Fluid Mechanics

LAB REPORTS

Submitted To: Sir Dr Nadeem Shah

Submitted By: Rana Timoor Anwar
Registration No: 2021-ME-104
Mechanical Department

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Table of Contents
1 Experiment N0. 01 ...........................................................................................................................9
1.1 Title: .........................................................................................................................................9
1.2 Introduction: ............................................................................................................................9
1.2.1 Pelton Wheel: ..................................................................................................................9
1.2.2 Parts of Pelton Wheel: .....................................................................................................9
• Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement. .............................................................................9
• Runner and Buckets. ................................................................................................................9
• Casing. ......................................................................................................................................9
• Braking Jet ................................................................................................................................9
1.2.3 Working Principle:............................................................................................................9
1.2.4 Applications: ....................................................................................................................9
1.2.5 Efficiency of Pelton Wheel Turbine: ..............................................................................10
1.3 Methodology: ........................................................................................................................10
1.3.1 Apparatus:......................................................................................................................10
1.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................10
1.4 Observations and Calculations: .............................................................................................11
1.4.1 Sample Calculations: ......................................................................................................12
1.5 Results and Discussion: ..........................................................................................................13
1.6 Conclusion..............................................................................................................................13
2 Experiment No 2 ............................................................................................................................14
2.1 Objective: ...............................................................................................................................14
2.2 Introduction: ..........................................................................................................................14
2.2.1 Radial Flow Reaction Turbine: .......................................................................................14
2.2.2 Parts of Radial Turbine: .................................................................................................14
2.2.3 Working Principle:..........................................................................................................14
2.2.4 Applications: ..................................................................................................................15
2.2.5 Efficiency Of Radial Turbine: ..........................................................................................15
2.3 Methodology .........................................................................................................................15
2.3.1 Apparatus:......................................................................................................................15
2.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................15
2.4 Observations and Calculations\ .............................................................................................16
2.4.1 Sample Calculation: .......................................................................................................17
2.6 Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................18
3 Experiment No 3 ............................................................................................................................19
3.1 Objective: ...............................................................................................................................19

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3.2 Introduction: ..........................................................................................................................19

3.2.1 Turbine: ..........................................................................................................................19
3.2.2 Types of Turbines: ..........................................................................................................19
The two most common types of reaction turbines are: ................................................................19
3.2.3 Components of Turbine: ................................................................................................19
3.2.4 Working Principle of Turbine: ........................................................................................19
3.2.5 Efficiency of Turbine: .....................................................................................................19
3.3 Methodology: ........................................................................................................................19
3.3.1 Apparatus:......................................................................................................................19
3.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................20
3.4 Observations and Calculations: Table 1 Throttle Control: ....................................................20
3.4.1 Sample Calculation: .......................................................................................................23
3.5 Results and Discussion: ..........................................................................................................24
3.6 Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................24
4 Experiment No 4 ............................................................................................................................24
4.1 Title: .......................................................................................................................................24
4.2 Introduction: ..........................................................................................................................25
4.2.1 Centrifugal Pump: ..........................................................................................................25
4.2.2 Parts of Centrifugal Pump:.............................................................................................25
4.2.3 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump: ........................................................................25
4.2.4 Applications of Centrifugal Pump: .................................................................................25
4.2.5 Advantages of Centrifugal Pump: ..................................................................................25
4.3 Methodology: ........................................................................................................................26
4.3.1 Apparatus:......................................................................................................................26
4.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................26
4.4 Observations and Calculations: .............................................................................................26
4.4.1 Sample Calculations: ......................................................................................................28
4.5 Result and Discussion: ...........................................................................................................29
4.6 Conclusions: ...........................................................................................................................29
5 Experiment No 5 ............................................................................................................................29
5.1 Title: .......................................................................................................................................29
5.2 Introduction: ..........................................................................................................................29
5.2.1 Centrifugal Pump: ..........................................................................................................29
5.2.2 Parts of Centrifugal Pump:.............................................................................................29
5.2.3 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump: ........................................................................30
5.2.4 Applications of Centrifugal Pump: .................................................................................30

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5.2.5 Advantages of Centrifugal Pump: ..................................................................................30

5.3 Methodology: ........................................................................................................................30
5.3.1 Apparatus:......................................................................................................................30
5.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................31
5.4 Observations and Calculations: .............................................................................................31
5.4.1 Sample Calculations: ......................................................................................................33
5.5 Result and Discussion: ...........................................................................................................34
5.6 Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................34
6 Experiment No 6 ............................................................................................................................35
6.1 Title: .......................................................................................................................................35
6.2 Introduction: ..........................................................................................................................35
6.2.1 Parts of Centrifugal Pump:.............................................................................................35
6.2.2 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump: ........................................................................36
6.2.3 Applications of Centrifugal Pump: .................................................................................36
6.2.4 Advantages of Centrifugal Pump: ..................................................................................37
6.2.5 Parallel Connection of Centrifugal Pump: .....................................................................37
6.2.6 Advantages of Parallel Connection of Centrifugal Pump: .............................................37
6.2.7 Applications of Parallel Connection of Centrifugal Pump: ............................................38
6.3 Methodology .........................................................................................................................39
6.3.1 Apparatus:......................................................................................................................39
6.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................39
6.4 Data Analysis: .........................................................................................................................39
6.4.1 Sample Calculations: ......................................................................................................40
6.5 Results And Discussion: .........................................................................................................41
6.6 Comments: .............................................................................................................................42
7 Experiment NO 7............................................................................................................................43
7.1 Title: .......................................................................................................................................43
7.2 Introduction: ..........................................................................................................................43
7.2.1 Centrifugal Pump: ..........................................................................................................43
7.2.2 Parts of Centrifugal Pump:.............................................................................................43
7.2.3 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump: ........................................................................44
7.2.4 Applications of Centrifugal Pump: .................................................................................44
7.2.5 Advantages of Centrifugal Pump: ..................................................................................45
7.2.6 Series Connection Of Centrifugal Pump: .......................................................................45
7.2.7 Advantages of Series Connection of Centrifugal Pump: ................................................45
7.2.8 Applications of Series Connection of Centrifugal Pump:...............................................46

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7.3 Methodology: ........................................................................................................................46

7.3.1 Apparatus:......................................................................................................................46
7.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................47
7.4 Observations and Calculations: .............................................................................................47
7.4.1 Sample Calculations: ......................................................................................................48
7.5 Result and Discussions: ..........................................................................................................49
7.6 Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................49
8 Experiment No 8 ............................................................................................................................50
8.1 Title: .......................................................................................................................................50
8.2 Introduction: ..........................................................................................................................50
8.2.1 Cross Flow Turbine: .......................................................................................................50
8.2.2 Working Principle of Cross Flow Turbine:......................................................................50
8.2.3 Applications of Cross Flow Turbine: ..............................................................................51
8.2.4 Advantages of Cross Flow Turbine: ...............................................................................51
8.2.5 Disadvantages of Cross Flow Turbine: ...........................................................................52
8.2.6 Operating Characteristics of Cross Flow Turbine: .........................................................52
8.3 Methodology: ........................................................................................................................53
8.3.1 Apparatus:......................................................................................................................53
8.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................53
8.4 Observations and Calculations: .............................................................................................54
8.4.1 Sample Calculations: ......................................................................................................56
8.5 Result and Discussion: ...........................................................................................................57
8.6 Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................57
9 Experiment NO 9............................................................................................................................58
9.1 Title: .......................................................................................................................................58
9.2 Introduction: ..........................................................................................................................58
9.2.1 Centrifugal Fan: ..............................................................................................................58
9.2.2 Parts of Centrifugal Fan: ................................................................................................58
9.2.3 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump: ........................................................................59
9.2.4 Applications of Centrifugal Fan: ....................................................................................59
9.2.5 Advantages of Centrifugal Fan:......................................................................................59
9.2.6 Operating Characteristics of Centrifugal Fan: ...............................................................60
9.3 Methodology: ........................................................................................................................60
9.3.1 Apparatus:......................................................................................................................60
9.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................61
9.4 Observations and Calculations: .............................................................................................61

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9.4.1 Specimen Calculations: ..................................................................................................65

9.5 Result and Discussion: ...........................................................................................................65
9.6 Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................66
10 Experiment No 9(b) ....................................................................................................................67
10.1 Title: .......................................................................................................................................67
10.2 Introduction: ..........................................................................................................................67
10.2.1 Axial Fan: ........................................................................................................................67
10.2.2 Parts of Axial Fan: ..........................................................................................................67
10.2.3 Working Principle:..........................................................................................................68
10.2.4 Applications of Axial Fan: ...............................................................................................68
10.2.5 Advantages of Axial Fan: ................................................................................................69
10.2.6 Operating Characteristics of Axial Fan:..........................................................................69
10.3 Methodology: ........................................................................................................................69
10.3.1 Apparatus:......................................................................................................................69
10.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................70
10.4 Observations and Calculations: .............................................................................................70
10.4.1 Specimen Calculations: ..................................................................................................74
10.5 Result and Discussion: ...........................................................................................................74
10.6 Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................74
11 Experiment No 10 ......................................................................................................................76
11.1 Title: .......................................................................................................................................76
11.2 Introduction: ..........................................................................................................................76
11.2.1 Pressure Variation over an airfoil: .................................................................................76
11.2.2 Velocity Variation over an airfoil: ..................................................................................76
11.2.3 Orientation of an airfoil: ................................................................................................76
11.3 Methodology: ........................................................................................................................76
11.3.1 Apparatus .......................................................................................................................76
11.3.2 Procedure: .....................................................................................................................77
11.4 Observations and Calculations: .............................................................................................77
11.4.1 Sample Calculations: ......................................................................................................79
11.5 Result and Discussion: ...........................................................................................................80
11.6 Conclusion:.............................................................................................................................80

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Pelton Wheel ...........................................................................................................................9

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Figure 2 Apparatus ..............................................................................................................................10

Figure 3 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Torque ..........................................................................11
Figure 4 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Breaking Power ..........................................................12
Figure 5 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Overall Efficiency........................................................12
Figure 6 Radial Turbine ......................................................................................................................15
Figure 7 Apparatus ..............................................................................................................................15
Figure 8 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Torque ..........................................................................16
Figure 9 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Brake Power ................................................................17
Figure 10 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Overall Efficiency......................................................17
Figure 11 Apparatus ............................................................................................................................20
Figure 12 Graph Turbine Speed and Torque ..................................................................................21
Figure 13 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Brake Power ..............................................................21
Figure 14 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Overall Efficiency......................................................22
Figure 15 Graph Turbine Speed and Torque ...................................................................................22
Figure 16 Graph Between Turbine Speed and Brake Power ..........................................................23
Figure 17 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Overall Efficiency.....................................................23
Figure 18 Parts Of Centrifugal Pump ...............................................................................................25
Figure 19 Centrifugal Pump Apparatus ............................................................................................26
Figure 20 Graph between head and flowrate ....................................................................................27
Figure 21 Graph between power output and flow rate ....................................................................27
Figure 22 Graph between overall efficiency and flowrate ...............................................................28
Figure 23 Parts Of Centrifugal Pump ...............................................................................................30
Figure 24 Centrifugal Pump Apparatus ............................................................................................31
Figure 25 Graph between head and flowrate ....................................................................................32
Figure 26 Graph between power output and flow rate ....................................................................32
Figure 27 Graph between overall efficiency and flowrate ...............................................................33
Figure 28 Parts Of Centrifugal Pump ...............................................................................................36
Figure 29 Parallel Connection of pump .............................................................................................37
Figure 30 Series Connection of Centrifugal Pump ...........................................................................39
Figure 31 Graph between Total head and Flow rate........................................................................40
Figure 32 Graph between System head and Flow rate ....................................................................40
Figure 33 Parts Of Centrifugal Pump ...............................................................................................44
Figure 34 Series Connection of Centrifugal Pump ...........................................................................45
Figure 35 Parallel Connection of Centrifugal Pump ........................................................................46
Figure 36 Graph between Total Head and Flow rate .......................................................................47
Figure 37 Graph between System Head and Flow rate ....................................................................48
Figure 38 Cross Flow Turbine ............................................................................................................50
Figure 39 Cross Flow Turbine ............................................................................................................53
Figure 40 Graph between Rotor Speed and Brake Power ...............................................................54
Figure 41 Graph between Rotor Speed and Efficiency ....................................................................54
Figure 42 Graph between Rotor Speed and Brake Power ...............................................................55
Figure 43 Graph between Rotor Speed and Water Power ..............................................................55
Figure 44 Graph between Rotor Speed and Efficiency ....................................................................56
Figure 45 Centrifugal Fan...................................................................................................................58
Figure 46 Components of Centrifugal Fan ........................................................................................59
Figure 47 Centrifugal Fan Apparatus ...............................................................................................61
Figure 48 Graph between Fan total pressure and Fan Discharge ..................................................62
Figure 49 Graph between Fan Power Output and Fan Discharge ................................................63
Figure 50 Graph between Fan Efficiency and Fan Discharge .........................................................63
Figure 51 Fan Discharge versus Fan Speed ......................................................................................64
Figure 52 Graph between Power Output and Fan Speed ...............................................................64

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Figure 53 Graph between Fan Efficiency and Fan Speed................................................................64

Figure 54 Axial Fan .............................................................................................................................67
Figure 55 Parts of Axial Fan ...............................................................................................................68
Figure 56 Axial Fan Apparatus ..........................................................................................................70
Figure 57 Fan Total Pressure versus Fan Discharge ........................................................................71
Figure 58 Fan Power Output versus Fan Discharge ........................................................................72
Figure 59 Fan Efficiency versus Fan Discharge ................................................................................72
Figure 60 Fan Discharge versus Fan Speed ......................................................................................73
Figure 61 Fan Power Output versus Fan Speed ...............................................................................73
Figure 62 Fan Efficiency versus Fan Speed ......................................................................................73
Figure 63 Wind Tunnel Apparatus ....................................................................................................77

Tables:
Table 1 Total and System head of parallel connected centrifugal pumps ......................................39
Table 2 Total and System head of series connected centrifugal pumps .........................................47
Table 3 Rotor speed relation with Torque, brake power and efficiency ........................................54
Table 4 Relationship of Rotor Speed with Brake power, Water Power and Overall Efficiency..55
Table 5 Efficiency of centrifugal fan at 3000 RPM ..........................................................................61
Table 6 Efficiency of centrifugal fan at 2400 RPM ..........................................................................62
Table 7 Efficiency of centrifugal pump at variable speed ................................................................63
Table 8 Efficiency of axial fan at 3000 RPM .....................................................................................70
Table 9 Efficiency of axial fan at 2850 RPM .....................................................................................71
Table 10 Efficiency of axial fan at 2700 RPM ...................................................................................71
Table 11 Efficiency of axial fan at variable speed ............................................................................72
Table 12 Head and Velocity variation of an airfoil @ 1.49 kPa of velocity pressure ....................77
Table 13 Head and Velocity variation of an airfoil @ 2.01 kPa of velocity pressure ....................78
Table 14 Head and Velocity variation of an airfoil @ 2.15 kPa of velocity pressure ....................78
Table 15 Head and Velocity variation of an airfoil @ 2.28 kPa of velocity pressure ....................79

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1 Experiment N0. 01
1.1 Title:
To determine the operating characteristics of a pelton wheel turbine at various speed.

1.2 Introduction:
1.2.1 Pelton Wheel:
The Pelton wheel turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine used for high heads of water and It is
invented by Lester Allan Pelton, an American Engineer. The energy available at the inlet of the turbine
is only kinetic energy. The pressure energy at the inlet and outlet of the turbine is atmospheric.This is
a hydraulic turbine and the main uses of these turbines are in the hydropower plant to generate
electricity.

