Chapter 01: Computer Networks and the Internet

Network Protocols:
1. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):
• DHCP is responsible for dynamically assigning IP addresses to devices on a
network.
• It allows for automatic IP address configuration, subnet mask assignment,
default gateway assignment, and DNS server assignment.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
• FTP is used for transferring files over a network.
• It provides functions for uploading, downloading, renaming, deleting, and
managing files on remote servers.
3. IP (Internet Protocol):
• IP is a network layer protocol that enables the routing of data packets across
different networks.
• It defines the format of IP addresses and is responsible for packet addressing,
fragmentation, and reassembly.
4. DNS (Domain Name System):
• DNS translates domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses.
• It maintains a distributed database of domain names and their corresponding
IP addresses, allowing users to access websites using human-readable names.
Concepts:
1. End Systems:
• End systems, also known as hosts, refer to devices such as computers,
laptops, servers, or any other device connected to a network.
• They are the source or destination of data transmitted over the network.
2. End Devices:
• End devices are devices located at the network edges that interact directly
with users.
 • Examples include computers, smartphones, tablets, printers, etc.
3. Network Edge:
• The network edge represents the boundary or interface between an end
system and the rest of the network.
• It is the point where end devices connect to the network infrastructure.
4. Network Core:
• The network core refers to the central part of a network.
• It consists of high-capacity routers and switches that interconnect multiple
networks and ensure data forwarding across the network.
Operation Functions and Principles of Network Layers:
1. OSI Model:
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework
that defines seven layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, and Application.
• Each layer has specific functions and protocols to facilitate communication
between systems.
2. TCP/IP Model:
• The TCP/IP model is a widely used networking model that consists of four
layers: Network Interface, Internet, Transport, and Application.
• It is the foundation of the modern internet.
3. IP Stack:
• The IP stack refers to the combination of protocols and software that
implement the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• It enables communication between devices in a TCP/IP network.
Data Encapsulation Process:
• Data encapsulation involves adding headers, trailers, or other control information to
data as it moves down the protocol stack.
• Each layer adds its own protocol-specific information.
 • Encapsulation allows data to be transmitted across different layers and received at
the destination.
Protocol Data Units (PDUs) at the Layers of the OSI Model:
• Physical Layer: Bits
• Data Link Layer: Frames
• Network Layer: Packets
• Transport Layer: Segments
• Session, Presentation, and Application Layers: Data, Messages, or Application-
specific units
Abbreviated Terms:
• NAT (Network Address Translation): A technique that allows multiple devices on
a local network to share a single public IP address.
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses on a
local network.
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A distance-vector routing protocol used to
exchange routing information between routers.
• DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names into IP addresses.
• IPS (Intrusion Prevention System): A network security device that monitors and
prevents potential threats.

Chapter 02: Application layer

Application Layer Applications and Corresponding Protocols:
1. Email:
• Protocols: SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), POP (Post Office
Protocol), POP3 (POP version 3), IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
• SMTP: Used for sending email messages between servers.
 • POP and POP3: Used for retrieving email from a remote server to a client
device.
• IMAP: Allows email clients to access and manage email messages directly
on the server.
2. Web Browsing:
• Protocol: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• HTTP: Used for communication between web browsers and web servers.
• It enables the retrieval and display of web pages, images, videos, and other
web resources.
3. File Transfer:
• Protocols: FTP (File Transfer Protocol), SFTP (Secure File Transfer
Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
• FTP: Used for transferring files between a client and a server.
• SFTP: An extension of SSH that provides secure file transfer capabilities.
• TFTP: A simplified version of FTP used for basic file transfers.
4. DNS (Domain Name System):
• Protocol: DNS
• DNS translates domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses.
• It resolves human-readable domain names to their corresponding IP
addresses, enabling users to access websites.
Domain Name System (DNS) and Its Functions:
− DNS is a hierarchical distributed naming system that translates domain names into
IP addresses and vice versa.
− Functions of DNS:
• Domain Name Resolution: Resolves domain names to IP addresses, enabling
web browsing and communication.
• Name Server Management: Manages and distributes the database of domain
name records.
 • Load Balancing: Distributes incoming network traffic across multiple servers
to improve performance.
• Caching: Stores recently accessed DNS records to speed up subsequent
lookups.
File Distribution Time (File Distribution) between Client-Server; P2P:
1. Client-Server Model:
• In the client-server model, files are stored on a centralized server, and clients
request and download files from the server.
• The file distribution time depends on factors such as server capacity, network
bandwidth, and client-side download speed.
• Clients initiate a download request, and the server transfers the file to the
client over the network.
2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model:
• In a P2P model, files are distributed across multiple peers or nodes.
• Peers can act as both clients and servers, sharing files directly with each
other.
• File distribution time in P2P networks depends on factors such as the number
of peers sharing the file, network bandwidth, and download speed of
participating peers.
Note: The file distribution time can vary significantly based on network conditions, file
size, and the number of clients or peers involved.

