases y = f(x) then y = f(x) has local minima. This is also for
continuous function.

Method II:
(nth derivative test)
(i) Find dy/dx
(ii) Find set of real x where dy/dx = 0, i.e., find the real roots of the equation y = 0.
d2 y
(iii) Find 2
dx
d2 y dy
(iv) See the sign of 2 at the values of x contained by =0
dx dx
d2 y
If 2 > 0, then local minima.
dx
d2 y
If < 0, then local maxima.
dx 2
x3 3 2
e.g. y =  x + 2x + 1
3 2
dy
= x2 - 3x + 2.
dx
dy
0
dx
x = 1, 2
 d2 y
 2x  3
dx 2

d2y
dx 2 = -1 < 0
x 1

y has local maxima at x = 1 and the local maximum value is equal to y(1) .
d2 y
dx 2 x 2 = 2(2) - 3 = 1 > 0
y has local minima at x = 2 and the local minima value is equal to y(2).

12.2. Global Maxima/Minia

The greatest value of the function in an interval. Let the y = f(x) is considered for gloabl maxima/
global minima in x [a, b].

Figure

Here in x (a, b), we will find all the local maxima/local minima. Also f(a), f(b).
In above f(x1), f(x2), f(x3), f(xa) are the local maxima and minima.
Greatest of f(a), f(x1), f(x2), f(x3), f(x4), f(b) is the global maxima (or greatest value of the function).

Least of f(a), f(b) , f(x1), f(x2), f(x3) f(x4) is the global minima (least value of the function).
x3 3 2
e.g. f(x) =  x + 2x + 1 x  [0, 3]. Find greatest/least value
3 2
5
f(0)=1 f(3) =
2
2
f (x) = x - 3x + 2
f (x) = 0
x = 1, 2
f  (x) = 2x - 3
f  (1) = -1 < 0
f  (2) = 1 > 0
11
f(1) is local maxima, f(1)=
6
5
f(2) is local minima,f(2) =
3
10
f(0) =
6
 15
f(3) = , Global maxima
6
f(0) = 1, Global minima
Drill Exercise - ?
1. Find the global maxima/minima for the function f(x) = sinx + cosx.

2. If f(x) = (x + 3)2 + 4, find its local value.

3. Find the local value of f(x) = 5(x2  4)2 3 . .

4. If x(t) = t2 + t + 1, t [1, 3]. What is the minimum and maximum speed of the particle at x = m and
time t second. sd

Drill Exercise - ?

1. Greatest value = 2 at x =  / 4 and least value = 1 at x = 0

2. Minimum value = 4 at x = -3.

3. Least value = 125 at x = 2.

4. Acceleration is constant  f(t) = 2.

Minimum speed = 3 m/s
Maximum speed = 1 m/s

12.2. Tangents normal

Let y = f(x) be a continuous function (curve) and tangent
let P(x1, y1) be the point on it.
P(x1 y1 )

 dy 
m =  dx  = tan  = slope of tangent at P
( x1 , y1 )

where  is the angle which the tangnet at P(x1, y1) makes with the positive direction of x-axis.
 equation of tangent at (x1, y1) is y - y1 = m (x - x1)
Note: (i) If tangent is parallel to x-axis  = 0°  tan  = 0

 dy 
0
  dx 
( x1 , y1 )

(ii) If tangent is perpendicular to x-axis or parallel to y-axis then  = 90°  tan  = 

  dy 
  
 dx ( x1 , y1 )
Normal to the curve at P(x1, y1) is a line perpendicular to tangent at P(x1, y1) and putting through P.
1
Slope of the normal at P = slope y tan gent at P

 dx 
Note (i): If normal is parallel to x-axis     0
 dy 

 dx 
(ii) if Normal is perpendicular to x-axis or parallel to y-axis     0
 dy 

Illustration 27:
Find the slopes of the tangent and the normal to the curve x3 + 3xy + y3 = 2 at (1, 1)
Solution :
x3 + 3xy + y3 = 2
diff. w.r.t. x, we get
dy dy
3x2 + 3y + 3x + 3y2 = =0
dx dx

dy x 2  y
 dx  x  y 2

 dy 
   1
 dx (1,1)

 slope of tangent at (1, 1) = -1

 slope of normal at (1, 1) = 1
 equation of tangent at (1, 1) is y - 1 = -1 (x - 1)
 x+y=2
and equation of normal at (1, 1) is y - 1 = 1(x - 1)
 x - y = 0.
Drill Exercise - 13

Find the intervals for increasing and decreasing of the following functions.
2 3
1. y= x  x 2  4x  5
3
2. f(x) = (2x – 1) (2x – 2)2

Find the critical points of the functions and test them for their maxima and minima.
3. y = x4 – 10x2 + 9
4. f(x) = –x3 + 3x2 + 5 on the interval [0, 3]