Figure 1 Pelton Wheel

1.2.2 Parts of Pelton Wheel:

• Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement.
• Runner and Buckets.
• Casing.
• Braking Jet
1.2.3 Working Principle:
• The water is transferred from the high head source through a long conduit called Penstock.
• Nozzle arrangement at the end of penstock helps the water to accelerate and it flows out as a
high speed jet with high velocity and discharge at atmospheric pressure.
• The jet will hit the splitter of the buckets which will distribute the jet into two halves of
bucket and the wheel starts revolving.
• The kinetic energy of the jet is reduced when it hits the bucket and also due to spherical shape
of buckets the directed jet will change its direction and takes U-turn and falls into tail race.
1.2.4 Applications:
• To achieve maximum power and efficiency, the turbine blades are designed in such a way
that water jet velocity is twice the velocity of rotating buckets.
• Pelton turbine, where the water available at the high head is from 150 m to 2000 m in a
hydroelectric power plant.
• It is also used as set up in the labs of Educational Institutions.

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1.2.5 Efficiency of Pelton Wheel Turbine:

The turbine efficiency, also called power coefficient, is the ratio of the turbine power output or the
breaking power 𝑃𝑏 to the power of either the water heads 𝑃ℎ for a traditional design or unconstrained
water current.
𝑃𝑏
�kj�������������?��?
= 𝜂𝑡 = × 100
𝑃ℎ
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏 =
60
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃ℎ = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑖 𝑄𝑣

• N is revolutions of pelton wheel

• T is restricting torque
• Hi is the initial head of the water jet supply
• Qv is the flow rate of the water jet

1.3 Methodology:
1.3.1 Apparatus:
• Hydraulic Bench
• Pelton wheel turbine apparatus
• Stop watch

Figure 2 Apparatus

1.3.2 Procedure:
• Adjust the spring balance to zero deflection, and shut the spear valve by rotating it in a
clockwise direction.
• Now, open the control valve along with the spear valve (anticlockwise) after starting the
hydraulic bench.
• Make sure that the control valve is opened until the bench flow is at maximum.
• After this, measure the initial flow for reference by using the hydraulic bench and note down
the inlet pressure for the flow.
• Initially, measure the maximum speed of the turbine in the no-load condition by using an
optical tachometer, and then note down the speed by increasing the load in steps.
• These values are recorded for each spring balance and stop it when the speed becomes
unstable.

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1.4 Observations and Calculations:

Radius =r1 = 1.72×10-2 m
Radius of brake drum = r2 = 0.03 m
Volume collected = 5 L = 5×10-3 m3
Table 1
Rotor Tacometer Spring Spring Time Flow Input Torque Brake Water Overall
Speed speed( N2) Balance Balance to Rate head (T) Power Power Turbine
(N1) (W1) (W2) collect (Qv) (Hi) (Pb) (Ph) Efficiency
(t) (η)

(rpm) (rpm) (N) (N) (s) (m3/s) (m) (Nm) (W) (W) (%)
1643.3 2900 0.313 0.563 21.88 0.000229 6 0.0075 1.290 13.450 9
1586.7 2800 0.375 0.750 21.88 0.000229 6 0.0113 1.869 13.450 13
1473.3 2600 0.625 1.063 20.22 0.000247 6 0.0131 2.021 14.538 14
1416.6 2500 0.688 1.250 20.22 0.000247 6 0.0169 2.502 14.538 17

0.02
0.018 0.0169

0.016
0.0131
0.014
0.0113
0.012
Torque(Nm)

0.01
0.0075
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700
Rotor Speed(rpm)

Figure 3 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Torque

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3
2.502
2.5
2.021
Brake Power(W)
1.869
2

1.5 1.29

0.5

0
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700
Rotor Speed(Rpm)

Figure 4 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Breaking Power

21

19
17
Overall Efficiency(%)

17

15 14
13
13

11
9
9

5
1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700
Rotor Speed(rpm)

Figure 5 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Overall Efficiency

1.4.1 Sample Calculations:

The sample calculations for 6m head.
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃ℎ = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑄𝑣
0.0005
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑄𝑣 = = 0.000228𝑚3 /𝑠
20.21
𝑃𝑤 = (1000)(9.81)(6)(0.000228)

𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑃𝑤 = 13.45𝑊

2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏 =
60
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹𝐷 𝑟 = (4.25 − 2.5)(0.03) = 0.0075𝑁𝑚

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𝑑1 𝑁1 = 𝑑2 𝑁2
𝑑2 𝑁2 𝑟2 𝑁2
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑁1 = =
𝑑1 𝑟1
(0.0017)(2500)
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑁1 = = 1643.33𝑅𝑃𝑀
(0.03)
2𝜋(1643.33)(0.0075)
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑃𝑏 = = 1.29𝑊
60
𝑃𝑏
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂 = × 100
𝑃ℎ
1.29
𝑶𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝜂 = × 100 = 9.56%
13.45

1.5 Results and Discussion:

Power is used to calculate the pelton wheel turbine's efficiency; input power comes from the water jet
that drives the turbine's rotation, while output power is determined by limiting the runner's rotation
and measuring speed with a tachometer. The turbine will be deemed more efficient if the efficiency
value is lower. Each group's calculations differ, and reading errors could be the result of frictional
losses, inaccurate measuring equipment, or inadequate experiment execution.

1.6 Conclusion
• Turbine efficiency is influenced by water and braking force.
• While an increase in brake power will also increase efficiency, an increase in water power
will reduce efficiency.
• Rotor speed and load applied to produce restricting torque are dependent on brake power.

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2 Experiment No 2

2.1 Objective:
To determine the operating characteristics of a radial flow reaction turbine at optimize speeds.

2.2 Introduction:
2.2.1 Radial Flow Reaction Turbine:
Radial Flow Reaction Turbines are those turbines in which the water flows in the radial
direction. The water may flow radially from outwards to inwards (i.e., towards the axis of
rotation) or from inwards to outwards. If the water flows from outwards to inwards through
the runner, the turbine is known as an Inward radial flow Reaction turbine. And if the water
flows from inwards to outwards, the turbine is known as an Outward radial flow reaction
turbine.

2.2.2 Parts of Radial Turbine:

2.2.2.1 Casing:
As mentioned above that in the case of a reaction turbine, the casing and runner are always
full of water. The water from the penstocks enters the casing which is of spiral shape in which
the area of the casing cross-section goes on decreasing gradually. The casing completely
surrounds the runner of the turbine.

2.2.2.2 Runner:
It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed. The surface of the
vanes is made very smooth. The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and
leaves the runner without shock. The runners are made of cast steel, cast iron or stainless
steel. They are keyed to the shaft.

2.2.2.3 Guide Mechanism:

It consists of a stationary circular wheel all around the runner of the turbine. The stationary
guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism.

2.2.2.4 Draft Tube:

The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than atmospheric
pressure. The water at the exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race.

2.2.3 Working Principle:

Initially, the water is supplied through the penstock from the reservoir to the turbine. Water enters the
cover, which is surrounded by a runner. The casing has several fixed vanes. It partially turns the
available head into a dynamic head with water. As the cross-sectional area of the casing gradually
decreases, it maintains a constant velocity of water throughout the turbine runner. With the help of the
vane, the water flows through the runner with minimal energy loss. When water hits the rotating vane,
it applies an impulse force due to the kinetic energy of the water. As water flows over the rotating vane,
it creates a pressure difference on the vane. This is due to the airfoil shape of the vane, which causes
the water to exert a lift force over the vane. This lifting force rotates the runner. Water flows through
the draft tube from the runner, providing the suction head at the runner exit. Finally, the exhaust water
goes into the tailrace, which is further used in various applications.

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Figure 6 Radial Turbine

2.2.4 Applications:
• Power automotive turbochargers,
• Expansion units in gas liquefaction
• Aircraft auxiliary power units,
• Cryogenic systems.

2.2.5 Efficiency Of Radial Turbine:

The efficiency of radial flow reaction turbine directly depends upon brake power which is the output
of the turbine and inversely related to hydraulic power provided by water to run the turbine,
𝑷𝒃
𝑶𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒉

2.3 Methodology
2.3.1 Apparatus:
• Radial flow reaction turbine
• Turbine demonstration unit FM31

Figure 7 Apparatus

2.3.2 Procedure:
• The sensors area connected to LFD6 device which is connected to PC.
• The inlet water source is opened.

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 Rana Taimoor Anwar FM LAB 2021-ME-104

• The calculations are done by software automatically.

• These readings are changed by applying different brake power.

2.4 Observations and Calculations\

Table 1

Orifice Turbine Turbine Brake Orifice Volume Turbine Hydraulic Torque Brake Overall
Differential Inlet Speed Force Discharge Flowrate Head Power Power Efficiency
Pressure Pressure n Fb Coefficient
dPo P1 Cd Qv Hi Ph T Pb Egr
(kPa) (kPa) (Hz) (N) (dm³/s) (m) (W) (Nm) (W) (%)
21.3 267.5 39 1.3 0.63 0.262 27.31 69.96 0.031 8 11
21.2 267.1 37 1.6 0.63 0.261 27.28 69.81 0.038 9 13
21.2 268.5 28 4.3 0.63 0.261 27.42 70.12 0.103 18 26
21.1 268.8 23 4.8 0.63 0.261 27.45 70.09 0.144 17 24
21.1 268.1 20 4.8 0.63 0.260 27.38 69.63 0.116 15 21

0.18
0.16 0.144
0.14
0.116
0.12 0.103
Torque(Nm)

0.1
0.08
0.06
0.038
0.04 0.031

0.02
0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Rotor Speed(Hz)

Figure 8 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Torque

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21

19 18
17
17
15
Brake Power(W)
15

13

11
9
9 8

5
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Rotor Speed(Hz)

Figure 9 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Brake Power

35

30
26
Overall Efficiency(%)

24
25
21
20

15 13
11
10

0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Rotor Speed(Hz)

Figure 10 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Overall Efficiency

2.4.1 Sample Calculation:

Sample calculation is done on speed of turbine 39Hz.
Hydraulic Power:

𝜋𝐶𝑑 𝑑 2 √2𝜌𝑑𝑃𝑜
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑄𝑣 =
4𝜌

𝜋(0.63)(0.009)2 √2(1000)(21.3)
𝑄𝑣 =
4(1000)
𝑄𝑣 = 0.262𝑑𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑃1
𝐻𝑖 =
𝜌𝑔

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267.5
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝐻𝑖 = = 27.31𝑚
(1000)(9.81)

𝑃ℎ = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑖 𝑄𝑣 = (1000)(9.81)(0.262)(27.31) = 69.96𝑊

Brake Power:

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑇 = 𝐹𝑏 . 𝑟 = (1.3)(0.024) = 0.031𝑁. 𝑚

𝑃𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇 = 2𝜋(39)(0.031) = 8𝑊
Overall Efficiency:
𝑃𝑏
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(%) = × 100 = 11%
𝑃ℎ

2.5 Results and Calculations:

Power parameters are used to determine the radial flow reaction turbine's efficiency as well.
Water flow is used to calculate input power, and turbine motion is used to calculate output
power. It is evident that the radial flow reaction turbine's efficiency increases as speed
increases. Additionally, the trend between turbine speed, torque, and brake power is nearly
identical as shown in the graphs. Thus, brake and torque power are directly proportional to
speed. Reading errors may result from friction losses, inaccurate measurement tools, or
improper experimental procedures.
2.6 Conclusion:
• While an increase in brake power will also increase efficiency, an increase in water power
will reduce efficiency.
• Rotor speed and load applied to produce restricting torque are dependent on brake power.
• Since radial turbines can operate at low heads, they have more uses than impulse
generators.

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3 Experiment No 3

3.1 Objective:
To show difference in performance between throttle control and nozzle control of turbine speed.

3.2 Introduction:
3.2.1 Turbine:
A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into
useful work. The work produced by a turbine can be used for generating electrical power when
combined with a generator.

3.2.2 Types of Turbines:

The two most common types of reaction turbines are:
• Propeller (including Kaplan)
• Francis

3.2.3 Components of Turbine:

The main parts of turbine are,

• Nozzle
• Runner
• Casing
• Draft tube

3.2.4 Working Principle of Turbine:

The turbine principally operates on a rotational motion like a rotary machine, such as a wheel or turbine
that undergoes the energy conversion from kinetic to mechanical energy, and the accompanying
generator converts mechanical work into electrical output. The rotational kinetic energy is obtained
when a high-speed water jet strikes the runner.

3.2.5 Efficiency of Turbine:

The efficiency of turbines is directly depending upon brake power which is the output of the turbine
and inversely related to hydraulic power provided by water to run the turbine,
𝑃𝑏
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝑃ℎ
Hydraulic power depends upon the water head and flow rate of water,
𝑷𝒉 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑖 𝑄𝑣
However, brake power is dependent upon torque with which runner is rotated and speed of runner,
𝑷𝒃 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇
In this experiment the flow rate is varied by either using four jets or one jet. Thus increasing the flow
rate will increase the input power, consequently, output power also increases to some extent as speed
of runner increases.

3.3 Methodology:
3.3.1 Apparatus:
• Four jet impulse turbine
• Turbine demonstration unit FM30

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Figure 11 Apparatus

3.3.2 Procedure:
• The sensors area connected to LFD6 device which is connected to PC.
• The inlet water source is opened.
• The calculations are done by software automatically, and the readings are changed by
varying brake power

3.4 Observations and Calculations:

Table 1 Throttle Control:

Orifice Turbine Turbine Brake Orifice Volume Turbine Hydraulic Torque Brake Overall
Differential Inlet Speed Force Discharge Flowrate Head Power Power Efficiency
Pressure Pressure n Fb Coefficient
dPo P1 Cd Qv Hi Ph T Pb Egr
(kPa) (kPa) (Hz) (N) (dm³/s) (m) (W) (Nm) (W) (%)

0.89 284.03 22.0 1.700 0.63 0.053 29.01 15.19 0.040 6 36

0.99 281.98 24.0 3.200 0.63 0.056 28.80 15.93 0.076 12 73
3.45 278.22 47.0 2.500 0.63 0.105 28.41 29.33 0.060 18 60
6.38 270.70 90.0 1.000 0.63 0.143 27.64 38.77 0.023 13 34
8.49 267.97 121.0 0.200 0.63 0.165 27.37 44.31 0.005 4 9

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0.100

0.076
0.080

0.060
0.060
Torque(Nm)

0.040
0.040
0.023
0.020
0.005

0.000
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0

-0.020
Turbine Speed(Hz)

Figure 12 Graph Turbine Speed and Torque

25

20 18
Brake Power(W)

15 13
12

10
6
4
5

0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0
Turbine Speed(Hz)

Figure 13 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Brake Power

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90
80 73
70
60
Overall Efficiency(%) 60
50
36 34
40
30
20
9
10
0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0
-10
Turbine Speed(Hz)

Figure 14 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Overall Efficiency

Table 2 Nozzle:
Orifice Turbine Turbine Brake Orifice Volume Turbine Hydraulic Torque Brake Overall
Differential Inlet Speed Force Discharge Flowrate Head Power Power Efficiency
Pressure Pressure n Fb Coefficient
dPo P1 Cd Qv Hi Ph T Pb Egr
(kPa) (kPa) (Hz) (N) (dm³/s) (m) (W) (Nm) (W) (%)

9.57 265.23 127.8 0.264 0.63 0.176 27.09 46.55 0.006 5 11

9.47 265.23 128.7 0.635 0.63 0.175 27.09 46.30 0.015 12 27
9.50 264.89 129.0 0.977 0.63 0.175 27.05 46.32 0.023 19 41
9.40 264.89 129.2 0.576 0.63 0.174 27.05 46.07 0.014 11 24
9.40 264.89 129.5 0.488 0.63 0.174 27.05 46.07 0.012 10 21

