Computer Aided Design,

Computer Aided Manufacturing

and
Computer Integrated
Manufacturing

Introduction to CAD/CAM/CIM
1
• CAD/CAM = Computer Aided Design and
Computer Aided Manufacturing. It is the
technology concerned with the use of
computers to perform design and
manufacturing functions.

2
• CAD can be defined as the use of computer
systems to perform certain functions in the
design process. Such as creation,
modification, analysis or optimization of
design.
• CAM is the use of computer systems to
plan, manage and control the operations of
manufacturing plant through either direct or
indirect computer interface with the plant’s
production resources.
3
From CAM definition, the application of
CAM falls into two broad categories:
1. Computer monitoring and control
(Direct connection)
Process
Computer Process
data

Process data
Computer Process
Control signals

4
2. Manufacturing support application
(offline connection) .

Process data
Computer Mfg
Control signals operations

5
 The Product Cycle and
CAD/CAM
In order to establish the scope and definition
of CAD/CAM in an engineering environment
and identify existing and future related tools,
a study of a typical product cycle is
necessary. The following Figure shows a
flowchart of such a cycle.

6
 Typical Product Life Cycle
The Design Process
Design Collecting
Design definitions, relevant design
needs specifications, information and
and requirements feasibility study
Synthesis
Analysis The CAD Process
Design Design
Design Design Design Design
documentation and modeling and
evaluation optimization analysis conceptualization
communication simulation

The Manufacturing Process

Production
planning The CAM Process
Design and
procurement of
Process
new tools Quality Packaging
planning Production Shipping
control
Order
materials

NC, CNC, DNC

programming

Marketing

7
• The product begins with a need which is identified
based on customers' and markets' demands.
• The product goes through two main processes from
the idea conceptualization to the finished product:
1. The design process.
2. The manufacturing process.

The main sub-processes that constitute the design process

are:
1. Synthesis.
2. Analysis.
8
Implementation of a Typical CAD Process on
a CAD/CAM system
Delineation of Design changes Design and
geometric model Analysis algorithms

Definition Drafting and

translator detailing

Geometric model
Documentation

Interface
algorithms To CAM Process
9
 CAD Tools Required to Support the Design Process

Design phase Required CAD tools

Design conceptualization Geometric modeling techniques;
Graphics aids; manipulations; and
visualization
Design modeling and simulation Same as above; animation; assemblies;
special modeling packages.
Design analysis Analysis packages; customized
programs and packages.
Design optimization Customized applications; structural
optimization.
Design evaluation Dimensioning; tolerances; BOM; NC.
Design communication and Drafting and detailing…
documentation

10
Implementation of a Typical CAM Process on
a CAD/CAM system
Geometric model Inspection

Interface
algorithms Assembly

Process planning Packaging

NC programs
To shipping and marketing
11
CAM Tools Required to Support the Design Process
Manufacturing phase Required CAM tools

Process planning CAPP techniques; cost

analysis; material and
tooling specification.
Part programming NC programming

Inspection CAQ; and Inspection

software
Assembly Robotics simulation and
programming

12
Definitions of CAD Tools Based on Their
Constituents

Computer
graphics
concepts

CAD
tools

Geometric
Design tools
modeling

13
 Definition of CAD Tools Based on Their Implementation
in a Design Environment

Hardware
(control unit; display
terminals;
Design tools + Computer I/O devices = CAD tools

Software (graphics;
modeling; applications
programs

14
Definitions of CAM Tools Based on Their
Constituents

Networking
concepts

CAM
tools

CAD
Mfg tools

15
 Definition of CAM Tools Based on Their Implementation
in a Manufacturing Environment

Hardware
(control unit; display
terminals;
I/O devices

Mfg tools + Computer Software (CAD; NC; = CAM tools

MRP; CAPP…)

Networking
16
Definitions of CAD/CAM Tools Based on
Their Constituents

Mfg tools Design tools

CAD/CAM
tools Geometric
Networking modeling

Computer
graphics
concepts
17
 Definition of CAD/CAM Tools Based on Their
Implementation in an Engineering Environment

