ACADEMIC WRITING

Planning your writing 

Before you begin the writing process, it is a good idea to make sure you understand your task and have a
good idea about how you will manage your time as you work through your assignment.

Planning is useful because it can help you organise your thoughts and prioritise the way you present
information.
By planning your writing:

 It is more likely that you will end up with a coherent argument

 You are enabled to work out a logical structure and end point for your writing before you start the
process
 You won't have to do all of your complex thinking about arguments, structure, etc. at the same time
you are trying to find the right words to express your ideas
 You are more likely to become committed to sticking to the point

Structuring Your Writing

It is important to use language in academic writing that signposts the flow of an argument and shows how the
different parts of the assignment fit together. These useful phrases are referred to as transitional phrases,
signposting or connecting words - they help to control your argument and allow the reader to understand the
way you have structured your assignment.

 Structuring  your  Paragraphs

Properly constructed paragraphs are the foundations upon which academic writing is built. They help you to
focus and clarify your argument as you write and they help the reader to understand the topic by dividing it
logically into sections.  They also help the argument and ideas to flow coherently and persuasively.  As with
punctuation, the key word here is “help” : they help you to express as clearly as possible what you want to
say, and the reader to follow your intended meaning.

Academic paragraphs share certain key features as follows –

 A paragraph is a group of sentences that deal with a single, identifiable topic.

 Paragraphs can vary significantly in length depending on the type and purpose of the text, but should
generally not be less than 4 or 5 sentences.
 In most cases the first sentence introduces the topic of the paragraph. Subsequent sentences may
then give definitions, examples, explanations, reasons, opposing views, references to literature,
interpretations, summaries and so on.
 The component parts of the paragraph are linked together by the use of conjunctions and linking
phrases, to ensure flow and to guide the reader.
  Linking between as well as within paragraphs is important too, to introduce new topics and signpost
the overall direction the argument is taking.

It follows from this that paragraphs which are too short will not allow you to develop your argument in
sufficient depth or detail.  Conversely, overly lengthy paragraphs run the risk of being rambling and
unfocused, and would probably benefit from being further divided into distinct topics. Tutor feedback suggests
that these are two very common pitfalls.

John Seely  (Oxford A-Z of Grammar and Punctuation, 2009)  proposes that a typical paragraph has three
sections.  This is a useful way of thinking about your paragraphs :

 Lead sentence   (sometimes called the topic sentence)   This is normally the first or second
sentence in the paragraph, and tells the reader what the paragraph is about.
 Body of the paragraph   There follow a number of sentences, usually between two and five, that
develop this subject matter.
 Concluding sentence    This has two purposes : to round off and/or sum up what has gone before,
and to provide a lead-in to the next paragra

Descriptive Writing
All academic writing, across all disciplines, will include some element of description.  This is true whether you
are writing an essay, a report, a dissertation, a critique, a literature review – there will be things that need to
be described.  You may, for example, need to give an account of –

Findings  from current research on a topic

A particular problem or issue  (eg medical, environmental, psychological)

A particular incident (eg historical event, natural disaster, emergency)

A  case study or profile of a particular person or group (eg for social work, nursing or education)

Sometimes you will be describing one-off events or occurrences.  Other times it will be more a case of
describing processes, over a period of time, eg  trends, changes and developments, perhaps setting out a
sequence of events, including cause and effect.  You may, in doing this, need to interpret and describe
graphical or statistical information.   You will probably also need to include definitions  at the outset, as part
of this process of setting out the terms of your assignment.  In all of these cases clarity is paramount, so that
the reader receives the information in exactly the way you intended it.

Critical thinking
 

One of the most important features of Higher Education is the expectation that you will engage in thinking
critically about the subject that you are studying. This type of critical thinking involves asking fundamental
questions concerning the ideas, beliefs and attitudes that you will encounter. As a result, critical thinking is
key to successfully expressing your individuality in an academic context and engaging with the wider
scholarship of the academic community.

Watch a tutorial on what it means to be a critical student.

Bloom's (1956) taxonomy is a useful tool for categorising a progression from the descriptive to higher levels
of critical/analytical thought.

Descriptive thinking is represented in the first two levels in the diagram: knowledge, comprehension. 

Critical thinking is represented as moving through the top four levels in Bloom's taxonomy: application,
analysis, synthesis, evaluation (see figure below). Application looks at the way in which ideas can be used in
practice. Analysis looks at how ideas work as a system of thought. Synthesis is concerned with the way in
which ideas can complement each other and work together in combination, sometimes to create a new
system of thought. Evaluation looks to judge the worth of ideas, their strengths and weaknesses in particular
contexts, and how they compare in effectiveness with other ideas.

Critical Writing 
Welcome to this guide on Critical Writing. Being able to communicate your critical thinking in your
assignments important to succeeding in your assignments. 
This guide will help you understand:

 What is Critical Writing?

 How can I write critically?
 Using language to demonstrate your critical thinking
 Further reading and support.