Chapter 03: Transport layer

Compare Characteristics between OSI and TCP/IP Model:
− OSI Model:
• Seven-layer model: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, Application.
 • Conceptual model.
• Emphasizes strict layering and separation of concerns.
• Provides a clear distinction between services, interfaces, and protocols.
• Not directly implemented in real-world networks but used as a reference
model.
− TCP/IP Model:
• Four-layer model: Network Interface, Internet, Transport, Application.
• Implementation-oriented model.
• Developed based on the protocols used on the ARPANET.
• Less rigid layering and allows flexibility in protocol implementation.
• Widely used and forms the basis of the modern internet.
Data Unit at Each Layer:
• Physical Layer: Bits
• Data Link Layer: Frames
• Network Layer: Packets
• Transport Layer: Segments
• Session, Presentation, and Application Layers: Data, Messages, or Application-
specific units
Tasks of Each Layer in the OSI and TCP/IP Model:
− OSI Model:
• Physical Layer: Transmits raw bit streams over a physical medium.
• Data Link Layer: Provides error-free transmission of data frames between
adjacent nodes.
• Network Layer: Handles routing and addressing to enable packet forwarding
across networks.
• Transport Layer: Provides reliable and connection-oriented or
connectionless transport services.
• Session Layer: Establishes, manages, and terminates communication
sessions.
 • Presentation Layer: Handles data formatting, encryption, and compression
for presentation to the Application Layer.
• Application Layer: Provides network services to user applications.
− TCP/IP Model:
• Network Interface Layer: Handles physical network access and data link
protocols.
• Internet Layer: Handles IP addressing, routing, and packet fragmentation.
• Transport Layer: Provides reliable, connection-oriented (TCP) or
connectionless (UDP) transport services.
• Application Layer: Provides network services to user applications, including
protocols like HTTP, FTP, DNS, etc.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
− TCP:
• Connection-oriented protocol.
• Provides reliable, in-order delivery of data.
• Performs flow control, congestion control, and error detection using
sequence numbers and acknowledgments.
• TCP is used for applications that require guaranteed data delivery, such as
web browsing, file transfer, email, etc.
− UDP:
• Connectionless protocol.
• Provides best-effort delivery of data.
• Does not guarantee reliable or in-order delivery.
• No flow control or congestion control mechanisms.
• UDP is used for applications that require low latency and can tolerate packet
loss, such as real-time streaming, online gaming, DNS, etc.
Packet Switching and Circuit Switching:
− Packet Switching:
• Data is divided into packets and transmitted independently over the network.
 • Packets are individually routed based on network conditions.
• Offers shared and efficient use of network resources.
• Examples include IP-based networks like the internet.
− Circuit Switching:
• A dedicated communication path is established between source and
destination.
• Resources are allocated for the duration of the connection.
• Offers constant bandwidth and low latency.
• Examples include traditional telephone networks.
Port Numbers for Application Services:
− Ports are used to identify specific applications or services running on a machine.
− Common port numbers for popular services:
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Port 20 (data) and 21 (control)
• DNS (Domain Name System): Port 53
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Port 25
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Port 80
• HTTPS (HTTP over SSL/TLS): Port 443
TCP/UDP Packet Structure (Segment Format):
− TCP Segment:
• Source Port Number (16 bits)
• Destination Port Number (16 bits)
• Sequence Number (32 bits)
• Acknowledgment Number (32 bits)
• Header Length, Flags, Window Size, Checksum, Urgent Pointer, etc.
− UDP Datagram:
• Source Port Number (16 bits)
• Destination Port Number (16 bits)
• Length (16 bits)
• Checksum (16 bits)
IPv6 and IPv4 Packet Structure (Header):
− IPv6 Packet:
• Source Address (128 bits)
• Destination Address (128 bits)
• Version, Traffic Class, Flow Label, Payload Length, Next Header, Hop
Limit, etc.
− IPv4 Packet:
• Source Address (32 bits)
• Destination Address (32 bits)
• Version, Header Length, Type of Service, Total Length, Protocol, Time-to-
Live, Checksum, etc.
Note: The length and specific fields in packet headers may vary depending on the protocol
and implementation.