Hardware

Design and + Computer Software = CAD/CAM tools

Mfg tools

Networking
18
Typical Utilization of CAD/CAM Systems in an Industrial Environmen
Geometric modeling and graphics package
Process planning
Geometric modeling
of conceptual design CAPP package

Is design evaluation
Yes Are there
No manufacturing
Possible with available discrepancies in CAD
Standard software? databases?
Design
package Yes
Develop customized No
Design testing
programs and
And evaluation packages NC NC
programming package

Programming
No Is final design package
Applicable? Machining

Yes
Inspection
Drafting Inspection
And Robotics
Assembly package
Documentation 19
 Automation and CAD/CAM
Automation can be defined as the
technology concerned with the application
of complex mechanical, electronic, and
computer-based systems in the operation
and control of manufacturing systems.

20
 Types of Manufacturing Systems
1. Continuous-flow processes. Continuous dedicated production of
large amount of bulk product. Continuous manufacturing is
represented by chemicals, plastics, petroleum, and food industries.
2. Mass production of discrete products. Dedicated production of
large quantities of one product (with perhaps limited model
variations). Examples include automobiles, appliances and engine
blocks.
3. Batch production. Production of medium lot sizes of the same
product. The lot may be produced once or repeated periodically.
Examples: books, clothing and certain industrial machinery.
4. Job-shop production. Production of low quantities, often one of a
kind, of specialized products. The products are often customized
and technologically complex. Examples: prototypes, aircraft,
machine tools and other equipment.
21
 Continuous-
flow
production Mass
production
Production Batch
quantity production

Job shop
production

Product variety

22
 Category Automation achievements
Continuous-flow process •Flow process from beginning to end
•Sensors technology available to measure
important process variables
•Use of sophisticated control and optimization
strategies
•Fully computer automated lines
Mass production of discrete products •Automated transfer machines
•Dial indexing machines
•Partially and fully automated assembly lines
•Industrial robots for spot welding, part handling,
machine loading, spray painting, etc.
•Automated material handling systems
•Computer production monitoring
Batch production •Numerical control (NC), direct numerical
control (DNC), computer numerical control
(CNC).
•Adaptive control machining
•Robots for arc welding, parts handling, etc.
•CIM systems.
Job shop production •Numerical control, computer numerical control
23
 Computer Technology in Automation
Most of the automated production systems implemented today
make use of computers. CAD/CAM in addition to its particular
emphasis on the use of computer technology, is also
distinguished by the fact that it includes not only the
manufacturing operations but also the design and planning
functions that precede manufacturing.

To emphasize the differences in scope between automation and

CAD/CAM, consider the following mathematical model:

24
 TTlc = BQT1 + BT2 + T3
TTcl = total time during the product life cycle
B = The number of batches produced throughout the product life cycle.
Q = The number of units produced in each batch.
T1 = The time required to produce one unit of product.
T2 = The time associated with planning and setting up for
each batch of production.
T3 = The time required for designing the product and for all the other
activities that are accomplished once for each different product .
Tlc = The average time spent on each unit of product
T2 T3
during its life cycle = T1 + +
Q BQ
25
T1 The most important term in mass production
and batch production

T2 &T3 become very important in job shop

manufacturing.
Automation technology is concerned with reducing
T1 & T2 the with emphasis on the unit production
time T
1

CAD/CAM concerned with reducing all three

terms, but is perhaps focused on T2 & T3 terms.
The emphasis in CAD/CAM includes the design
and planning function of the product life cycle.

26
 Advantages of CAD/CAM
systems
• Greater flexibility. • Better product design.
• Reduced lead times. • Greater manufacturing
• Reduced inventories. control.
• Increased Productivity. • Supported integration.
• Improved customer • Reduced costs.
service. • Increased utilization.
• Improved quality. • Reduction of machine
• Improved communications tools.
with suppliers. • Less floor space.
27
 Introduction to
(Solid) Modeling
 Geometry & Topology

Geometry: Describes the location and size of

entities. Examples are coordinates of a point and
position and radius of a circle.