0.030

0.025 0.023

0.020
Torque(Nm)

0.015
0.014
0.015
0.012

0.010
0.006

0.005

0.000
127.5 128.0 128.5 129.0 129.5 130.0
Turbine Speed(Hz)

Figure 15 Graph Turbine Speed and Torque

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25

19
20
Brake Power(W)

15
12
11
10
10

5
5

0
127.5 128.0 128.5 129.0 129.5 130.0
Turbine Speed(Hz)

Figure 16 Graph Between Turbine Speed and Brake Power

50
45 41
40
Overall Efficiency(%)

35
30 27
24
25 21
20
15 11
10
5
0
127.5 128.0 128.5 129.0 129.5 130.0
Turbine Speed(Hz)

Figure 17 Graph Between Rotor Speed and Overall Efficiency

3.4.1 Sample Calculation:

Sample calculation is done on speed of turbine 22Hz(throttle control).
Hydraulic Power:
𝜋𝐶𝑑 𝑑 2 √2𝜌𝑑𝑃𝑜
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 = 𝑄𝑣 =
4𝜌
2
𝜋(0.63)(0.009) √2(1000)(0.89)
𝑄𝑣 =
4(1000)
𝑄𝑣 = 0.053𝑑𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑃1
𝐻𝑖 =
𝜌𝑔

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284.03
𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 = 𝐻𝑖 = = 29.01𝑚
(1000)(9.81)
𝑷𝒉 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑖 𝑄𝑣 = (1000)(9.81)(0.035)(29.01) = 15.19𝑊
Brake Power:
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 = 𝑇 = 𝐹𝑏 . 𝑟 = (1.7)(0.024) = 0.040𝑁. 𝑚
𝑷𝒃 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇 = 2𝜋(22)(0.040) = 6𝑊
Overall Efficiency:
𝑃𝑏
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(%) = × 100 = 36%
𝑃ℎ
3.5 Results and Discussion:
In this experiment, nozzle or throttle control-based flow rate differentiation is used to assess the turbine's
efficiency. Flow rates are adjusted in accordance with frequency requirements. Graphs show that
efficiency increases as flow rate does, as can be seen from the graphs. Using a mechanical
dynamometer, the brake (output) power is calculated based on the applied load. However, increasing
the quantity of water jets is another way to increase water flow. The values obtained are inconsistent
because the brake power is manually controlled, and reading errors may be caused by faulty equipment
or inaccurate sensors. The results show that nozzle control is more effective than throttle control for
methods of varying flow rate in accordance with energy needs.

3.6 Conclusion:
• The area of one nozzle can be changed to increase flow rate, as can the number of water
jets.
• On a commercial scale, the frequency flow rate is varied to maintain the load caused by the
appliances used.
• Increasing the flow rate will speed up the turbine, increasing its efficiency.

4 Experiment No 4
4.1 Title:
To obtain a head flow curve for a centrifugal pump operating at inherent speed.

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4.2 Introduction:
4.2.1 Centrifugal Pump:
A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device designed to move a fluid by means of the transfer of
rotational energy from one or more driven rotors, called impellers. Fluid enters the rapidly rotating
impeller along its axis and is cast out by centrifugal force along its circumference through the impeller's
vane tips.

4.2.2 Parts of Centrifugal Pump:

The different parts of the centrifugal pump are listed below.

• Shaft and shaft sleeve

• Impeller
• Casing
• Suction Pipe
• Delivery Pipe

Figure 18 Parts Of Centrifugal Pump

4.2.3 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump:

The working of a centrifugal pump involves the transfer of energy from the rotating impeller to the fluid
being pumped, which causes the fluid to move through the pump and into the discharge pipe. The fluid
in a centrifugal pump enters the casing, falls on the impeller vanes at the impeller eye, and rotates
radially outward until it exits the impeller through the diffuser (volute) of the casing. As it passes
through the impeller, the fluid gains both velocity and pressure.

4.2.4 Applications of Centrifugal Pump:

• These pumps are popularly used in domestic applications like pumping water from one place
to another.
• They are also used in refrigerant and coolant recirculation.
• This pump is also used for drainage, irrigation, and sprinkling.
• Centrifugal pumps are widely used in gas and oil industries for pumping slurry, mud, and oil.
• These pumps are also valuable for sewage systems

4.2.5 Advantages of Centrifugal Pump:

1. The most significant advantage of centrifugal pumps is their simplicity.
2. They are suitable for large discharge and smaller heads.
3. They don’t require any valves or many moving parts.

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4. This pump allows them to run at high speeds with minimal maintenance.
5. Their output is very steady and consistent.
6. Centrifugal pumps provide a lot of flexibility, are easy to move, and don’t take up a lot of
space.

4.3 Methodology:
4.3.1 Apparatus:
• Centrifugal Pump
• Pump demonstration unit FM30
• Sensors
➢ SPW1
➢ SPW3
➢ SSO2
➢ STS1
➢ SWA1

Figure 19 Centrifugal Pump Apparatus

4.3.2 Procedure:
• The sensors are connected to IFD6 device which is connected to PC.
• The inlet water source is opened and the flow rate is varied by changing the area of inlet valve.
• The calculations are done by software automatically, and the readings are changed by varying
brake power.

4.4 Observations and Calculations:

Table 1 Overall efficiency of centrifugal pump

Orific Mo orific Pu Pu
e Pump tor Den e mp mp
differe differe Mo inp sity disch Volu Inle Outl tot po Over
ntial ntial tor Water ut of arge me t et al wer all
pressu pressu spe tempr po wat coeffi flow velo velo hea out effici
re re ed ature wer er cIent rate city city d put ency

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( (m/s (m/s (m) (W) (%)

(Hz (W (kg/ 𝒎𝟑⁄ ) )
𝒔
(kPa) (kPa) ) (℃) ) m) )
219.89 183 996. 0.58 22.
7.178 3 46 26.2 .35 7 0.61 9 1.97 1.97 54 130 71
219.89 189 996. 0.62 22.
8.049 3 46 26.2 .94 7 0.61 4 2.09 2.09 54 137 74
219.89 191 996. 0.65 22.
8.921 3 45 26.1 .65 8 0.61 7 2.2 2.2 54 145 76
219.89 208 996. 0.68 22.
9.792 3 45 26.2 .01 7 0.61 8 2.3 2.3 54 152 78
219.89 220 996. 0.71 22.
10.630 3 45 26.1 .7 8 0.61 7 2.4 2.4 54 158 75

25 22.54 22.54 22.54 22.54 22.54

20
Total head(m)

15

10

0
0.589 0.624 0.657 0.688 0.717
Volume flowrate(m3/s)

Figure 20 Graph between head and flowrate

180
158
152
160 145
137
140 130
Power output(W)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.589 0.624 0.657 0.688 0.717
Volume flow rate(m 3/s)

Figure 21 Graph between power output and flow rate

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80
78
78
76
75

Overall efficiency(%)
76 74
74
71
72

70

68

66

64
0.589 0.624 0.657 0.688 0.717
Volume flowrate(m3/s)

Figure 22 Graph between overall efficiency and flowrate

4.4.1 Sample Calculations:

Sample calculation foe motor speed at 46 Hz.

𝐶𝑑 × 𝜋 × 𝑑 2 × √2(𝜌)(𝑑𝑃𝑜 )
𝑄𝑣 =
4×𝜌

(0.61)𝜋(0.018)2 × √2(996.7)(7.178)
𝑄𝑣 = = 0.589 𝑚3 /𝑠
4(996.7)
𝑄𝑣
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑣1 =
𝐴1
0.589
𝑣1 = = 1.9𝑚/𝑠
0.00029865
𝑄𝑣
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝑣2 =
𝐴2
0.589
𝑣2 = = 1.9𝑚/𝑠
0.00029865
Thus, it is operating at same speed and also there are no elevation changes. So head of centrifugal
pump is only dependent upon the pressure changes.

𝑣22 − 𝑣12 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝐻=( )+ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔

𝐻 = 22.537𝑚
𝑃𝑤 = 𝑄𝑣 × 𝜌𝑔𝐻

𝑃𝑤 = 130𝑊
𝑃𝑤
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝑃𝑒

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟕𝟏%

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4.5 Result and Discussion:

This experiment demonstrates the centrifugal pump's effectiveness under various conditions; as the
pump's flow rate rises, its effectiveness also rises. This demonstrates that the pump uses the majority of
its energy to produce productive work at high flow rates. The head flow curve matches the centrifugal
pump's efficiency curve. This curve displays the pressure needed to keep a specific flow rate going
through a particular equipment, such a pump or a valve. In the computations, the pump's head and speed
are both maintained at constant values. It is input differential pressure that is changing. The efficiency
of the pump is increasing as the pressure rises. The error bars shows that there will be some uncertainty
in the readings. The errors may due to the faulty apparatus or sensors.

4.6 Conclusions:
• The head flow curve is a crucial feature of centrifugal pumps and offers essential insight into
the pump's operation at various flow rates and pressures.
• With this knowledge, fluid systems may be designed and optimised, and the right pump can
be chosen for a given application.

5 Experiment No 5

5.1 Title:
To prepare the characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump at different speeds and flow rate.

5.2 Introduction:
5.2.1 Centrifugal Pump:
A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device designed to move a fluid by means of the transfer of
rotational energy from one or more driven rotors, called impellers. Fluid enters the rapidly rotating
impeller along its axis and is cast out by centrifugal force along its circumference through the impeller's
vane tips.

5.2.2 Parts of Centrifugal Pump:

The different parts of the centrifugal pump are listed below.

• Shaft and shaft sleeve

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• Impeller
• Casing
• Suction Pipe
• Delivery Pipe

Figure 23 Parts Of Centrifugal Pump

5.2.3 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump:

The working of a centrifugal pump involves the transfer of energy from the rotating impeller to the fluid
being pumped, which causes the fluid to move through the pump and into the discharge pipe. The fluid
in a centrifugal pump enters the casing, falls on the impeller vanes at the impeller eye, and rotates
radially outward until it exits the impeller through the diffuser (volute) of the casing. As it passes
through the impeller, the fluid gains both velocity and pressure.

5.2.4 Applications of Centrifugal Pump:

• These pumps are popularly used in domestic applications like pumping water from one place
to another.
• They are also used in refrigerant and coolant recirculation.
• This pump is also used for drainage, irrigation, and sprinkling.
• Centrifugal pumps are widely used in gas and oil industries for pumping slurry, mud, and oil.
• These pumps are also valuable for sewage systems

5.2.5 Advantages of Centrifugal Pump:

• The most significant advantage of centrifugal pumps is their simplicity.
• They are suitable for large discharge and smaller heads.
• They don’t require any valves or many moving parts.
• This pump allows them to run at high speeds with minimal maintenance.
• Their output is very steady and consistent.
• Centrifugal pumps provide a lot of flexibility, are easy to move, and don’t take up a lot of
space.

5.3 Methodology:
5.3.1 Apparatus:
• Centrifugal pump
• Electric motor
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter

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 Rana Taimoor Anwar FM LAB 2021-ME-104

• Pressure head measuring sensors

Figure 24 Centrifugal Pump Apparatus

5.3.2 Procedure:
• Electric motor is operated at specific voltage to provide power for the working of centrifugal
pump.
• Firstly, the speed of centrifugal pump is kept constant and the pressure head at which pump
is operating is changed.
• Also the head is kept constant and the speed is varying and readings are taken from the
sensors.
• Efficiency of centrifugal pump at constant speed and varying head and at varying speed is
compared.

5.4 Observations and Calculations:

Table 2 Overall efficiency of centrifugal pump

Out
Volu Time let Pump Pump Overa
No Motor me of to Inlet Hea Total Power Power ll
. Speed Wate Collect Head( d(h2 Curre Voltag Flow Head( Output Input( Efficie
of (n) r(V) (t) h1) ) nt(I) e(V) Rate(Qv) H) (Pu) Pgr) ncy
O
bs (rpm) (m3) (s) (m) (m) (A) (V) (m3/s) (m) (W) (W) (%)
1 2500 0.005 22.80 -7.5 8 0.9 170 2.2E-04 15.5 33 153 22
2 2500 12.48 -6.0 7 0.9 170 4.0E-04 13.0 51 153 33
3 2500 8.48 -5.5 6 0.9 170 5.9E-04 11.5 66 153 43
4 2600 26.86 -8.0 10 1.0 180 1.9E-04 18.0 33 180 18
5 2600 17.12 -6.0 9 1.0 180 2.9E-04 15.0 43 180 24
6 2600 10.10 -5.0 8 1.0 180 5.0E-04 13.0 63 180 35
7 2700 24.42 -9.0 11 1.1 190 2.0E-04 20.0 40 209 19
8 2700 16.93 -8.0 9 1.1 190 3.0E-04 17.0 49 209 23
9 2700 10.62 -7.5 8 1.1 190 4.7E-04 15.5 71 209 34

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25.0

20.0

Total head(m)
15.0
2500
10.0 2600
2700
5.0

0.0
2.2E-04 4.0E-04 5.9E-04
Flowrate(m3/s)

Figure 25 Graph between head and flowrate

90
80
70
Power output(W)

60
50
2500
40
2600
30
2700
20
10
0
2.2E-04 4.0E-04 5.9E-04
Flowrate(m3/s)

Figure 26 Graph between power output and flow rate

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60

50

Overall efficiency(%) 40

30 2500
2600
20
2700

10

0
2.2E-04 4.0E-04 5.9E-04
Flowrate(m3/s)

Figure 27 Graph between overall efficiency and flowrate

5.4.1 Sample Calculations:

For input power,

𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐼 = 0.9𝐴
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑉 = 170𝑉

𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑃𝑢 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 = (0.9)(170) = 153𝑊

For output power,
𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ1 = −7.5𝑚

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ2 = 8𝑚

𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 + ℎ𝐷
▪ Datum head = hD = 0.8m

𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝐻 = 8 − (−7.5) + 0.8 = 15.5𝑚

𝑉 0.005
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 = = = 2.2 × 10−4 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑡 22.80
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄𝑣 𝐻𝜌𝑔

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = (2.2 × 10−4 )(15.5)(1000)(9.81)

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑃𝑔𝑟 = 33𝑊

For overall efficiency:

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑔𝑟
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100 = × 100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑢
33
𝑶𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 100 = 22%
153

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Rana Taimoor Anwar FM LAB 2021-ME-104

5.5 Result and Discussion:

As can be seen from the calculations and graphs, raising the speed should theoretically enhance the
pump's efficiency. However, as a result of losses and how increasing speed affects the pump's operation,
the efficiency of the pump actually decreases. As a result, a centrifugal pump has a range of speeds
where efficiency is at its highest. This range is determined by the particulars of the pump's design and
the properties of the fluid being pumped. The efficiency of the pump declines at high speeds for a variety
of reasons. One of the primary causes is the fluid developing a lot of turbulence, which results in system
energy losses. On a centrifugal pump, increasing pressure head while maintaining a fixed speed would
often reduce efficiency. Moreover, the fluid velocity inside the pump reduces as the pressure head rises.
The fluid's kinetic energy decreases as a result of this decrease in velocity, thus lowering the pump's
efficiency. Since the centrifugal pump's performance is also influenced by its particular construction,
how it is used, and the properties of the fluid being pushed. This pump's graphs demonstrate that, at
constant speed, there is a modest increase with increasing system head.