 
What is Critical Writing?
Academic essays consist of two writing styles: descriptive writing and critical writing. To understand
critical writing fully, let's examine what descriptive writing is. 

Descriptive writing

 Describes (gives an account of/gives details on) what something is: a topic, problem, situation,
or context of the subject under discussion.
 May describe where this takes place, who is involved when it occurs. 
 Provides background information to you discussion of the essay question. Background
description usually comes before critical analysis so that the reader can understand the topic
you are critically engaging with.
A good way to remember descriptive writing is that provides information on: what, who, where, when.
Descriptive writing demonstrates to your marker the knowledge you have of a subject (of what
something is) and your knowledge of what other people say about that subject. 

Critical writing
Critical writing requires you to apply analysis and evaluation to the descriptions you have provided.
Writers who can produce persuasive critical writing use evidence to support their ideas. Critical writing
allows you to:

 Apply an idea or theory to a different situations. Does the idea work/not work in practice? Is
there a factor that makes this work/not work? (relating theory to practice). For
example: 'Smith's (2008) theory on teamwork is effective in the workplace because it allows a
diverse group of people with different skills to work effectively'.
 Justify why a process or policy exists. For example: 'It was necessary for the nurse to check
the patient's handover notes because...'
 Suggest an alternative approach to view and act on situations. For example: 'By adopting a
Freirian approach, we could view the student as a collaborator in our teaching and learning'.
Or: 'if we had followed the NMC guidelines we could have made the patient feel calm and
relaxed during the consultation'.
 Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of an idea/theory/policy. Why does this
idea/theory/policy work? Or, why does this idea not work? For example: 'Although Smith's
(2008) theory on teamwork is useful for large teams, there are challenges in applying this
theory to teams who work remotely'. 
 How the idea links to other ideas in the field (synthesis). For example: 'the user experience
of parks can be greatly enhanced by examining Donnelly's (2009) customer service
model used in retail.
 How the idea compares and contrasts with other ideas/theories (comparison/classification of
the type of theory). For example: The approach advocated by the NMC differs in comparison
because of factor A and factor C.
 The “up-to-dateness” and relevance of an idea/theory/policy (currency). For example:
'although this approach was successful in supporting the local community, Smith's model does
not accommodate the needs of a modern global economy'. 
 Evaluates an idea/theory/policy by providing an evidence-informed judgment. For example:
'Therefore, May's delivery model should be discontinued as it has created significant issues for
both customers and staff (Ransom, 2018)'.
 Creates new perspectives or arguments based on knowledge. For example: 'to create strong
and efficient buildings, we will look to the designs provided by nature. The designs of the
Sydney Opera house are based on the segments of an orange (Cook, 2019)'. 

To conclude, critical writing takes positive and negative approaches to ideas and interrogates them.
Once you have interrogated an idea or theory, you can then provide an evidenced judgment. 
 

How can I write critically?

It is important to remember that having lots of critical analysis will not matter if your ideas are not clearly
structured. 
To maintain structure in your critically writing, it is important to use paragraphs correctly. Using a good
paragraph structure will enable the reader to clearly see descriptive writing followed by critical writing. 

Example paragraph
Take a look at this paragraph:
According to research by the Food Standards Agency (2015), there may be a link between late
nights and childhood obesity in children. However, this research focuses only on the area of
sleep and does not consider many of the other factors associated with late nights, such as what
children eating when they stay up late. Compared to other known factors influencing childhood
obesity, there is insufficient evidence about the effect of late nights for this to be taken very
seriously by policymakers, though this may change with further research.
This paragraph consists of three sentences. What role do you think each sentence is playing?
  Descriptive statement (who, when, what): 

According to research by the Food Standards Agency published in 2015, there may be a link between
late nights and childhood obesity in children. 

 Critical statement: 

However, this research focuses only on the area of sleep and does not consider many of the other
factors associated with late nights, such as what children eating when they stay up late.

 Judgment:

Compared to other known factors influencing childhood obesity, there is insufficient evidence about the
effect of late nights for this to be taken very seriously by policymakers, though this may change with
further research.

Following paragraph structure

It is good academic practice to follow a three-sentence structure where you can provide description,
analysis and evaluation.
See below for a breakdown:  
Descriptive statement + Critical statement + Judgment statement
According to…                 However…            Overall…
Smith argues that…         Alternatively…           Therefore…
This structure is helpful as it:

 emphasises that you are including both description and critical analysis and shows visually
where the sections begin and end.
 allows you to check the balance between description and critical writing and make sure that
you have enough critical content.

Using language to demonstrate your critical thinking

When writing your critical and evaluation statement, think carefully about the point you are trying to
make, and use the corresponding language to highlight this to the reader. 

 Are you comparing / contrasting two theories? (Similarly

Comparative Writing
In academic writing (as in life!)  we frequently need to compare and contrast things.  Sometimes this will be
the subject and focus of the whole essay ; other times it may just be a means of providing evidence and
material for your argument.  Either way, what you are doing is zooming in on the key similarities   (compare)
and  differences  (contrast).  You may, for example, be asked to compare two (or more) models, theories or
approaches.  On a more statistical or quantitative level, you may be asked to compare two sets of data or
graphical information.