Topology: Tells how the entities are connected

with one another. It describes how faces are bounded
by edges, how edges are shared by faces, how
vertices are shared by edges and so on.
Same Geometry but Different Topology
Geometry & Topology
Model Geometry Topology
Wire-Frame Points Edges (Connectivity among
vertices)
Surface Points Edges, Faces (Connectivity
among edges)

Solid Points Edges, Faces, Solids

(Connectivity among faces)
Requirements of a geometric modeler
Various Geometric Representation Schemes

• Wire-frame Models

• Surface Models

• Solid Models
Features of Wire-frame Models

• It is analogous to obtaining the shape by welding the wires

representing the edges.
• It is the simplest and the fastest 3D rep. scheme.
• It is a subset of any other higher level modeling scheme.
• All modelers use it for quick displays.
 Limitations of Wire-frame Models
• It is ambiguous leading to several interpretations of the same
model.

• Nonsense objects may be created.

• Topological information available with a wire-frame model is

inadequate.
• Hidden line removed views are not possible. Therefore, when large
number of edges are present, display becomes messy.
• Properties such as area, mass, CG and moment of inertia cannot be
calculated.
Ambiguity of Wire-frame Models
Nonsense Wire-frame Objects
 Features of Surface Models
• A surface model is analogous to obtaining the shape by joining the cardboard pieces
representing the faces together.

• A surface model can be of two types (Faceted and Exact):

i. Faceted or tessellated or polyhedral models
ii. Exact surface models (such as NURBS Based)

• For very complicated and precise applications (Free-form modeling for styling and NC
path), exact surface models were the only option until recently. Examples are ALIAS
and SurfCAM, MasterCAM.

• Surface model is a subset of any solid model.

• Faceted surface model is a simpler and faster way to display 3D objects with hidden
lines removed.

• STL and VRML or the most popular representations of faceted surface model.
 Limitations of Surface Models
• Faceted model is inaccurate. If accuracy is to be improved,
the size of the model will become very high.

• Nonsense/Invalid objects may be created (joints of the

faces  gaps and overlaps). Stitching of edges – viz.,
obtaining water-tight models - exactly is difficult. As a
result, STL files may be erroneous.

• On a pure surface model, only area can be calculated since

its inside is not defined.
 Features of Solid Models
• A solid model is an unambiguous and informatively complete
representation of a physical object.

• A solid model can be created in several ways, but the

resulting object can be interpreted in only one way.

• Since inside the solid is also defined, all properties such as

area, mass, C.G., moment of inertia etc. can be easily
calculated.
 Limitations of Solid Models
• Costliest modeling scheme in terms of compute
space (RAM and disc space) and time.

However, this is no longer a limitation, thanks

to the availability of more powerful computers
at low cost.
 Types of Solid Models

• Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

• Boundary Representation (B-Rep)

• Feature Based Modeling (FBM)

• Space Decomposition (Exhaustive & Hierarchical - HSD)

Features of CSG Solid Models
• CSG is the first solid rep. scheme; developed at University of
Rochester.

• In CSG, a complex object is constructed from simple shapes

such as box, cylinder etc. using Boolean operations.

• The CSG model of an object is represented in the form of a

binary tree called CSG tree whose leaves are the primitives
and the intermediate nodes are the Boolean operators.
Primitives in CSG
 Boolean Operators in CSG

• Union

• Intersection

• Subtraction
CSG Tree of a Stepped Block with a Hole
CSG Tree of Tappet Valve
Features of CSG Solid Models

Advantages:
- Simple to understand and use.
- Low memory requirements.

Limitations:
- CSG is an unevaluated or raw model.
Therefore, for any operation such as display
or property calculations, it takes more time.
- Data accession becomes more difficult as
the complexity of the part increases.
 Features of B-Rep Models
• B-Rep. is a very powerful solid rep. scheme using the concept of half spaces.

• In B-Rep., a complex object is constructed out of its constituent surfaces.

• B-Rep. is nothing but a surface model with additional details and constraints:
• Topology (outward normal)
• Perfect water-tight stitching (no overlaps or gaps of surfaces)
• Defining geometry in just one place and linking them extensively using topology – this
eliminates redundancy and precision errors apart from memory saving.
• Some data such as bounding box of the patches are redundantly stored. Although these
can be calculated on the fly, this little overhead on space complexity helps in combating
time complexity.