5.6 Conclusion:
• Increasing in speed at constant system head will decrease the efficiency of pump
• Increasing in system head will decrease the efficiency
• Efficiency of centrifugal pump mostly depends upon the design and working of centrifugal
pump

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6 Experiment No 6
6.1 Title:
To demonstrate the characteristic curve of two pumps connecting in parallel installation .
6.2 Introduction:
A centrifugal pump is a mechanical machine that pumps the fluid by converting the mechanical
power (rotational energy) into pressure energy using a centrifugal force acting on the fluid.
The mechanical power generally supplies by the electric motor or engine. A centrifugal pump
uses a centrifugal force to pump the fluids. Therefore, it is known as a centrifugal pump.It is
a simplest type of hydraulic equipment that uses in a wide variety of industries and in many
everyday appliances to move fluids from low to high-pressure areas. It uses an impeller to
pump the fluid from one location to other. In 1475, engineer Francesco Di Giorgio
Martini designed a centrifugal pump as a mud lifter device. The actual centrifugal pump was
only discovered in the 17th century. Next, Denis Papin designed a centrifugal pump with
straight blades. British discoverer John Appold invented a curve vane centrifugal pump
in 1851.The centrifugal pumps are most commonly used in the food and chemical industries to
efficiently pump viscous liquids. These pumps are cheaper than positive displacement pumps.
In simple words, it is a brilliant pump that can work efficiently in different applications.

6.2.1 Parts of Centrifugal Pump:

The different parts of the centrifugal pump are listed below.

6.2.1.1 Shaft and shaft sleeve

Centrifugal pumps are provided with packing rings or mechanical seal, which helps prevent
the leakage of the pumped liquid.

6.2.1.2 Impeller
An impeller is a rotor used to increase the kinetic energy of the flow.
6.2.1.3 Casing
The casing contains the liquid and acts as a pressure containment vessel that directs the liquid
flow in and out of the centrifugal pump. The volute is a curved funnel that increases in area as
it approaches the discharge port. The volute of a centrifugal pump is the casing that receives
the fluid being pumped by the impeller, slowing down the fluid’s flow rate. Therefore,
according to Bernoulli’s principle, the volute converts kinetic energy into pressure by reducing
speed while increasing pressure. Some centrifugal pumps contain diffusers. A diffuser is a set
of stationary vanes that surround the impeller. The diffuser directs the flow, allows a more
gradual expansion, and therefore increases the efficiency of the centrifugal pump.
6.2.1.4 Diffuser
Rather than cutwater, diffusers have vanes. While the volutes have only one or two points
where the casing edge approaches the impeller to create pressure, diffusers usually have many
vanes. In the schematic below, the number of vanes is ten. The diffuser is an important element
of a compressor or pump. Its purpose is to reduce the velocity of the flow leaving the impeller
resulting in an increase in pressure. The diffuser can be simply depicted as a nonrotating
channel whose flow area increases in the direction of flown Diffusers are very common in
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems. Diffusers are used on both all-air and air-
water HVAC systems, as part of room air distribution subsystems, and serve several purposes:
To deliver both conditioning and ventilating air. The diffuser directs the flow, allows a more

35
Rana Taimoor Anwar FM LAB 2021-ME-104

gradual expansion, and therefore increases the efficiency of the centrifugal pump. The
centrifugal pumps are most commonly used in the food and chemical industries to efficiently
pump viscous liquids. These pumps are cheaper than positive displacement pumps. In simple
words, it is a brilliant pump that can work efficiently in different applications.

Figure 28 Parts Of Centrifugal Pump

6.2.2 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump:

The centrifugal pump working principle works according to the basic principle of angular
momentum which states that the change in the angular momentum of a revolving element is
equivalent to the applied force.The working of a centrifugal pump is almost similar to
the centrifugal compressor but there is only a difference in working fluid. A centrifugal pump
works in the following way:

• First of all, mechanical power is provided to the pump impeller by an electric motor or
engine. The impeller directly connects with the electric motor through a shaft and
reciprocates with the motion of the motor shaft.
• When the impeller starts rotating, a vacuum starts generating inside the impeller’s eye.
Due to this vacuum, the liquid starts to enter the eye in the axial direction.
• As the liquid enters the eye, it strikes the blades of the impeller. The impeller rotates
the liquid radially and axially outward with the help of centrifugal force. This impeller
continues this movement of liquid until it passes through all its components.
• The impeller blades convert the kinetic energy of the liquid into its speed and increase
the liquid speed.
• After passing through the impeller, the liquid enters the diffuser area. This diffuser
slows down the liquid by reducing its speed. It converts the speed of the liquid into
pressure energy.
• As the liquid pressure is increased up to the desired level, it discharges through the
pump outlet and is transferred into the desired area or tank.
In this way, a centrifugal pump increases the pressure and pumps the different fluids. In simple
words, in a centrifugal pump, the liquid rises to a certain height due to the centrifugal force
acting on the liquid. Therefore, this pump knows as a centrifugal pump.

6.2.3 Applications of Centrifugal Pump:

• These pumps are popularly used in domestic applications like pumping water from
one place to another.
• They are also used in refrigerant and coolant recirculation.

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• This pump is also used for drainage, irrigation, and sprinkling.

• Centrifugal pumps are widely used in gas and oil industries for pumping slurry, mud,
and oil.
• These pumps are also valuable for sewage systems
6.2.4 Advantages of Centrifugal Pump:
• The most significant advantage of centrifugal pumps is their simplicity.
• They are suitable for large discharge and smaller heads.
• They don’t require any valves or many moving parts.
• This pump allows them to run at high speeds with minimal maintenance.
• Their output is very steady and consistent.
• Centrifugal pumps provide a lot of flexibility, are easy to move, and don’t take up a
lot of space.
6.2.5 Parallel Connection of Centrifugal Pump:
In a parallel connection of centrifugal pumps, two or more pumps are connected to a common
discharge pipe, with each pump having its own suction pipe. The pumps are installed side by
side and connected to a common suction manifold or header.When the pumps are in parallel,
they work together to provide the necessary flow rate and pressure to meet the system's
demand. The pumps operate at the same speed and discharge pressure, but each pump delivers
a portion of the total flow rate required.The parallel connection of centrifugal pumps has
several advantages. First, it increases the system's reliability by providing redundancy. If one
pump fails, the other pumps can continue to operate and meet the system's demand. Second, it
allows for greater flexibility in system design and operation. By adjusting the number of pumps
in operation, the flow rate and pressure can be easily varied to meet changing system
requirements. However, there are also some potential drawbacks to the parallel connection of
centrifugal pumps. One is that the pumps must be carefully selected and matched to ensure that
they operate at the same speed and discharge pressure. If the pumps are not properly matched,
they can create turbulence and cause cavitation, which can damage the pumps and decrease
their efficiency. Overall, the parallel connection of centrifugal pumps is a common and
effective way to increase the flow rate and pressure in a system while providing redundancy
and flexibility. However, proper pump selection and design are essential to ensure reliable and
efficient operation.

Figure 29 Parallel Connection of pump

6.2.6 Advantages of Parallel Connection of Centrifugal Pump:

The parallel connection of centrifugal pumps has several advantages, including:

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• Increased flow rate: When two or more pumps are connected in parallel, they can
work together to increase the flow rate of the system. This is particularly useful in
applications where high flow rates are required.
• Increased system reliability: With multiple pumps in parallel, the system becomes
more reliable because if one pump fails, the others can continue to operate and meet the
system's demand. This redundancy helps to prevent downtime and maintain system
operation. The parallel connection of centrifugal pumps can reduce maintenance costs
because the pumps can be serviced individually, without shutting down the entire
system.
• Improved efficiency: By connecting multiple pumps in parallel, the system can operate
more efficiently because each pump can work at a reduced load, reducing wear and tear
on the equipment and improving energy efficiency.
• Greater flexibility: Parallel connection of centrifugal pumps provides greater
flexibility in system design and operation. By adjusting the number of pumps in
operation, the flow rate and pressure can be easily varied to meet changing system
requirements.
Overall, the parallel connection of centrifugal pumps is an effective way to increase flow
rate and system reliability, improve efficiency, and provide greater flexibility in system
design and operation.
6.2.7 Applications of Parallel Connection of Centrifugal Pump:
The parallel connection of centrifugal pumps is commonly used in a variety of applications
where high flow rates and system reliability are required. Some of the typical applications
include:
• Water supply and distribution systems: In water supply and distribution systems,
multiple pumps are often connected in parallel to ensure adequate flow rates and
maintain system reliability.
• Cooling systems: Parallel connection of centrifugal pumps is commonly used in
cooling systems to ensure adequate flow rates and prevent overheating. This is
particularly important in large commercial and industrial facilities that require cooling
for processes and equipment.
• Fire protection systems: In fire protection systems, multiple pumps are connected in
parallel to provide the necessary flow rate and pressure to operate fire sprinklers and
other fire protection equipment.
• HVAC systems: HVAC systems often require parallel connection of centrifugal pumps
to maintain proper flow rates and ensure adequate heating or cooling of buildings.
• Industrial applications: Parallel connection of centrifugal pumps is commonly used
in a variety of industrial applications, including chemical processing, mining, and oil
and gas production, where high flow rates and system reliability are essential.
Overall, the parallel connection of centrifugal pumps is a versatile and effective solution
for a wide range of applications that require high flow rates and reliable operation. By
connecting multiple pumps in parallel, the system can operate more efficiently because
each pump can work at a reduced load, reducing wear and tear on the equipment and
improving energy efficiency.

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6.3 Methodology
6.3.1 Apparatus:
• Centrifugal pump connected in parallel form
• Electric motor
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Pressure head measuring sensors

Figure 30 Series Connection of Centrifugal Pump

6.3.2 Procedure:
• Electric motor is operated at specific voltage to provide power for the working of
centrifugal pump.
• Two centrifugal pumps are connected in parallel form operated at same pressure head.
• Inlet, outlet and manifold head is varied and flow rate is measured at different RPMs.
• Total head and system head of the centrifugal pumps are calculated.
6.4 Data Analysis:
Table 1 Total and System head of parallel connected centrifugal pumps

No. RPM Voltage Current Volume Time Flow rate Inlet Outlet Manifold Total System
of Head Head Head Head Head
Obs. (V) (I) V(m3) (s) Qv(m3/s) h1(m) h2(m) h3(m) hT(m) hs(m)
1 2700 190 0.9 0.005 20.23 0.000247 -6.33 12.09 7.73 18.41 14.86
2 12.91 0.000387 -6.33 10.54 7.03 16.87 14.15
3 10.68 0.000468 -6.33 9.14 5.62 15.46 12.75
4 9.47 0.000528 -6.33 8.79 4.22 15.11 11.34
5 6.58 0.000760 -6.33 7.73 2.81 14.06 9.94
6 2600 180 0.9 0.005 14.80 0.000338 -5.62 11.60 6.33 17.23 12.75
7 11.40 0.000439 -5.62 10.55 5.62 16.17 12.05
8 9.48 0.000527 -5.62 9.49 4.92 15.12 11.35
9 8.56 0.000584 -5.62 9.14 4.22 14.76 10.64
10 7.31 0.000684 -5.62 8.44 3.52 14.06 9.94
11 2400 165 0.9 0.005 16.12 0.000310 -5.27 10.90 6.33 16.17 12.40
12 13.34 0.000375 -5.27 10.55 5.62 15.82 11.70
13 11.79 0.000424 -5.27 9.84 4.92 15.12 10.99
14 9.39 0.000532 -5.27 9.14 4.22 14.41 10.29
15 8.19 0.000611 -5.27 8.79 3.52 14.06 9.59

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25.00

Total Head(m) 20.00

15.00
2700 RPM

10.00 2600 RPM

2400 RPM

5.00

0.00
2.47E-04 3.87E-04 4.68E-04 5.28E-04 7.60E-04
Flowrate (m3/s)

Figure 31 Graph between Total head and Flow rate

18.00
16.00
14.00
System Head (m)

12.00
10.00
2700 RPM
8.00
2600 RPM
6.00
2400 RPM
4.00
2.00
0.00
2.47E-04 3.87E-04 4.68E-04 5.28E-04 7.60E-04
Flowrate (m3/s)

Figure 32 Graph between System head and Flow rate

6.4.1 Sample Calculations:

Calculate the total had and system head for RPM 2700.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 5𝐿 = 0.005𝑚3
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 20.23𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑄𝑣 = = 0.000247 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
For inlet head,

𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ1 = −9𝑝𝑠𝑖

ℎ1 = (−9)(6894.76) = −62052.85 𝑃𝑎

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−62052.85
ℎ1 = = −6.33𝑚
(1000)(9.81)
For outlet head,
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ2 = −9𝑝𝑠𝑖

ℎ2 = (17.2)(6894.76) = 118589.87 𝑃𝑎
118589.87
ℎ2 = = 12.09𝑚
(1000)(9.81)
For manifold head,

𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ3 = 11𝑝𝑠𝑖

ℎ3 = (11)(6894.76) = 75842.36 𝑃𝑎
75842.36
ℎ3 = = 7.73𝑚
(1000)(9.81)
For total head:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 − 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ2 − ℎ1

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ 𝑇 = 12.099 − (−6.33)

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 = ℎ 𝑇 = 18.41𝑚

For system head,
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 − 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ3 − ℎ1 + ℎ𝑑
Datum Head is 0.8m

𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑠 = 7.73 − (−6.33) + 0.8

𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 = ℎ𝑠 = 14.86𝑚

6.5 Results And Discussion:

The head of parallel connected centrifugal pumps is dependent on several factors, including
the pump speed, impeller diameter, and flow rate. The head of a centrifugal pump is the
measure of the pressure generated by the pump and is typically expressed in units of height or
pressure. The head is proportional to the square of the pump speed, meaning that as the speed
of the pump increases, the head will increase as well. When two centrifugal pumps are
connected in parallel, the total head of the system is the sum of the heads of each individual
pump. It is important to note that increasing the speed of the pumps will also increase the power
required to operate them. As the speed of the pumps increases, the energy consumption of the
system will also increase. When two or more centrifugal pumps are connected in parallel, their
combined flow rate increases while their total head (pressure) remains the same as the
individual pumps. However, the head (pressure) of each pump will be affected by changes in
the flow rate. As the flow rate increases, the head produced by each pump decreases due to
internal recirculation and other hydraulic losses within the pump. Conversely, as the flow rate
decreases, the head produced by each pump increases. The design of the parallel system,
including the pipe sizes and configuration, must be carefully considered to avoid uneven
distribution of flow and pressure among the pumps. In a parallel connected centrifugal pump

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Rana Taimoor Anwar FM LAB 2021-ME-104

system, the total head is the same for each individual pump, but the system head may be smaller
than the total head
6.6 Comments:
• Total head of centrifugal pumps connected in parallel manner is affected by RPM and
flow rate.
• With the increase in RPM total and system head increases while the flow rate decreases.
• Parallel connecting centrifugal pumps are very useful in applications where high flow
rate is required.
• System head is smaller than total head due to losses in pipe and mechanical losses of
pumps.

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Rana Taimoor Anwar FM LAB 2021-ME-104

7 Experiment NO 7
7.1 Title:
To demonstrate the characteristic curve of two pumps connecting in series installation.
7.2 Introduction:
7.2.1 Centrifugal Pump:
A centrifugal pump is a mechanical machine that pumps the fluid by converting the mechanical
power (rotational energy) into pressure energy using a centrifugal force acting on the fluid.
The mechanical power generally supplies by the electric motor or engine. A centrifugal pump
uses a centrifugal force to pump the fluids. Therefore, it is known as a centrifugal pump.It is
a simplest type of hydraulic equipment that uses in a wide variety of industries and in many
everyday appliances to move fluids from low to high-pressure areas. It uses an impeller to
pump the fluid from one location to other. In 1475, engineer Francesco Di Giorgio
Martini designed a centrifugal pump as a mud lifter device. The actual centrifugal pump was
only discovered in the 17th century. Next, Denis Papin designed a centrifugal pump with
straight blades. British discoverer John Appold invented a curve vane centrifugal pump
in 1851.The centrifugal pumps are most commonly used in the food and chemical industries to
efficiently pump viscous liquids. These pumps are cheaper than positive displacement pumps.
In simple words, it is a brilliant pump that can work efficiently in different applications.