5. y = x3 – 4x2 + 4x + 3 on the interval [–1, 3]

13. INTEGRAL CALCULUS: THE ANTIDERIVATIVE OF FUNCTION

A function F(x) is called the antiderivative of the function f(x) on the interval [a, b] if, at all points of
the interval f(x) = F(x).

x3  x3  '
For example, the antiderivative of the function f(x) = x is , as 2   = x2. The function
 3 
3  

x3 x3 x3
 2 and  1 are also antiderivatives of f(x) = x2. Infact,  C , where C is an arbitrary
3 3 3
constant, is the antiderivative of x2. So if a function f(x) possesses an anti-derivative F(x), then it
possesses infinitely many antiderivatives, all of them being contained in the expression F(x) + C,
where C is a constant.
If the function F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x), then the expression F(x) + C is called the indefinite
integral of the function f(x) and is denoted by the symbol f(x) dx. Thus, by definition f(x) dx = F(x)
+ C, if F(x) = f(x). If a function f(x) is continuous on an interval [a, b], then this function has an
antiderivative. The process of finding the antiderivative of a function f(x) is called integration. Two
different integrals of a function differ by a constant.
13.1 Standard Elementary Integrals
In the following integrals, C stands for an arbitrary constant.

n x n 1
 x dx  n 1
 c, ( n  1) sec x dx = ln |sec x + tan x| + c

(f ( x )) n 1
 (f ( x )) n f ( x ) dx   C (n   1 )
n 1
1
 x dx  ln | x |  c
x
e dx  e x  c
sin x dx = – cosx + c
cos x dx = sinx + c
sec2 x dx = tanx + c
cosec2 x dx = –cotx + c
tan x dx = – ln|cosx| + c = ln |secx| + c
cot x dx = ln |sin x| + c = – ln |cosecx| + c
 1
1 1
x2 2 1 2 x 21 1
e.g. (i)  x2 dx  + c = . x3/2 + c (ii) x 2
dx   x dx   c  c
1 3  2 1 x
1
2
The following points are to be noted:
1 d
  x dx  lnx + c if x is positive = ln (–x) + c if x is negative because dx
(ln (–x))

1 1 1
=
x
(–1) =
x
  x dx  ln | x |  C
 If a is a constant, then  a f(x) dx = a  f (x ) dx

  [f(x)  g(x)] dx, = f(x) dx  g(x) dx

Illustration 28:
Evaluate:
 2 x 
(i) (a0 + a1x + a2x2 ) dx (ii)   cos x  x  e  dx

Solution:
x2 x3
(i) (a0 + a1x + a2x2) dx = a0 dx + a1 x dx + a2 x2 dx = a0 x + a1 a2 c
2 3
 2 x  1 x
(ii)   cos x  x  e  dx   cos x dx  2  dx   e dx = sin x + 2 log |x| –ex + c
 x

Drill Exercise - 14
Evaluate :
1.  x dx
m
2.  x n dx

dx
3.  (a  x) (b  x)

13.2 Methods of Integration

(i) Integration by Substitution
This method consists of expressing the integral  f(x) dx, where x is the independent variable, in
terms of another integral where some other, say ‘t’, is the independent variable; x and t being
connected by the relation x = (t). i.e., f(x)dx = f[ (t)]  (t) dt. This method is useful only when
 dx
a relation x = (t) can be so selected that the new integrand f(x) is of a form whose integral is
dt
known

Illustration 30:
Integrate sin2x cosx w.r.t x.
Solution:
Let sin x = t  cos x dx = dt

2 t3 sin 3 x
  sin x cos x dx   t 2 dt   c c
3 3

Drill Exercise - 15
Evaluate :
log x
1.  dx
x3
2.  sin(ln x)dx
2
3.  (ln x) dx
13.3 Integration by parts
 df 
 f (x )  ( x) dx
(i ) ( ii )
= f (x)  ( x ) dx   
 dx
 ( x ) dx  dx

Integral of the product of two function = first function × integral of second–integral of (derivative of
first × integral of second).

Illustration 30:

Evaluate :  xe x dx
Solution:

Let f(x) = x, (x) = ex   xe x dx  x.e x  1.e x dx  xe x  e x  c

Drill Exercise - 16

Evaluate :
1.  x sin 2x dx
 x
2.  xe dx

3.  x cos x dx

14. DEFINITE INTEGRAL

The difference in the values of an integral of a function f(x) for two assigned values of the independent
variable x, say a, b, is called the definite integral of f(x) over the interval (a, b) and is denoted by
b b

 f ( x ) dx. Thus  f ( x ) dx  F(b)  F (a ), where F(x) is the antiderivative of f(x). Or, we write
a a

b
b
a f ( x ) dx | F( x ) dx |a  F(b)  F(a ). a is called the lower limit and b the upper limit of integration.
Note:
b a

  f ( x ) dx    f ( x ) dx
a b

b c b

  f ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx
a a c

where c is any point inside or outside the interval (a, b).