Chapter 04: The Network Layer: Data Plane and Control Plane
Roles, Functions, and Operating Principles of the Router:
− Roles:
• Routers are networking devices that operate at the network layer (Layer 3)
of the OSI model.
• They connect multiple networks together and forward packets between them.
− Functions:
• Packet Forwarding: Routers examine the destination IP address of incoming
packets and determine the best path to forward them to their destinations.
• Routing Table Management: Routers maintain routing tables that contain
information about network topology and available paths.
• Path Selection: Routers use routing protocols and algorithms to select the
most efficient path for packet forwarding.
 • Network Address Translation (NAT): Routers can perform NAT to translate
private IP addresses to public IP addresses and vice versa, allowing devices
with private addresses to communicate over the internet.
− Operating Principles:
• Routers use routing protocols (e.g., OSPF, BGP) to exchange routing
information and build a routing table.
• They use algorithms (e.g., shortest path, link-state) to determine the best path
for packet forwarding.
• Routers examine the destination IP address of each packet, perform table
lookups, and make forwarding decisions based on routing information.
Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6:
− IPv4:
• 32-bit addressing scheme.
• Address format: A.B.C.D, where A, B, C, and D are decimal numbers
ranging from 0 to 255.
• Limited address space (approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses).
• Widely used but facing address exhaustion issues.
• Uses subnet masks for network and host identification.
• Does not provide built-in security features.
− IPv6:
• 128-bit addressing scheme.
• Address format: Eight groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by colons
(e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
• Enormous address space (approximately 3.4×10^38 unique addresses).
• Designed to address the limitations of IPv4 and support future growth.
• Simplified header format and improved routing efficiency.
• Built-in support for security and QoS (Quality of Service).
Characteristics of IPv4 Classes and Identification:
− IPv4 Class A:
 • Range: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255
• Network portion: First octet (A.x.x.x)
• Largest network size, smallest number of networks
• Default subnet mask: 255.0.0.0
− IPv4 Class B:
• Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
• Network portion: First two octets (B.B.x.x)
• Moderate network size, moderate number of networks
• Default subnet mask: 255.255.0.0
− IPv4 Class C:
• Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
• Network portion: First three octets (C.C.C.x)
• Smallest network size, largest number of networks
• Default subnet mask: 255.255.255.0
− IPv4 Class D:
• Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
• Reserved for multicast addresses.
Private IPv4 Address vs. Public IPv4 Address:
− Private IPv4 Address:
• Used within private networks (e.g., home, office, internal networks).
• Not routable over the public
internet.
• Reserved address ranges: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255, 172.16.0.0 to
172.31.255.255, 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255.
• Allows multiple devices to share a single public IP address using NAT.
− Public IPv4 Address:
• Used for devices connected to the public internet.
• Routable and globally unique.
• Limited availability due to IPv4 address exhaustion.
Data Unit at Network Layer:
• Packet: At the network layer, data is encapsulated into packets. A packet consists of
the network layer header (containing source and destination IP addresses, protocol
information, etc.) and the encapsulated data (payload).
Subnet Division, VLSM, and Subnet Mask Calculation:
• Subnet Division: Subnetting involves dividing a network into smaller subnetworks
to efficiently allocate IP addresses and manage network traffic. It allows for better
network organization and optimization.
• VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masking): VLSM allows for the allocation of
different subnet masks to different subnets within a network, based on their size
requirements. It enables efficient utilization of IP address space.
• Subnet Mask Calculation: To calculate the subnet mask, you need to determine the
network and host portions of an IP address. The subnet mask contains a series of
contiguous 1s followed by contiguous 0s. The number of 1s determines the network
portion length.
Abbreviated Terms:
• NAT (Network Address Translation): NAT is a technique that translates IP
addresses between private and public networks, enabling communication between
devices with private addresses and the public internet.
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): ARP is used to map an IP address to a MAC
address on a local network. It resolves IP addresses to corresponding MAC
addresses.
• RIP (Routing Information Protocol): RIP is a dynamic routing protocol used to
exchange routing information between routers in a network. It helps routers
determine the best paths for packet forwarding.
• DNS (Domain Name System): DNS is a system that translates domain names (e.g.,
www.example.com) into IP addresses. It enables users to access resources on the
internet using domain names instead of IP addresses.
 • IPS (Intrusion Prevention System): IPS is a security system that monitors network
traffic for potential threats or attacks and takes preventive measures to protect the
network.
Note: There may be additional terms related to the network layer, but these are some of the
commonly used ones.