7.2.2 Parts of Centrifugal Pump:

The different parts of the centrifugal pump are listed below.

7.2.2.1 Shaft and shaft sleeve

Centrifugal pumps are provided with packing rings or mechanical seal, which helps prevent
the leakage of the pumped liquid.

7.2.2.2 Impeller
An impeller is a rotor used to increase the kinetic energy of the flow.
7.2.2.3 Casing
The casing contains the liquid and acts as a pressure containment vessel that directs the liquid
flow in and out of the centrifugal pump. The volute is a curved funnel that increases in area as
it approaches the discharge port. The volute of a centrifugal pump is the casing that receives
the fluid being pumped by the impeller, slowing down the fluid’s flow rate. Therefore,
according to Bernoulli’s principle, the volute converts kinetic energy into pressure by reducing
speed while increasing pressure. Some centrifugal pumps contain diffusers. A diffuser is a set
of stationary vanes that surround the impeller. The diffuser directs the flow, allows a more
gradual expansion, and therefore increases the efficiency of the centrifugal pump.
7.2.2.4 Diffuser
Rather than cutwater, diffusers have vanes. While the volutes have only one or two points
where the casing edge approaches the impeller to create pressure, diffusers usually have many
vanes. In the schematic below, the number of vanes is te The diffuser is an important element
of a compressor or pump. Its purpose is to reduce the velocity of the flow leaving the impeller
resulting in an increase in pressure. The diffuser can be simply depicted as a nonrotating
channel whose flow area increases in the direction of flown Diffusers are very common in
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems. Diffusers are used on both all-air and air-

43
Rana Taimoor Anwar FM LAB 2021-ME-104

water HVAC systems, as part of room air distribution subsystems, and serve several purposes:
To deliver both conditioning and ventilating air. . A diffuser is a set of stationary vanes that
surround the impeller. The diffuser directs the flow, allows a more gradual expansion, and
therefore increases the efficiency of the centrifugal pump.

Figure 33 Parts Of Centrifugal Pump

7.2.3 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump:

The centrifugal pump working principle works according to the basic principle of angular
momentum which states that the change in the angular momentum of a revolving element is
equivalent to the applied force.The working of a centrifugal pump is almost similar to
the centrifugal compressor but there is only a difference in working fluid. A centrifugal pump
works in the following way:

• First of all, mechanical power is provided to the pump impeller by an electric motor or
engine. The impeller directly connects with the electric motor through a shaft and
reciprocates with the motion of the motor shaft.
• When the impeller starts rotating, a vacuum starts generating inside the impeller’s eye.
Due to this vacuum, the liquid starts to enter the eye in the axial direction.
• As the liquid enters the eye, it strikes the blades of the impeller. The impeller rotates
the liquid radially and axially outward with the help of centrifugal force. This impeller
continues this movement of liquid until it passes through all its components.
• The impeller blades convert the kinetic energy of the liquid into its speed and increase
the liquid speed.
• After passing through the impeller, the liquid enters the diffuser area. This diffuser
slows down the liquid by reducing its speed. It converts the speed of the liquid into
pressure energy.
• As the liquid pressure is increased up to the desired level, it discharges through the
pump outlet and is transferred into the desired area or tank.
In this way, a centrifugal pump increases the pressure and pumps the different fluids. In simple
words, in a centrifugal pump, the liquid rises to a certain height due to the centrifugal force
acting on the liquid. Therefore, this pump knows as a centrifugal pump.

7.2.4 Applications of Centrifugal Pump:

• These pumps are popularly used in domestic applications like pumping water from
one place to another.
• They are also used in refrigerant and coolant recirculation.

44
Rana Taimoor Anwar FM LAB 2021-ME-104

• This pump is also used for drainage, irrigation, and sprinkling.

• Centrifugal pumps are widely used in gas and oil industries for pumping slurry, mud,
and oil.
• These pumps are also valuable for sewage systems
7.2.5 Advantages of Centrifugal Pump:
• The most significant advantage of centrifugal pumps is their simplicity.
• They are suitable for large discharge and smaller heads.
• They don’t require any valves or many moving parts.
• This pump allows them to run at high speeds with minimal maintenance.
• Their output is very steady and consistent.
• Centrifugal pumps provide a lot of flexibility, are easy to move, and don’t take up a
lot of space.
7.2.6 Series Connection Of Centrifugal Pump:
A series connection of centrifugal pumps refers to a configuration in which two or more
centrifugal pumps are connected in a line, with the outlet of the first pump connected to the
inlet of the second pump, and so on. The series connection results in an increased pressure head
and hence, an increased pumping height or discharge pressure. The flow rate through each
pump remains the same, but the total pressure that the system can generate is the sum of the
individual pressures generated by each pump.One common application of series connection of
centrifugal pumps is in high-pressure water supply systems, such as in tall buildings or in fire-
fighting applications, where the water needs to be pumped to a significant height. Another
application is in pumping fluids through long pipelines, where the pressure drop due to
frictional losses can be significant, and a series connection of pumps is used to maintain the
desired flow rate and pressure.

Figure 34 Series Connection of Centrifugal Pump

7.2.7 Advantages of Series Connection of Centrifugal Pump:

• Increased pressure head: The primary advantage of a series connection of centrifugal
pumps is the increased pressure head that results from the combination of two or more
pumps. This configuration enables the pumping of fluids to greater heights or over
longer distances, which can be particularly useful in applications where high pressure
is required.
• Better efficiency: In some cases, a series connection of centrifugal pumps can be more
efficient than a single pump operating at the same pressure head. This is because the
individual pumps in a series connection can operate at a lower pressure head, which
reduces the energy losses associated with pumping.

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• Improved reliability: A series connection of centrifugal pumps can provide improved

reliability by providing redundancy. If one pump fails, the other pumps can continue to
operate and maintain the system pressure, which can help prevent downtime and
disruptions.
• Flexibility: A series connection of centrifugal pumps provides flexibility in terms of
the flow rate and pressure that can be achieved. By adding or removing pumps, the
system can be adjusted to meet changing requirements.
• Cost-effectiveness: In some cases, a series connection of centrifugal pumps can be a
more cost-effective solution than a single high-pressure pump. This is because a series
connection can be built using standard pumps, which are typically less expensive than
high-pressure pumps. Additionally, maintenance and repair costs may be lower, as
individual pumps can be replaced or repaired without affecting the entire system.
7.2.8 Applications of Series Connection of Centrifugal Pump:
• Water supply systems: Series connection of centrifugal pumps is commonly used in
high-rise buildings to pump water to the upper floors. The pumps are connected in series
to generate the required pressure head.
• Fire-fighting systems: In fire-fighting systems, a series connection of centrifugal
pumps is used to pump water at high pressure to the fire hydrants and sprinklers.
• Water treatment plants: Series connection of centrifugal pumps are used in water
treatment plants to transport water through long pipelines, where the pressure drop due
to frictional losses can be significant.
• Oil and gas industry: In the oil and gas industry, series connection of centrifugal
pumps is used to transport crude oil, natural gas, and other fluids through pipelines over
long distances.
• Chemical and petrochemical industry: Series connection of centrifugal pumps are
used in the chemical and petrochemical industry to transport various liquids and
chemicals through pipelines.
7.3 Methodology:
7.3.1 Apparatus:
• Centrifugal pump connected in Series form
• Electric motor
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Pressure head measuring sensors

Figure 35 Parallel Connection of Centrifugal Pump

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7.3.2 Procedure:
• Electric motor is operated at specific voltage to provide power for the working of
centrifugal pump.
• Two centrifugal pumps are connected in series form operated at same pressure head.
• Inlet, outlet and manifold head is varied and flow rate is measured at different RPMs.
• Total head and system head of the centrifugal pumps are calculated.
7.4 Observations and Calculations:
Table 2 Total and System head of series connected centrifugal pumps

No. RPM Voltage Current Volume Time Flow rate Inlet Outlet Manifold Total System
of Head Head Head Head Head
Obs.
(V) (I) V(m3) (s) Qv(m3/s) h1(m) h2(m) h3(m) hT(m) hs(m)
1 2500 170 1 0.005 44 0.000114 -6.33 18.27 22.84 24.60 29.97
2 24 0.000208 -6.33 17.57 22.14 23.90 29.26
3 14 0.000357 -6.33 15.46 20.03 21.79 27.16
4 12 0.000417 -6.33 13.35 17.92 19.68 25.05
5 2300 155 0.9 0.005 28 0.000175 -6.33 21.44 16.52 27.76 23.65
6 25 0.000195 -6.33 20.38 15.46 26.71 22.59
7 14 0.000335 -6.33 18.62 14.06 24.95 21.18
8 13 0.000379 -6.33 16.52 11.95 22.84 19.07
9 2000 140 0.8 0.005 22 0.000175 -6.33 19.68 14.06 26.00 21.18
10 16 0.000195 -6.33 17.92 13.35 24.25 20.48
11 12 0.000335 -6.33 16.52 11.25 22.84 18.37
12 10 0.000379 -6.33 15.46 10.54 21.79 17.67

30.00

25.00
Total Head(m)

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0.0E+00 5.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.5E-04 2.0E-04 2.5E-04 3.0E-04 3.5E-04 4.0E-04 4.5E-04
Flow rate(m3/s)

2500 RPM 2300 RPM 2000 RPM

Figure 36 Graph between Total Head and Flow rate

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35.00

30.00

System Head(m)
25.00

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0.0E+00 5.0E-05 1.0E-04 1.5E-04 2.0E-04 2.5E-04 3.0E-04 3.5E-04 4.0E-04 4.5E-04
Flow rate(m3/s)

2500 RPM 2300 RPM 2000 RPM

Figure 37 Graph between System Head and Flow rate

7.4.1 Sample Calculations:

Calculate the total had and system head at RPM 2500 and flowrate 𝑄𝑣 = 0.000114 𝑚3 /𝑠.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 5𝐿 = 0.005𝑚3
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 44𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑄𝑣 = = 0.000114 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Inlet Head
𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ1 = −0.32𝑚
Outlet Head
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ2 = 26𝑝𝑠𝑖
ℎ2 = (26)(6894.76) = 179.26 𝑘𝑃𝑎
(179.26 × 103 )
𝒉𝟐 = = 18.27𝑚
(1000)(9.81)
Manifold Head
𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ3 = 32.5𝑝𝑠𝑖
ℎ3 = (32.5)(6894.76) = 224.07 𝑘𝑃𝑎
(224.07 × 103 )
𝒉𝟑 = = 22.84𝑚
(1000)(9.81)
Total Head
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 − 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ 𝑇 = 18.27 − (−0.32)

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𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 = ℎ 𝑇 = 18.59𝑚

System Head
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 − 𝐼𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ3 − ℎ1 + ℎ𝑑
Datum Head is 0.8m
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑠 = 22.84 − (−0.32) + 0.8
𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 = ℎ𝑠 = 23.96𝑚

7.5 Result and Discussions:

When two centrifugal pumps are connected in series, their outlet and inlet are connected in sequence,
so that the discharge of the first pump feeds into the inlet of the second pump. When two centrifugal
pumps are connected in series, their flow rates remain the same, while the total head or pressure that
the pumps can deliver to the system increases. This is because the head generated by each pump is
added together in series. However, there are also several potential drawbacks to consider when
connecting centrifugal pumps in series. One of the most significant concerns is the increased energy
consumption, as more power is required to overcome the increased head. Additionally, connecting
pumps in series can increase the complexity of the system, as it requires more components, such as
additional piping and valves, which can increase the risk of system failures.

7.6 Conclusion:
• Two centrifugal pumps in series can provide benefits in terms of increased total head
• Increase in pressure delivered to the system.
• However, it also comes with some drawbacks,
• Increased energy consumption, increased complexity, and the potential risk of cavitation.

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8 Experiment No 8
8.1 Title:
To determine the operating characteristics of a cross flow turbine at various speed.
8.2 Introduction:
8.2.1 Cross Flow Turbine:
A cross flow turbine, also known as a Banki-Michell turbine or Ossberger turbine, is a type of
water turbine that is primarily used for generating hydroelectric power from small-scale water
sources such as streams, rivers, and irrigation canals.Unlike other water turbines, which have
a radial flow of water, the cross flow turbine has a tangential flow of water, which enters the
turbine through a nozzle and flows across the blades of the turbine. The water then exits the
turbine through a diffuser, which helps to increase the efficiency of the turbine.Cross flow
turbines are typically smaller than other types of water turbines, and they can be used in low-
head, high-flow applications. They are generally more efficient than other small-scale water
turbines, such as the Pelton and Francis turbines, at low heads of up to 50 meters. Cross flow
turbines are also known for their simplicity, reliability, and low maintenance requirements.

Figure 38 Cross Flow Turbine

8.2.2 Working Principle of Cross Flow Turbine:

The working principle of a cross flow turbine involves the conversion of the kinetic energy of
water into mechanical energy, whichan then be used to drive a generator or other machinery.
Here are the steps involved in the operation of a cross flow turbine:
• Water enters the turbine through a nozzle, which directs the water flow onto the blades
of the turbine.
• The water flows across the blades of the turbine, causing the rotor to rotate. The blades
are curved in a way that allows the water to flow across them at an angle, which
maximizes the transfer of kinetic energy from the water to the rotor.
• As the rotor rotates, it drives a shaft, which can be connected to a generator or other
machinery.
• After passing through the rotor, the water exits the turbine through a diffuser, which
helps to increase the efficiency of the turbine by reducing the velocity of the water and
increasing its pressure.
• The generator or other machinery connected to the shaft of the turbine converts the
mechanical energy of the rotor into electrical energy or other forms of useful work.

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Overall, the working principle of a cross flow turbine involves the conversion of the kinetic
energy of water into mechanical energy through the use of curved blades and a tangential water
flow. The simplicity and efficiency of this design make it well-suited for small-scale
hydroelectric power generation and other low-head, high-flow applications.
8.2.3 Applications of Cross Flow Turbine:
Cross flow turbines have a wide range of applications in different industries. Here are some
common applications of cross flow turbines:
• Small-scale hydroelectric power generation: Cross flow turbines are ideal for small-
scale hydroelectric power generation from low-head, high-flow water sources, such as
rivers, streams, and irrigation canals. They can generate electricity for remote
communities, off-grid locations, and micro-hydro systems.
• Water pumping: Cross flow turbines can be used to pump water for irrigation,
livestock watering, and other agricultural applications. They can also be used in
municipal water supply systems, wastewater treatment plants, and other water treatment
facilities.
• Industrial processes: Cross flow turbines can be used to drive machinery in various
industrial processes, such as paper mills, textile factories, and food processing plants.
• Marine applications: Cross flow turbines can be used in marine applications to
generate power from the flow of ocean currents or tidal movements. They can also be
used in small-scale wind and solar hybrid systems for powering boats and offshore
platforms.
• Remote power supply: Cross flow turbines can be used to supply power to remote
communities and off-grid locations, such as mountain villages, islands, and rural areas.
• Water quality monitoring: Cross flow turbines can be used to power water quality
monitoring systems that measure water quality parameters, such as pH, temperature,
dissolved oxygen, and nutrient concentrations.
Overall, cross flow turbines are a versatile and efficient technology that can be used in a wide
range of applications that require low-head, high-flow power generation or mechanical work.
8.2.4 Advantages of Cross Flow Turbine:
Cross flow turbines offer several advantages over other types of turbines, particularly for low-
head, high-flow applications. Here are some of the advantages of cross flow turbines:
• High efficiency: Cross flow turbines can achieve high efficiency at low heads, typically
between 5 and 50 meters, which makes them ideal for small-scale hydroelectric power
generation. They are typically more efficient than other types of turbines, such as
Francis or Pelton turbines, at low heads.
• Simple design: Cross flow turbines have a relatively simple design, with fewer
components compared to other types of turbines. This makes them easy to manufacture,
install, and maintain, reducing the cost of ownership.
• Low maintenance: Cross flow turbines require minimal maintenance due to their simple
design and fewer components. This makes them ideal for remote locations where
maintenance can be difficult and expensive.
• Can operate with variable flow rates: Cross flow turbines can operate with variable flow
rates, making them ideal for applications where the water flow rate varies, such as in
streams, rivers, and irrigation canals.