Examples

Analyse and evaluate the relative merits of the Marxist, Feminist and Psychoanalytical
interpretations of Shakespeare’s Macbeth.   (Literature)
 Compare and contrast Iceland and Japan with reference to population size and density, land area
and use and life expectancy.   (Geography)

Describe and explain the key similarities and differences between the economies of Germany and
Greece in terms of GDP, average income, employment levels and productivity.    (Economics)

Reflective Writing  

"Life teaches you how to live it - if you live long enough to learn."   So says Tony Bennett, reflecting on Amy
Winehouse.  Learning theorist Graham Gibbs goes further :  "It is not sufficient simply to have  an experience
in order to learn.  Without reflecting upon this experience it may be quickly forgotten, or its learning potential
lost..."   If we take the time to step back and genuinely consider not just what  happened but also so
what  and  why - and how we felt as a consequence - then we can begin to generalise from our experience
and develop new understanding which can be applied in future.  Learning can take place, in short.

Many HE courses now, particularly vocational courses or those with a placement of some kind, will include an
element of reflective (also known as experiential )  learning.  This may for example take the form of a
reflective journal or portfolio detailing what you have observed in an occupational or professional setting such
as a nursery, day centre or hospital.  It may, alternatively, be in the form of a reflective essay where you are
required to consider carefully and draw out the implications of your own practice or your own experiences in a
particular setting and explain what you have learned. It is a very particular kind of writing, and students are not
always clear about what is being asked for. 

Essentially it is about your own responses to particular situations, experiences or incidents, and what you
have learned from them.  As such, it requires a certain amount of description or scene-setting.  Simply telling
the story is not sufficient on its own, however. Your writing needs to be both personal and at the same time
academic.  In other words, you need to make connections between your own observations and related theory,
areas of controversy or dispute, research, policy and so on.  As with any other kind of academic writing, these
need to be carefully researched and referenced. 

Editing
Editing is engaging in the actual rewriting of content. It involves the structure of your work overall and the text,
and the Academic Style (e.g. references, line spacing, layout, headings are all consistent).

 You do not want to throw away marks

 Errors will distract the reader from the content and flow
 An assignment that has been proofread and edited can show that the creator has taken time to
present their work in a professional manner.

Proofreading
It is important to define Proofreading, as it is different to Editing work. Proofreading is about written language
and means that if done correctly you should have an error-free piece of work. It entails identifying problems to
do with spelling, grammar, and punctuation. 

Why should you proofread? You do not want to throw away marks. Errors will distract the reader
from the content and flow. An assignment that has been proofread and edited can show that the creator has
taken the time to present their work in a professional manner. See the Proofreading box below for tips and
strategies

You should proofread for?  Grammar, Punctuation, Spelling and Usage, Capitalization, Numbers,
Sentence Structure and Referencing. See Grammar and Punctuation box below for help with this.

Tips to aid proofreading:

 Always start your assignment with a plan
 Word processing your work makes the whole process easier to handle and saves time when adding,
editing and proofreading
 Try and allow a day or two to pass before attempting to proofread, as you are more likely to read
what is there then, than if you tried to proofread straight after writing. See Time Management to help
you with this.
 Print out your work, as it is harder to see the overall look of your work on a screen
 It is far easier to check each page for one thing at a time than to look for many things at the same
time (go to proofreading strategies tab above)

Why does Grammar and Punctuation Matter?

This essay needs proof reading badly… 

For one thing, assignment briefs, across all areas, will very often include accuracy of expression as one of the
assessment criteria. That being the case, it would be foolish to lose marks and miss out on the higher grades
simply because you haven’t expressed yourself or proof read sufficiently carefully.  Academic Skills Advisors
will be able to help you to identify specific issues with your writing, and to see any typical patterns of errors to
watch out for.  The important thing here is to understand not only  what  is wrong but  why  it is wrong.

If English is not your first language, or if you are an international student, there are workshops available which
you should attend, and an advisor (Mark Illman) with expertise in this area.  If you are aware that you have
particular problems with grammar or punctuation, you should certainly take advantage of the help that is
available, especially if you are at the beginning of your course, so that you can maximise your potential and
really succeed on your course.

The other, crucial, reason why they matter is that errors of grammar and punctuation can and do interfere
with meaning, making it difficult (or at worst impossible!) for the reader to understand what you want to
say. Sometimes it may just be a case of re-jigging the word order to remove ambiguity  (This essay is badly
in need of proof reading...)   Like it or not, a very large part of the assessment on most courses is based on
the quality and accuracy of your writing.  If your writing is clear, unambiguous and fluently expressed it does
make a huge difference.  The reader is that much more likely to feel confident about what you are telling
them.  

In most cases,  Clear writing = Clear thinking   To put it the other way round, if the writing is confused, it
gives the impression that the thinking behind it is too.  Grammar and punctuation are closely connected, as
we will see, because both have to do with the correct construction of sentences.