 Geometrically definite integral represents area under curve.

Illustration 31:
/ 2
cos x
Evaluate :  1  sin x dx
0

Solution:
Let 1 + sin x = t  cos x dx = dt
When x = 0, t = 1, x = /2, t = 2
/ 2
cos x
  1  sin x dx
0

2
1 2
=  t dt =  ln t 
1
1
= ln 2 – ln1 = ln2

Drill Exercise - 17
Evaluate:
 3
x
1.  e dx
0

/ 4
2
2.  sec
0
x dx

4
dx
3. x
1
2

/ 2

4.  x cos x dx
0

15. AREA
b

Geometrical meaning of  f (x) dx is algebraic sum of area bounded by the curves x = a, x = b,

a

y = f(x) and x-axis

b

 f (x) dx = A
a
1
>0

Case-I:  f (x) dx = A1 - A2 + A3 + A4
a

b x1 x2 x3 x4

 f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (x) dx +

a a x1 x2
 f (x) dx
x3

Case-II: A1 + A2 + A3 + A4
x1 x2 x3

 f (x) dx   f (x) dx   f (x) dx  ...

a x1 x2

x x2

or  f (x) dx   | f (x) dx + .....

a x1

3
2
e.g.  (x  3x  2)dx
0

Total area = A1 + A2 + A3
 1 2 3
2
 (x  3x  2) dx   (x  3x  2) dx   (x 2  3x  2) dx = 4.
2

0 1 2

If v(t) be the velocity of a particle in straight line motion as function of time then
t2

(i)  v(t) dt is the displacement of the particle from time t

t1
1
to t2.

t2

 v(t) dt
t1
= A1 - A2 + A3

t2

(ii)  | v(t) |dt is the total distance travelled by the particle from time t
t1
1
to t2

t2 t t  t2

 | v(t) dt   | v(t) | dt   | v(t) |dt   | v(t) |dt

t1 t1 t t 

Illustration ?:
If v(t) = t2 - 3t + 2 be the velocity of a particle in straight line motion find the
(i) displacement of the particle from time t = 0 sec and t = 3 sec.
(ii) distance travelled by the particle from time t = 0 sec and t = 3 sec.
Solution:
t 3

(i)  (t
2
 3t  2) dt = 3
t0 2
3 1 2 3
11
(ii) Distance =  | v(t) | dt =  | v(t) |dt   | v(t) dt   | v(t) dt =
0 0 1 2 6
 ANSWERS
Drill Exercise - 1
703
1.  2. 81°; 9°
720
133
3. 
144
Drill Exercise - 2

220 171 220

1. , ,
221 221 21
Drill Exercise - 3

1. 3  60 2. tan    8
Drill Exercise - 4
1. 77 2. 2
3. 6
Drill Exercise - 6
1. 15
Drill Exercise - 7

4b 4a  7b
1. 2.
cba a  3b  2c
Where a = log2, b = log3 , c = log7
Drill Exercise - 8
4
1.   2. [-2, 0]
3
3. [2,  )
Drill Exercise - 9

1. (-1, 1)  (1, 4) 2. (-1, 0)  (0, 2)

3. (-  , -1)  (5,  )
Drill Exercise - 10

1. Df = R ~ {1}, Rf = R ~ {2} 2. Df = [-3, 3], Rf = [0, 3]

3. Df = R ~ {-1, 1}, Rf = (-  , 0)  [1,  ) 4. Df = R ~ {2, 6}
Drill Exercise - 11
1. -2/5 2. 1/2
3. 48 4. 1/16
5. 3/4 6. 3/2
 Drill Exercise - 12

4
1. 2sin2x 2. f(x) = 2 , f (x) = -8x/(x2 - 4)2
(x  4)
Drill Exercise - 13
1. Decreases for x(–1, 2) and increases for x (–, –1)  (2, )
2. Decreases for x(log2(4/3), 1) and increases for x (–, log2 4/3)  (1, )
3. Minimum for x =  5 , maximum for x = 0.
4. min = 5, max = 9
5. Min. = –9, Max = 6

Drill Exercise - 14
n
1
2 3 mx m
1. x 2. c
3 mn
1 bx
3. ln c
ba a x

Drill Exercise - 15
1 x
1.  log (x e)  c 2. (sin(ln x) – cos (ln x)) + c
2x 2 2
3. x ((lnx)2 – 2lnx + 2) + c

Drill Exercise - 16
1 1
1. sin 2x  x cos 2x  c
4 2
–x
2. –e (x + 1) + c
3. xsinx + cosx + c

Drill Exercise - 17

1. e3–1 2. 1
3. 3/4 4. /2 –1