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• Reliable: Cross flow turbines are known for their reliability and longevity, with some
turbines lasting up to 50 years or more. This makes them a cost-effective solution for
small-scale hydroelectric power generation and other applications.
• Environmentally friendly: Cross flow turbines are environmentally friendly, as they do
not produce greenhouse gases or other pollutants. They are also a renewable energy
source, as they harness the power of flowing water.
Overall, cross flow turbines offer a range of advantages for small-scale hydroelectric power
generation and other low-head, high-flow applications. Their high efficiency, simple design,
low maintenance requirements, and reliability make them a cost-effective and environmentally
friendly solution for generating clean energy from flowing water.
8.2.5 Disadvantages of Cross Flow Turbine:
While cross flow turbines have many advantages, they also have some disadvantages that
should be considered. Here are some of the disadvantages of cross flow turbines:
• Limited head range: Cross flow turbines are typically only suitable for low to medium
head ranges, generally up to 50 meters. This makes them less suitable for high head
applications.
• Limited power output: Cross flow turbines typically have a lower power output
compared to other types of turbines, such as Francis or Pelton turbines. This means that
they may not be suitable for larger scale hydropower projects.
• Complex flow distribution: The flow of water through a cross flow turbine can be
complex, with some areas of the rotor receiving more flow than others. This can result
in uneven wear on the turbine blades and reduced efficiency.
• Sensitive to debris: Cross flow turbines are sensitive to debris, such as rocks, sticks,
and other objects that can become lodged in the turbine blades. This can cause damage
to the turbine and reduce its efficiency.
• Higher cost: While cross flow turbines are typically less expensive than other types of
turbines, they may still have a higher upfront cost compared to other small-scale
renewable energy technologies, such as solar or wind power.
Overall, while cross flow turbines offer many advantages for low-head, high-flow applications,
they also have some limitations and disadvantages that should be considered when selecting a
turbine for a specific project.
8.2.6 Operating Characteristics of Cross Flow Turbine:
The operating characteristics of a cross flow turbine can be described by several parameters,
including the specific speed, efficiency, head, and flow rate. Here are some of the key operating
characteristics of a cross flow turbine:
• Specific speed: The specific speed of a cross flow turbine is a measure of its rotational
speed and size relative to the amount of water that it handles. It is expressed in units of
revolutions per minute (RPM) and is a function of the head and flow rate of the water.
Cross flow turbines typically have a specific speed in the range of 10 to 50.
• Efficiency: The efficiency of a cross flow turbine is a measure of the ratio of the power
output to the power input. It is typically expressed as a percentage and can vary
depending on the head and flow rate of the water. Cross flow turbines are known for
their high efficiency at low heads, typically between 5 and 50 meters.

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• Head: The head of a cross flow turbine is the height difference between the water source
and the turbine, and is a measure of the potential energy available to the turbine. Cross
flow turbines are typically designed for low to medium head applications, generally up
to 50 meters.
• Flow rate: The flow rate of a cross flow turbine is the volume of water that passes
through the turbine per unit of time, typically measured in liters per second (L/s) or
cubic meters per second (m3/s). Cross flow turbines are suitable for high flow rate
applications, such as rivers, streams, and irrigation canals.
• Starting torque: The starting torque of a cross flow turbine is the torque required to start
the turbine from a stationary position. It is influenced by the design of the turbine and
the shape of the blades, and can vary depending on the head and flow rate of the water.
Overall, the operating characteristics of a cross flow turbine make it a suitable option for low
to medium head, high flow rate applications, where it can achieve high efficiency and reliable
power output.
8.3 Methodology:
8.3.1 Apparatus:
• Hydraulics Bench,
• Cross-Flow turbine apparatus,
• Tachometer
• Stopwatch.

Figure 39 Cross Flow Turbine

8.3.2 Procedure:
• Adjust the spring balance to zero deflection, and shut the spear valve by rotating it in a
clockwise direction.
• Now, open the control valve along with the spear valve (anticlockwise) after starting
the hydraulic bench.
• Make sure that the control valve is opened until the bench flow is at maximum.
• After this, measure the initial flow for reference by using the hydraulic bench and note
down the inlet pressure for the flow.
• Initially, measure the maximum speed of the turbine in the no-load condition by using
an optical tachometer, and then note down the speed by increasing the load in steps.

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• These values are recorded for each spring balance and stop it when the speed becomes
unstable.
8.4 Observations and Calculations:
Table 3 Rotor speed relation with Torque, brake power and efficiency

Rotor Tachometer Spring Spring Flow Input Torque Brake Water Overall
Speed speed (N2) Balance Balance Rate (Qv) head (T) Power Power Turbine
(N1) (W1) (W2) (Hi) (Pb) (Ph) Efficiency
(η)

(rpm) (rpm) (N) (N) (m3/s) (m) (Nm) (W) (W) (%)
797 1040 0.312 0.187 1.52× 10- 10.5 2.88 × 10-3 0.2401 15.7 1.5
4
782 1020 0.375 0.250 2.88 × 10-3 0.2355 1.5
736 960 0.625 0.312 7.20× 10-3 0.5549 3.5
705 920 0.750 0.375 8.63× 10-3 0.6371 4.1

0.8
0.7 0.6371

0.6 0.5549
Brake Power(W)

0.5
0.4
0.3 0.2355 0.2401

0.2
0.1
0
700 720 740 760 780 800
Rotor Speed(rpm)

Figure 40 Graph between Rotor Speed and Brake Power

5
Overall Efficiency(%)

4.1
4 3.5

2 1.5 1.5

0
700 720 740 760 780 800
Rotor Speed(rpm)

Figure 41 Graph between Rotor Speed and Efficiency

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Table 4 Relationship of Rotor Speed with Brake power, Water Power and Overall Efficiency

Rotor Tachometer Spring Spring Flow Input Torque Brake Water Overall
Speed speed (N2) Balance Balance Rate head (T) Power Power Turbine
(N1) (W1) (W2) (Qv) (Hi) (Pb) (Ph) Efficiency
(η)

(rpm) (rpm) (N) (N) (m3/s) (m) (Nm) (W) (W) (%)
567 740 0.5 0.275 1.95 × 7 5.18 × 0.3075 13.4 2.3
10-4 10-3
721 940 2.21 × 9.8 0.3906 21.4 1.8
10-4
778 1015 2.79 × 11.2 0.4218 30.8 1.4
10-4
874 1140 3.58 × 12.7 0.4737 44.5 1.1
10-4

0.5 0.4737

0.45 0.4218
Brake Power(W)

0.3906
0.4

0.35
0.3075
0.3

0.25

0.2
550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900
Rotor Speed(rpm)

Figure 42 Graph between Rotor Speed and Brake Power

60

50 44.5
Water Power(W)

40
30.8
30
21.4
20 13.4

10

0
550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900
Rotor Speed(rpm)

Figure 43 Graph between Rotor Speed and Water Power

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60

50 44.5
Water Power(W)
40
30.8
30
21.4
20 13.4

10

0
550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900
Rotor Speed(rpm)

Figure 44 Graph between Rotor Speed and Efficiency

8.4.1 Sample Calculations:

Following is the sample calculations for 7.03m head.
Input Power
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃ℎ = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑄𝑣
0.0005
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑄𝑣 = = 0.000195𝑚3 /𝑠
25.68
𝑃𝑤 = (1000)(9.81)(6)(0.000195)
𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑃𝑤 = 13.424𝑊
Output Power
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏 =
60
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹𝐷 𝑟 = (0.25 − 0.275)(0.023) = 0.0052𝑁𝑚
𝑑1 𝑁1 = 𝑑2 𝑁2
𝑑2 𝑁2 𝑟2 𝑁2
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑁1 = =
𝑑1 𝑟1
(0.023)(740)
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑁1 = = 567𝑅𝑃𝑀
(0.03)
2𝜋(567)(0.0052)
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑃𝑏 = = 0.307𝑊
60
Overall Efficiency
𝑃𝑏
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂 = × 100
𝑃ℎ
0.307
𝑶𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝜂 = × 100 = 2.29%
13.424

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8.5 Result and Discussion:

Power is used to calculate the cross flow turbine's efficiency; input power comes from the
water jet that drives the turbine's rotation, while output power is determined by limiting the
runner's rotation and measuring speed with a tachometer. The turbine will be deemed more
efficient if the efficiency value is lower. Each group's calculations differ, and reading errors
could be the result of frictional losses, inaccurate measuring equipment, or inadequate
experiment execution.
8.6 Conclusion:
• Turbine efficiency is influenced by water and braking force.
• While an increase in brake power will also increase efficiency, an increase in water
power will reduce efficiency.
• Rotor speed and load applied to produce restricting torque are dependent on brake
power.

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9 Experiment NO 9
9.1 Title:
To demonstrate the working and performance of a centrifugal fan operating at constant speed
and different flow rates or different speed and constant flow rates.
9.2 Introduction:
9.2.1 Centrifugal Fan:
A centrifugal fan, also known as a centrifugal blower or squirrel cage fan, is a mechanical
device used to move air or other gases in a specific direction. It works by converting the kinetic
energy of an impeller or rotor into potential energy in the form of pressure and velocity, which
results in a flow of air or gas.A centrifugal fan consists of a housing or casing, an impeller or
rotor, and an inlet and outlet duct or pipe. The impeller consists of a series of blades arranged
around a central hub, which rotates at high speed. As the impeller rotates, it creates a low-
pressure area at the center, which draws air or gas into the inlet of the fan. The blades then
accelerate the air or gas outward, increasing its velocity and pressure, and directing it out of
the outlet duct or pipe.

Figure 45 Centrifugal Fan

9.2.2 Parts of Centrifugal Fan:

• Housing or Casing: This is the outermost part of the centrifugal fan that encloses the
impeller and provides a passage for the airflow. The housing is designed to be
aerodynamically efficient, minimize air leakage, and reduce noise.
• Impeller: The impeller is the rotating component of the centrifugal fan that generates
the airflow. It consists of a hub and a series of blades or vanes attached to the hub. The
impeller can be forward-curved, backward-curved or radial, depending on the specific
application and requirements.
• Inlet Duct: This is the opening through which the air or gas enters the centrifugal fan.
It is usually designed to be smooth and straight to minimize air resistance and reduce
turbulence.
• Outlet Duct: This is the opening through which the air or gas exits the centrifugal fan.
It is typically connected to a system of ducts that deliver the airflow to the desired
location.
• Motor: The motor is responsible for driving the impeller of the centrifugal fan. It can
be an electric motor, gas engine, or other power source.
• Bearings: Bearings are used to support the impeller and allow it to rotate smoothly.
They also help to absorb vibrations and reduce noise.

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Figure 46 Components of Centrifugal Fan

9.2.3 Working Principle of Centrifugal Pump:

The working principle of a centrifugal fan is based on the conversion of the kinetic energy of
an impeller or rotor into potential energy in the form of pressure and velocity of air or gas.
When the impeller or rotor of the centrifugal fan rotates, it creates a low-pressure area at the
center, which draws air or gas into the inlet of the fan. The blades of the impeller or rotor then
accelerate the air or gas outward, increasing its velocity and pressure, and directing it out of
the outlet duct or pipe.The air or gas is forced to follow a curved path due to the centrifugal
force generated by the rotating impeller. The direction of the airflow is perpendicular to the
axis of rotation of the impeller. This makes centrifugal fans suitable for applications where
high-pressure and high-flow rate are required. The efficiency of a centrifugal fan depends on
several factors, including the design of the impeller, the shape and size of the fan housing or
casing, the speed of the impeller, and the flow rate of the air or gas. The design of the fan also
determines whether it is a forward-curved, backward-curved or radial fan.
9.2.4 Applications of Centrifugal Fan:
• HVAC systems: Centrifugal fans are commonly used in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems to provide a flow of air or gas through the building.
• Industrial processes: Centrifugal fans are used in a wide range of industrial processes
such as combustion air, pneumatic conveying, and drying systems.
• Power plants: Centrifugal fans are used in power plants to move air and gases through
the boilers, exhaust systems, and other equipment.
• Mining and construction: Centrifugal fans are used in mining and construction
applications to provide ventilation and remove dust and other particles from the air.
• Agriculture: Centrifugal fans are used in agriculture to provide ventilation for
livestock buildings and greenhouses.
• Cleanrooms: Centrifugal fans are used in cleanrooms to provide a flow of filtered air
to maintain a controlled environment.
• Chemical processing: Centrifugal fans are used in chemical processing applications to
move gases and vapors through the production process.
9.2.5 Advantages of Centrifugal Fan:
• High-pressure capabilities: Centrifugal fans are designed to generate high-pressure
airflow, making them ideal for applications where a significant pressure drop is
required.