Chapter 05: The Link Layer and LANs

Data Unit (PDU) at the DataLink Layer:
• DataLink layer protocols encapsulate network layer packets into frames, which are
the data units at this layer. Frames include the network layer packet, a header
containing control information, and a trailer for error detection.
Function and Working Principles of ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) and RARP
(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) Protocols:
• ARP: ARP is used to map an IP address to a MAC address on a local network. It
resolves IP addresses to corresponding MAC addresses. The ARP protocol works
by broadcasting an ARP request to the network, and the device with the matching
IP address responds with its MAC address.
• RARP: RARP is the reverse of ARP. It is used to obtain an IP address when the
MAC address is known. RARP allows a device to send its MAC address and request
an IP address from a RARP server on the network.
Devices Operating at the DataLink Layer:
• Network Switches: Switches operate at the DataLink layer and forward frames
between devices connected to their ports. They use MAC addresses to make
forwarding decisions and create separate collision domains.
• Network Bridges: Bridges also operate at the DataLink layer and connect two
separate network segments or LANs. They use MAC addresses to filter and forward
frames between segments.
Characteristics and Functions of the Physical MAC Address:
 • The physical MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier assigned
to a network interface card (NIC) or network adapter.
• It is a 48-bit (6-byte) address, represented in hexadecimal format, typically
separated into six groups of two hexadecimal digits (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
• The MAC address is burned into the hardware of the network interface and serves
as a permanent and globally unique identifier for the device.
• It is used by the DataLink layer to identify and deliver frames to the correct device
within a local network.
Access Protocols: CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
and Token Ring:
• CSMA/CD: CSMA/CD is an access protocol used in Ethernet networks. It allows
multiple devices to share the same communication medium. Devices listen for
carrier signals and transmit data when the medium is free. If a collision occurs,
devices involved detect the collision and wait for a random amount of time before
retransmitting.
• Token Ring: Token Ring is an access protocol where devices are connected in a ring
topology. A special token is passed sequentially between devices, granting them
permission to transmit data. Devices can only transmit when they possess the token.
Full-Duplex and Half-Duplex Transmission Methods:
• Full-Duplex: In full-duplex transmission, data can be transmitted simultaneously in
both directions. This allows for separate transmit and receive channels, enabling
faster and more efficient communication.
• Half-Duplex: In half-duplex transmission, data can be transmitted in only one
direction at a time. Devices take turns transmitting and receiving data, and they
cannot transmit and receive simultaneously on the same channel.
Features of IEEE Standard Protocols (e.g., Ethernet, 802.x):
• Ethernet: Ethernet is a widely used networking technology that defines the standards
for wired LANs. It specifies the physical and DataLink layer protocols for Ethernet
networks, including frame formats, addressing, and collision detection.
 • IEEE 802.x: The IEEE 802.x series of standards covers various LAN and wireless
LAN technologies. Each standard within the series, such as 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.11
(Wi-Fi), and 802.15 (Bluetooth), defines specifications for different aspects of
network communication, including physical layer, DataLink layer, and MAC layer
protocols.
Data Unit at the Physical Layer:
• Bit: The physical layer operates on individual bits, representing the basic unit of
data transmission. It handles the actual transmission of bits over the physical
medium.
Types of Links and their Characteristics:
• Optical Cable: Uses light signals for data transmission. It offers high bandwidth,
long-distance transmission, and immunity to electromagnetic interference. Its cost
is relatively higher compared to other cable types.
• Copper Cable: Uses electrical signals for data transmission. It includes various types
such as twisted pair and coaxial cables. Copper cables are cost-effective, but their
maximum transmission distance and bandwidth may vary depending on the type.
• Twisted Pair: A type of copper cable that consists of pairs of insulated copper wires
twisted together. It is commonly used for Ethernet connections and telephone lines.
It is affordable, easy to install, and supports shorter distances compared to optical
cables.
Cable Length, Cost, and Speed:
• The maximum length, cost, and speed of each cable type can vary depending on the
specific standards and implementations. It is best to refer to the relevant
specifications for precise details.
Connecting Cables Between Devices:
• Straight Cable: Used to connect different types of devices (e.g., computer to switch,
router to switch) where the transmit (TX) pins on one end are connected to the
receive (RX) pins on the other end. Most modern devices have auto-sensing ports
that can adjust for straight or crossover cables.
 • Crossover Cable: Used to connect similar types of devices (e.g., computer to
computer, switch to switch) where the transmit (TX) pins on one end are connected
to the transmit (TX) pins on the other end, and the receive (RX) pins are connected
to the receive (RX) pins.
Functions and Operating Principles of the Physical Layer:
• The physical layer is responsible for transmitting raw data bits over the physical
medium without errors. Its functions include signal generation, encoding,
modulation, and physical transmission.
• It ensures that the data bits are transformed into electrical, optical, or wireless
signals suitable for transmission over the physical medium.
Features of Wireless Encryption Standards (WPA, WEP, etc.):
• WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) and WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) are wireless
encryption standards used to secure wireless networks.
• WEP: WEP is an older encryption standard that provides basic security for wireless
networks. However, it is susceptible to security vulnerabilities and is no longer
recommended for use.
• WPA: WPA is an improved and more secure encryption standard. It includes
multiple versions such as WPA, WPA2, and WPA3, with each version offering
stronger security features and algorithms.
• WPA3: The latest version of WPA, WPA3, introduces enhanced security protocols
to protect against various types of attacks, including offline brute-force attacks and
unauthorized access. It provides better encryption and authentication mechanisms
compared to previous versions.
Note: It's important to stay updated with the latest encryption standards and best practices
for wireless network security.