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• High efficiency: Centrifugal fans are typically more efficient than other types of fans,
particularly at higher pressures and flow rates.
• Versatility: Centrifugal fans can be used in a wide range of applications, including
ventilation, HVAC, industrial processes, and more.
• Low noise levels: Centrifugal fans are designed to reduce noise levels, making them
suitable for applications where noise is a concern.
• Low vibration: Centrifugal fans are designed to minimize vibration, which can reduce
wear and tear on the fan and other equipment.
• Easy maintenance: Centrifugal fans are generally easy to maintain and repair, with
many standard replacement parts readily available.
9.2.6 Operating Characteristics of Centrifugal Fan:
The operating characteristics of a centrifugal fan are determined by several factors, including
the design of the impeller, the shape of the housing, and the motor characteristics. Some of the
key operating characteristics of a centrifugal fan include: The efficiency of a centrifugal fan
depends on several factors, including the design of the impeller, the shape and size of the fan
housing or casing, the speed of the impeller, and the flow rate of the air or gas. The design of
the fan also determines whether it is a forward-curved, backward-curved or radial fan.
• Airflow rate: The airflow rate of a centrifugal fan is determined by the design of the
impeller and the motor speed. The airflow rate is typically measured in cubic feet per
minute (CFM) or cubic meters per hour (m³/h).
• Pressure rise: The pressure rise of a centrifugal fan is the increase in pressure that
occurs as the air or gas passes through the impeller and housing. The pressure rise is
determined by the impeller design, the shape of the housing, and the motor speed.
• Efficiency: The efficiency of a centrifugal fan is the ratio of the power output to the
power input. Higher efficiency means that the fan is using less power to produce the
same airflow and pressure rise.
• Noise level: The noise level of a centrifugal fan is determined by several factors,
including the speed of the impeller, the shape of the housing, and the location of the
fan. Noise levels are typically measured in decibels (dB).
• Operating range: The operating range of a centrifugal fan is the range of airflow rates
and pressure rises over which the fan can operate effectively. The operating range is
determined by the design of the impeller and the motor characteristics.
Overall, the operating characteristics of a centrifugal fan are complex and are influenced by
several factors. Understanding these operating characteristics is important when selecting and
designing a centrifugal fan for a specific application.
9.3 Methodology:
9.3.1 Apparatus:
• FM40 centrifugal fan demonstration unit
• IFD7 interface device
• Compatible PC
• USB cable

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Figure 47 Centrifugal Fan Apparatus

9.3.2 Procedure:
• Connect the IFD7 device to the PC using the USB cable and switch on the main
power supply to IFD7.
• Run the software FM41 on the PC.
• Check if the sensors are working appropriately and the data is collected on the
software.
• First the experiment is performed by changing fan discharge at constant speed and
values are calculated on the software.
• Then, with the change in fan discharge, the fan speed is also changing.
9.4 Observations and Calculations:
Atmospheric pressure = 101kPa
Density of air = 1.15 kg/m3
Fan setting = 100%
Fan speed = n(RPM) = 3000 RPM
Discharge Coefficient = Cd = 0.596
Table 5 Efficiency of centrifugal fan at 3000 RPM

Orifice Fan Motor Fan Mechanical Inlet Outlet Total Power Fan
Differential Differential Torque Discharg Power Velocity Velocity Pressur Output Efficiency
Pressure Pressure e e

(kPa) (kPa) t Qv Pm v1 v2 ptF Pu (%)

(N.m) (1/s) (W) (m/s) (m/s) (kPa) (W)
-0.348 0.613 0.63 64 196.7 9.14 16.84 0.73 47.18 23
-0.198 0.654 0.53 48 165.6 6.88 12.67 0.72 35.06 21
-0.075 0.671 0.43 30 136.5 4.24 7.81 0.70 20.91 15
0.080 0.673 0.29 30 91.8 4.37 8.05 0.70 21.65 23
0.110 0.671 0.27 36 85.5 5.12 9.43 0.71 25.69 30
Atmospheric pressure = 101kPa
Density of air = 1.15 kg/m3
Fan setting = 90%
Fan speed = n(RPM) = 2400 RPM
Discharge Coefficient = Cd = 0.596

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Table 6 Efficiency of centrifugal fan at 2400 RPM

Orifice Fan Motor Fan Mechanica Inlet Outlet Total Power Fan
Differentia Differentia Torque Discharg l Power Velocity Velocity Pressur Output Efficiency
l Pressure l Pressure e e

(kPa) (kPa) t Qv Pm v1 v2 ptF Pu (%)

(N.m) (1/s) (W) (m/s) (m/s) (kPa) (W)
-0.176 0.281 0.63 48.6 137.7 6.86 12.63 0.34 16.5 12
-0.064 0.289 1.26 27.9 276.7 3.95 7.27 0.31 8.7 3
0.011 0.177 0.82 11.9 179.8 1.68 3.10 0.18 2.1 1
0.013 0.282 0.83 12.8 183.2 1.81 3.33 0.29 3.7 2
0.017 0.264 0.84 15.1 184.3 2.13 3.92 0.27 4.1 3
Atmospheric pressure = 101kPa
Density of air = 1.15 kg/m3
Fan setting = 70%
Fan speed = n(RPM) = 2100 RPM
Discharge Coefficient = Cd = 0.596
Orifice Fan Motor Fan Mechanica Inlet Outlet Total Power Fan
Differentia Differentia Torqu Discharg l Power Velocity Velocity Pressur Output Efficiency
l Pressure l Pressure e e e

(kPa) (kPa) t Qv Pm v1 v2 ptF Pu (%)

(N.m) (1/s) (W) (m/s) (m/s) (kPa) (W)

-0.176 0.281 0.63 48.6 137.7 6.86 12.63 0.34 16.5 12

-0.064 0.289 1.26 27.9 276.7 3.95 7.27 0.31 8.7 3
0.011 0.177 0.82 11.9 179.8 1.68 3.10 0.18 2.1 1
0.013 0.282 0.83 12.8 183.2 1.81 3.33 0.29 3.7 2
0.017 0.264 0.84 15.1 184.3 2.13 3.92 0.27 4.1 3

0.8

0.7
Fan Total Pressure(kPa)

0.6

0.5

0.4 3000 RPM

0.3 2400 RPM

2100 RPM
0.2

0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Fan Discharge(1/s)

Figure 48 Graph between Fan total pressure and Fan Discharge

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60

50

40
Fan Power Output
30 3000 RPM
2400 RPM
20
2100 RPM
10

0
0 20 40 60 80
-10
Fan Discharge

Figure 49 Graph between Fan Power Output and Fan Discharge

70

60

50
Fan Efficiency

40
3000 RPM
30
2400 RPM
20 2100 RPM

10

0
0 20 40 60 80
-10
Fan Discharge

Figure 50 Graph between Fan Efficiency and Fan Discharge

Atmospheric pressure = 101 kPa

Density of air = 1.15 kg/m3
Inlet Temperature = 30 °C
Discharge Coefficient = Cd = 0.596
Table 7 Efficiency of centrifugal pump at variable speed

Fan Fan Fan Motor Fan Mechanical Inlet Outlet Total Power Fan
Settin Speed Differentia Torque Discharg Power Velocit Velocit Pressure Outpu Efficienc
g l Pressure e y y t y

(%) (RPM) (kPa) t Qv Pm v1 v2 ptF Pu (%)

(N.m) (1/s) (W) (m/s) (m/s) (kPa) (W)
69 2070 0.246 1.11 53.9 241.3 7.61 14.02 0.32 17.5 7
70 2100 0.262 1.39 55.5 306.6 7.83 14.41 0.35 19.1 6
72 2160 0.280 0.94 58.1 211.6 8.19 15.09 0.37 21.6 10
74 2220 0.306 0.95 59.5 221.4 8.40 15.47 0.40 23.9 11
76 2280 0.333 0.45 63.2 107.8 8.91 16.42 0.44 27.8 26

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70

65
59.5 63.2
58.1

Fan Discharge
60
55.5
53.9
55

50

45

40
2050 2100 2150 2200 2250 2300
Fan Speed

Figure 51 Fan Discharge versus Fan Speed

35

30
23.9 27.8
25 21.6
Power Output

19.1
20 17.5

15

10

0
2050 2100 2150 2200 2250 2300
Fan Speed

Figure 52 Graph between Power Output and Fan Speed

35

30 26
25
Fan Efficiency

20

15 11
10
10 7 6
5

0
2050 2100 2150 2200 2250 2300
Fan Speed

Figure 53 Graph between Fan Efficiency and Fan Speed

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9.4.1 Specimen Calculations:

Following is the sample calculations for fan setting 100%.
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜌 = 1.15 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Fan Total Pressure
(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )𝜌
𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = + 𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2
(9.14)2 − (16.84)2
𝑝𝑡𝐹 = [ ] (1.15) + (0.613 × 103 )
2

𝑝𝑡𝐹 = 0.73 × 103

Input Power
2𝜋𝑁𝑡
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑚 =
60
2𝜋(3000)(0.63)
𝑃𝑚 =
60
𝑃𝑚 = 196.7 𝑊
Output Power
𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑢 = 𝑄𝑣 × 𝑝𝑡𝐹
𝑃𝑢 = (64)(0.73)
𝑃𝑢 = 47.18 𝑊
Fan Efficiency
𝑃𝑢
𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝑃𝑚
47.18
𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
196.7
𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 23%
9.5 Result and Discussion:
Centrifugal fans are commonly used in various industries to move air and other gases. These
fans operate by converting the kinetic energy of a rotating impeller into the potential energy of
a moving fluid. The performance of centrifugal fans is often evaluated based on several key
parameters, including volumetric flow rate, total pressure rise, static pressure rise and fan
efficiency. Total pressure rise represents the total pressure rise from the inlet to the outlet of
the fan, while static pressure rise represents only the pressure rise due to the fan without taking
into account changes in speed. An increase in the rotational speed of a centrifugal fan has both
a positive and negative effect on fan efficiency. On the one hand, increasing the rotational
speed increases the pressure generated by the fan, which in turn increases the efficiency. This
is because the kinetic energy of the air entering the fan is converted into pressure energy as it

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passes through the fan blades. Increasing the torque of a centrifugal fan can have both positive
and negative effects on the efficiency of the fan. Torque is directly proportional to the power
required to drive the fan, and increasing torque can increase the fan's power output and
efficiency. However, there is a limit to the amount of torque a fan can handle before its
efficiency starts to drop. This is because as torque increases, the speed and air pressure
generated by the fan may start to decrease due to flow separation and turbulence. This can
result in increased energy losses and reduced efficiency.
9.6 Conclusion:
• For various industrial applications to achieve maximum efficiency and flow rates,
centrifugal fans' capabilities and performance are crucial.
• In the same way, increasing the torque of a centrifugal fan increases capacity and
efficiency, but only up to a certain limit before flow separation and turbulence start to
reduce efficiency, increasing the fan speed can increase efficiency due to the increased
pressure generated by the fan, but there is a limit to this increase, after which the
efficiency begins to decrease.
• Therefore, in order to maximize the performance and efficiency of centrifugal fans, it
is crucial to carefully evaluate the operating circumstances and limitations of these
devices.

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10 Experiment No 9(b)
10.1 Title:
To demonstrate the working and performance of a axial fan operating at constant speed and
different flow rates or different speed and constant flow rates.
10.2 Introduction:
10.2.1 Axial Fan:
An axial fan is a type of fan that moves air or gas parallel to the axis of the fan's rotating shaft.
It consists of a set of blades that are mounted on a central hub, and the entire assembly rotates
to produce airflow. Axial fans are typically used to move large volumes of air at relatively low
pressures, and they are commonly found in applications such as cooling towers, air
conditioning systems, and ventilation systems.

Figure 54 Axial Fan

10.2.2 Parts of Axial Fan:

Axial fan consists of several parts, including:
• Motor: The motor is the component that powers the fan and rotates the blades to
create airflow.
• Blades: The blades are the most critical part of the fan and are responsible for
generating the airflow. They are typically made of aluminum, plastic, or composite
materials and are arranged in a circular pattern around the hub.
• Hub: The hub is the central part of the fan to which the blades are attached. It is also
connected to the motor shaft, which drives the rotation of the blades.
• Housing: The housing is the enclosure that surrounds the blades and directs the flow
of air. It is designed to be aerodynamically efficient, and its shape and size can affect
the performance of the fan.
• Inlet and Outlet: The inlet and outlet are the openings through which air enters and
exits the fan. They are typically designed to be smooth and unobstructed to minimize
turbulence and maximize airflow.
• Mounting Bracket: The mounting bracket is the component that holds the fan in
place and allows it to be mounted to a surface or structure.

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Figure 55 Parts of Axial Fan

10.2.3 Working Principle:

The working principle of an axial fan is based on the aerodynamic concept of lift, which is the
force that causes air to move over a surface. The fan consists of a set of blades that are arranged
around a central hub, and the entire assembly rotates around the axis of the hub. When the fan
is turned on, the blades rotate, and the air is drawn in from the front of the fan and forced out
of the back.As the blades rotate, they create a pressure difference between the front and back
of the fan. This pressure difference causes air to flow through the fan, with the flow direction
parallel to the axis of rotation. The angle of the blades and the speed of rotation determine the
amount of air that is moved and the pressure generated.The blades of an axial fan are typically
designed to be highly efficient at moving air while minimizing energy consumption and noise.
The blade shape and angle are optimized to produce a maximum amount of lift, while the
distance between the blades and the housing is carefully controlled to minimize turbulence and
noise. The result is a highly efficient and effective device for moving large volumes of air in a
variety of applications.
10.2.4 Applications of Axial Fan:
Axial fans are used in a wide range of applications where the movement of air is necessary.
Some common applications of axial fans include:
• HVAC Systems: Axial fans are used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
systems to circulate air and maintain comfortable indoor temperatures.
• Cooling Towers: Axial fans are used in cooling towers to remove heat from industrial
processes and power plants.
• Industrial Ventilation: Axial fans are used in industrial ventilation systems to remove
pollutants, fumes, and dust from workspaces.
• Wind Tunnels: Axial fans are used in wind tunnels to simulate wind conditions for
testing aircraft, vehicles, and other objects.
• Automotive Cooling: Axial fans are used in the cooling systems of automobiles to
remove heat from the engine and radiator.
• Agriculture: Axial fans are used in greenhouses and other agricultural facilities to
circulate air and maintain optimal growing conditions.
• Electronic Cooling: Axial fans are used in electronic devices and equipment to
dissipate heat and prevent overheating.

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• Marine: Axial fans are used in marine applications such as cooling engine rooms,
ventilation, and air conditioning.
Overall, axial fans are versatile devices that can be used in a wide range of applications where
the movement of air is required.
10.2.5 Advantages of Axial Fan:
Axial fans offer several advantages over other types of fans, including:
• High Volume, Low Pressure: Axial fans are highly effective at moving large volumes
of air at low pressures, making them ideal for applications such as ventilation and
cooling.
• Energy Efficiency: Axial fans are typically more energy-efficient than other types of
fans, especially in applications where large volumes of air need to be moved.
• Low Noise: Axial fans operate at lower speeds than other types of fans, resulting in less
noise and vibration.
• Compact Size: Axial fans are typically smaller and more compact than other types of
fans, making them ideal for applications where space is limited.
• Easy Installation: Axial fans are easy to install and require minimal maintenance,
making them a popular choice for many applications.
• Cost-Effective: Axial fans are generally less expensive than other types of fans, making
them an affordable option for many applications.
10.2.6 Operating Characteristics of Axial Fan:
The operating characteristics of an axial fan are critical to its performance and efficiency. Some
of the key operating characteristics of axial fans include:
• Airflow Rate: The airflow rate of an axial fan is the amount of air that the fan can move
per unit of time. It is typically measured in cubic feet per minute (CFM) or cubic meters
per hour (m3/h).
• Pressure Rise: The pressure rise of an axial fan is the increase in air pressure that the
fan generates as air moves through it. It is typically measured in inches of water (in.
wg) or pascals (Pa).
• Efficiency: The efficiency of an axial fan is a measure of how effectively it converts
the power input into airflow. It is typically expressed as a percentage and is calculated
by dividing the airflow rate by the power input.
• Noise: The noise level of an axial fan is an important consideration, especially in
applications where noise can be a nuisance or a safety concern. It is typically measured
in decibels (dB) and is affected by the fan's speed, blade design, and housing.
• Speed: The speed of an axial fan is the rate at which the blades rotate and is typically
measured in revolutions per minute (RPM). The speed can affect the fan's
performance, efficiency, and noise level. The inlet and outlet are the openings through
which air enters and exits the fan. They are typically designed to be smooth and
unobstructed to minimize turbulence and maximize airflow.
10.3 Methodology:
10.3.1 Apparatus:
• FM41 Axial fan demonstration unit
• IFD7 interface device

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• Compatible PC
• USB cable

Figure 56 Axial Fan Apparatus

10.3.2 Procedure:
• Connect the IFD7 device to the PC using the USB cable and switch on the main
power supply to IFD7.
• Run the software FM41 on the PC.
• Check if the sensors are working appropriately and the data is collected on the
software.
• First the experiment is performed by changing fan discharge at constant speed and
values are calculated on the software.
• Then, with the change in fan discharge, the fan speed is also changing.
10.4 Observations and Calculations:
Atmospheric pressure = 101kPa
Fan setting = 100%
Fan speed = n(RPM) = 3000 RPM
Discharge Coefficient = Cd = 0.596
Table 8 Efficiency of axial fan at 3000 RPM

Orifice Fan Densit Air Motor Fan Inlet Outlet Fan Fan Fan
Differentia Differentia y of air Tempe Power Discharg Velocity Velocity Total Power Efficienc
l Pressure l Pressure rature e Pressur Output y
e
(Pa) (Pa) (kg/m3) T Pe Qv v1 v2 ptF Pu (%)
(°C) (W) (1/s) (m/s) (m/s) (Pa) (W)

30.1 33.6 1.141 30.5 3.2 34 2.86 2.86 34 1.14 35.9

24.2 38.0 30 2.56 2.56 38 1.16 35.9
18.8 39.4 26 2.26 2.26 39 1.06 33.3
16.2 39.4 24 2.10 2.10 39 0.98 30.9
13.7 40.3 23 1.93 1.93 40 0.93 29.6
Atmospheric pressure = 101kPa
Fan setting = 95%
Fan speed = n(RPM) = 2850 RPM
Discharge Coefficient = Cd = 0.596

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Table 9 Efficiency of axial fan at 2850 RPM

Orifice Fan Densit Air Moto Fan Inlet Outlet Fan Fan Fan
Differentia Differentia y of Tempe r Discharg Velocit Velocit Total Power Efficienc
l Pressure l Pressure air rature Powe e y y Pressur Outpu y
r e t
(Pa) (Pa) (kg/m3 T Pe Qv v1 v2 ptF Pu (%)
) (°C) (W) (1/s) (m/s) (m/s) (Pa) (W)

27.1 31.5 1.141 30.5 3.0 32 2.71 2.71 31 1.01 33.3

24.1 32.8 30 2.56 2.56 33 1.00 32.8
22.4 35.1 29 2.47 2.47 35 1.03 33.7
19.6 36.7 27 2.31 2.31 37 1.01 33.0
14.6 36.4 23 1.99 1.99 36 0.86 28.6
Atmospheric pressure = 101kPa
Fan setting = 90%
Fan speed = n(RPM) = 2700 RPM
Discharge Coefficient = Cd = 0.596
Table 10 Efficiency of axial fan at 2700 RPM

Orifice Fan Density Air Motor Fan Inlet Outlet Fan Fan Fan
Differential Differential of air Tempe Power Discharg Velocity Velocity Total Power Efficienc
Pressure Pressure rature e Pressur Output y
e
(Pa) (Pa) (kg/m3) T Pe Qv v1 v2 ptF Pu (%)
(°C) (W) (1/s) (m/s) (m/s) (Pa) (W)

24.8 28.4 1.140 30.5 2.9 30 2.60 2.60 28 0.88 30.6

17.9 32.5 26 2.21 2.21 33 0.85 30.0
14 33.5 23 1.95 1.95 33 0.78 27.0
8.4 35.6 18 1.51 1.51 36 0.64 22.4
6.0 35.8 15 1.27 1.27 36 0.54 19.4

45

40
Fan Total Pressure

35
3000 RPM
30 2850 RPM
2700 RPM
25

20
0 10 20 30 40
Fan Discharge

Figure 57 Fan Total Pressure versus Fan Discharge

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1.3

1.2

1.1
Fan Power Output

0.9 3000 RPM

0.8 2850 RPM

2700 RPM
0.7

0.6

0.5
0 10 20 30 40
Fan Discharge

Figure 58 Fan Power Output versus Fan Discharge

40

35
Fan Efficiency

30
3000 RPM
25 2850 RPM
2700 RPM
20

15
0 10 20 30 40
Fan Discharge

Figure 59 Fan Efficiency versus Fan Discharge

Atmospheric Pressure = 101kPa

Discharge Coefficient = Cd = 0.596
Density of air = 1.141 kg/m3
Air temperature = T(°C) = 30.5°C
Table 11 Efficiency of axial fan at variable speed

Fan Orifice Fan Motor Fan Inlet Outlet Fan Fan `Fan
Speed Differential Differential Power Discharge Velocity Velocity Total Power Efficiency
Pressure Pressure Pressure Output
(RPM) (Pa) (Pa) Pe Qv v1 v2 ptF Pu (%)
(W) (1/s) (m/s) (m/s) (Pa) (W)
3000 29.8 35.5 3.0 33 2.85 2.85 36 1.20 37
2940 29.0 32.8 33 2.81 2.81 33 1.09 35
2880 28.2 31.3 32 2.77 2.77 31 1.03 34

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2820 26.6 31.6 32 2.69 2.69 32 1.01 34

2760 25.4 30.1 31 2.63 2.63 30 0.94 32

34
33.5 33 33
Fan Discharge 33
32.5 32 32
32
31.5 31
31
30.5
30
2700 2750 2800 2850 2900 2950 3000 3050
Fan Speed

Figure 60 Fan Discharge versus Fan Speed

1.4
1.2
1.2 1.09
1.01 1.03
0.94
Fan Power Output

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
2700 2750 2800 2850 2900 2950 3000 3050
Fan Speed

Figure 61 Fan Power Output versus Fan Speed

39
37
37
35
35 34 34
Fan Efficiency

33 32

31

29

27

25
2700 2750 2800 2850 2900 2950 3000 3050
Fan Speed

Figure 62 Fan Efficiency versus Fan Speed

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10.4.1 Specimen Calculations:

Following is the sample calculation for fan discharge 34 (1/s).
𝑄𝑣
𝑣1 = = 2.86 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝐴1
As the area at inlet and outlet is same so, the velocity at inlet and outlet will also be same.
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 2.86 𝑚𝑠 −1
(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )𝜌
𝑝𝑡𝐹 = + 𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2
[(2.86)2 − (2.86)2 ](1.141)
𝑝𝑡𝐹 = + 34
2
𝒑𝒕𝑭 = 34 𝑃𝑎
Motor Power
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑷𝒎 = 3.2𝑊
Fan Power Output
𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑢 = 𝑄𝑣 × 𝑝𝑡𝐹 = 34 × 34
𝑷𝒖 = 1.14𝑊
Fan Efficiency
𝑃𝑢 1.14
𝐹𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100 = × 100
𝑃𝑚 3.2
𝑭𝒂𝒏 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 35.9%

10.5 Result and Discussion:

The ratio of the air volume moved by an axial fan to the power it uses is known as the fan's
efficiency. One of the main elements affecting the axial fan's efficiency is its velocity. An axial
fan's efficiency typically rises as its velocity lowers. This is due to the fan's ability to circulate
air more effectively and with less turbulence at lower speeds, which leads to lower energy loss
and improved efficiency. The amount that the fan's velocity can be reduced before the airflow
becomes insufficient, nevertheless, is limited. The fan may not be able to deliver enough
airflow at very low velocities to provide the necessary ventilation or cooling needs, leading.
10.6 Conclusion:
• Axial fans' efficiency is affected by a number of variables, including their velocity,
motor power, and overall pressure. There is a limit to how much the fan's velocity can
be reduced before the airflow becomes insufficient, but generally speaking, decreasing
the fan's velocity increases its efficiency.
• Increasing the motor power can help a fan move more air with less effort, but there is a
limit to how much motor power can be raised before the fan starts to lose efficiency.

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• Another important aspect that influences the fan's efficiency is the total pressure it
develops; larger total pressures typically lead to lower efficiency due to increased
energy losses and turbulence.

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11 Experiment No 10
11.1 Title:
To show the pressure and velocity variation around an air foil at different and same angle of attack.

11.2 Introduction:
11.2.1 Pressure Variation over an airfoil:
The pressure variation over an airfoil refers to the change in pressure that occurs as air flows
over the surface of the airfoil. As an airfoil moves through the air, it causes the air to be
displaced, creating areas of high and low pressure around the airfoil. The shape of the airfoil
and its angle of attack determine the distribution of pressure over its surface. Typically, air
flows faster over the top of an airfoil than the bottom, creating a region of low pressure on the
top and a region of high pressure on the bottom. This pressure difference creates a net force on
the airfoil, known as lift, which is what allows airplanes and other flying objects to stay in the
air. The pressure variation over an airfoil is critical for understanding its aerodynamic
performance and designing efficient aircraft. Engineers use wind tunnel tests and
computational fluid dynamics simulations to study the pressure distribution over different
airfoils and optimize their designs for maximum lift and minimal drag.
11.2.2 Velocity Variation over an airfoil:
The velocity variation over an airfoil refers to the change in air velocity that occurs as air flows
over the surface of the airfoil. As air flows over an airfoil, its velocity changes due to the shape
of the airfoil and its angle of attack. Generally, the velocity of the air is higher on the top of the
airfoil compared to the bottom, due to the air having to travel a longer distance over the curved
upper surface of the airfoil. This causes the air to be accelerated, resulting in a lower pressure
region over the top surface of the airfoil. The change in air velocity over an airfoil is critical
for understanding its aerodynamic performance and designing efficient aircraft. Engineers use
wind tunnel tests and computational fluid dynamics simulations to study the velocity
distribution over different airfoils and optimize their designs for maximum lift and minimal
drag. In addition, the velocity variation over an airfoil can affect other factors such as the
formation of vortices, which can have a significant impact on the performance of the airfoil.
Understanding these factors is important for designing aircraft that are efficient, stable, and
safe.
11.2.3 Orientation of an airfoil:
The orientation of an airfoil refers to the angle at which it is positioned relative to the direction of the
incoming airflow. This angle is known as the angle of attack and is a critical factor in determining the
aerodynamic performance of the airfoil.The angle of attack can be adjusted by changing the orientation
of the airfoil relative to the airflow. When the angle of attack is increased, the airflow over the airfoil is
disrupted, creating a region of low pressure on the upper surface and a region of high pressure on the
lower surface. This pressure difference creates a net force on the airfoil, known as lift, which is what
allows airplanes and other flying objects to stay in the air.However, increasing the angle of attack
beyond a certain point can cause the airflow to separate from the surface of the airfoil, reducing lift and
increasing drag. This can cause the airfoil to stall, which is a dangerous condition for aircraft and can
result in loss of control.

11.3 Methodology:
11.3.1 Apparatus
• Wind Tunnel

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• Airfoil

Figure 63 Wind Tunnel Apparatus

11.3.2 Procedure:
→ Ensure that the pipes from the holes of the aero foils are connected to their respective
manometer tubes (as numbered from 1-14). Also, ensure that the pitot tube is connected
to the inclined manometer with the help of a pipe.
→ Switch on the apparatus, after ensuring the above connections, to pass on air over the
aero foil.
→ The air is passed in such a way that the velocity of the air stream is kept constant but
the angle of attack is changed.
→ The 14 manometers which are held vertical position measure the pressures at various
points of the aero foil (7 points are in the upper half, 1 in the middle and the remaining
6 holes are in the lower part of the aero foil).
→ Measure the pressure of the pitot tube with the help of an inclined manometer.
→ Then change the angle of attack, keeping the same air stream velocity, and take the next
set of readings.
11.4 Observations and Calculations:
Table 12 Head and Velocity variation of an airfoil @ 1.49 kPa of velocity pressure

Angle of attack = 10°

Velocity Pressure = 1.49 kPa
Total Head Static Head Velocity
Hole Distance from leading edge
Position of Hole (Ho) (ha) (u)
No.
(mm) (mm) (m) (m/s)
1 Middle 0 -20 13 16
2 Upper 2 -62 39 28
3 Upper 5 -38 24 22
4 Upper 15 6 4 9
5 Upper 25 -41 26 22
6 Upper 35 -43 27 23
7 Upper 50 -30 19 19

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8 Upper 65 -32 20 20
9 Lower 2 4 3 7
10 Lower 5 4 3 7
11 Lower 10 3 2 6
12 Lower 30 -32 20 20
13 Lower 50 3 2 6
14 Lower 70 -29 18 19
Table 13 Head and Velocity variation of an airfoil @ 2.01 kPa of velocity pressure

Angle of attack = 10°

Velocity Pressure = 2.01 kPa
Velocity
Hole Distance from leading edge Total Head Ho Static Head ha
Position of Hole u
No.
(mm) (mm) (m) (m/s)
1 Middle 0 -27 17 18
2 Upper 2 -86 54 33
3 Upper 5 -50 31 25
4 Upper 15 8 5 10
5 Upper 25 -54 34 26
6 Upper 35 -60 38 27
7 Upper 50 -41 26 22
8 Upper 65 -43 27 23
9 Lower 2 4 3 7
10 Lower 5 4 3 7
11 Lower 10 4 3 7
12 Lower 30 -43 27 23
13 Lower 50 -41 26 22
14 Lower 70 -39 24 22
Table 14 Head and Velocity variation of an airfoil @ 2.15 kPa of velocity pressure

Angle of attack = 10°

Velocity Pressure = 2.15 kPa
Velocity
Hole Position of Distance from leading edge Total Head Ho Static Head ha
u
No. Hole
(mm) (mm) (m) (m/s)
1 Middle 0 -29 18 19
2 Upper 2 -92 58 34
3 Upper 5 -54 34 26
4 Upper 15 6 4 9
5 Upper 25 -60 38 27
6 Upper 35 -58 36 27
7 Upper 50 -44 28 23
8 Upper 65 -46 29 24
9 Lower 2 4 3 7

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10 Lower 5 4 3 7
11 Lower 10 4 3 7
12 Lower 30 -46 29 24
13 Lower 50 -44 28 23
14 Lower 70 -42 26 23
Table 15 Head and Velocity variation of an airfoil @ 2.28 kPa of velocity pressure

Angle of attack = 10°

Velocity Pressure = 2.28 kPa
Velocity
Hole Position of Distance from leading edge Total Head Ho Static Head ha
u
No. Hole
(mm) (mm) (m) (m/s)
1 Middle 0 -30 19 19
2 Upper 2 -98 61 35
3 Upper 5 -58 36 27
4 Upper 15 8 5 10
5 Upper 25 -60 38 27
6 Upper 35 -60 38 27
7 Upper 50 -46 29 24
8 Upper 65 -49 31 25
9 Lower 2 4 3 7
10 Lower 5 5 3 8
11 Lower 10 6 4 9
12 Lower 30 -49 31 25
13 Lower 50 -47 29 24
14 Lower 70 -43 27 23

11.4.1 Sample Calculations:

Following is the sample calculation at the middle having velocity pressure 1.49kPa.
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 𝛼 = 10°
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝐻𝑜 = −20𝑚𝑚 = −0.02𝑚
Static Pressure
𝜌𝑜 𝐻𝑜 (784)(−0.02)
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = ℎ𝑎 = =
𝜌𝑎 1.25
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = ℎ𝑎 = −13𝑚
The magnitude of absolute static pressure head is,
ℎ𝑎 = 13𝑚
Velocity

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑢 = √2𝑔ℎ𝑎 = √2(9.81)(13)

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑢 = 16𝑚/𝑠

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11.5 Result and Discussion:

Understanding an airfoil's aerodynamic behaviour requires knowing how pressure and velocity
vary around it at various and constant angles of attack. In general, the air flows over the surface
of the airfoil smoothly at low angles of attack, and the velocity and pressure distribution are
rather uniform. However, the flow becomes more turbulent and the pressure and velocity
distribution grow more complicated with greater angles of attack. The fluctuation in velocity
and pressure at various points along an airfoil when it is exposed to air at a 10° angle of attack
are crucial factors in determining how the airfoil will behave aerodynamically. In contrast to
the upper and lower parts of the airfoil, the air generally flows smoothly across the middle
region of the airfoil at a slower speed. This is due to the fact that the upper surface of the airfoil
has a larger curvature than the middle portion, which causes the air to accelerate and the
pressure to decrease. In contrast, the lower surface of the airfoil has less curvature than the
center, which causes the air to move more slowly and exert more pressure.
11.6 Conclusion:
• The lift force that permits the airfoil to generate lift is produced by the pressure
differential between the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil.
• The upper part of the airfoil experiences low pressure, while the lower part experiences
high pressure due to the curvature of the surfaces, which results in the creation of lift
force. • The flow is relatively uniform at lower angles of attack, but at higher angles of
attack, the flow becomes more complex and turbulent, affecting the velocity and
pressure distribution.

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