• The B-Rep. model of an object is generally represented in the form of

winged data structure which has some amount of data redundancy to
enhance speed.
Comparison of CSG & B-Rep
 Features of B-Rep Models
Advantages:
- Algorithms work very fast due to its presence in evaluated
condition and data redundancy.

Limitations:
- High memory requirements.
- Difficult for a user to create since the user has to calculate
the intersections of various surfaces, i.e., poor user
friendliness.
- Large amount of data redundancy.
- During the manipulative operations, the topology may be
disturbed leading to nonsense object if proper check is
not made.
 Features of FBM
• The shape is constructed out of manufacturable features such as holes, boss,
slot etc. instead of a collection of primitives operated by the Booleans. In
other words, Boolean operations are implied by the features.

• Each feature has some constraints which it shall always adhere.

• These constraints ensure adherence to topological conditions even when the

dimensions are changed.

• FBM is design of a family of parts and not just a part.

• It is driven by constrained parameters.

• Basically, 2D sketches are involved.

• It is actually Constrained Parametric Feature-Based Modeling.

 Features of FBM - Procedure
• Choose a sketch plane.

• Sketch a rough 2D sketch. This gives only topology.

• Just constrain this sketch in three levels:

• Use the rules defined internally
• Add more relational constraints
• Add dimensional parameters for the rest.

• Convert the 2D sketch into 3D features such as extrusion, revolution, sweep,

cutout etc.

• The first feature created in this manner is called base feature.

• Use the above steps to create all other features.

 Features of FBM - Advantages
• By changing a few parameters, the object can be changed unambiguously since all
the dimensions are related to each other by these parameters. this way, a family of
parts can be designed with the same effort required to design a part in CSG.

• Changes propagate throughout the assembly automatically.

• Due to the presence of constraints, even if the dimensions change, the topological
relations are preserved. For instance, a through hole remains ‘through’ even if the
the thickness of the plate is increased.

• Creation of 2D and its conversion to 3D using familiar features makes this approach
more elegant and natural.

• Unlike CSG, here, the Boolean operations are not explicit. They depend on the
feature characteristics. This minimizes construction effort.

• Automatic and just dimensioning (but this is possible in any valid solid
representation).
 Features of FBM - Limitations
• More intelligence is required for the users. solving
constraints requires considerable geometric acumen.

• User should plan well in deciding the parameters to exploit

the benefits of this philosophy.

• Not very amenable for freeform modeling (freeform and

constraints do not go together!)
 Spatial Decomposition Models

• Exhaustive enumeration (Voxel-Based)

• Hierarchical Space Decomposition (HSD) such as Bintree,

Octree, Lintree and Polytree (also known as Extended
Octree)
Practical Solid
Modeling System
No single solid
User
representation scheme is
good enough in all aspects.
CSG/ FBM Therefore, any practical solid
modeling system invariably
makes use of and maintains
B-Rep/ HSD two or more representations
- one being user-friendly and
the other being system-
Application Program
friendly.
Practical Solid
Modeling Systems

Software User-friendly System-friendly

Representation Representation
AutoCAD MDT, CSG & FBM B-Rep
I-DEAS, Unigraphics

Pro/E, SolidWorks FBM B-Rep

GIS, Medicine, NC Images, NC Program HSD (V-Rep or Octree)
Simulation …
 Conclusions
• Wire-frame, Surface and Solid are the three possible
representations of 3D objects.

• These representations differ in the amount of topological

information they store.

• Solid Modeling is the most preferred model as of now.

• There are several solid representations in use, some more

user-friendly and others more system-friendly – none have
both.

• Any usable solid modeler has at least two representations

simultaneously.
Conclusions - Gradient Objects
• All natural objects are gradient. But man-made objects are uniform due to the
limitations of CAD systems and manufacturing facilities.

• A Functionally Gradient Material (FGM) has controlled variation of material

composition throughout the matrix leading to the desired distribution of properties
such as color, density, hardness, porosity etc.

• With the advent of RP, Manufacturing processes for FGM products are available.
Rapid prototypes are inherently anisotropic. RP exploits this characteristic for the
manufacture of FGM by distributing the anisotropy in the desired manner. Examples:
ZCorp – color prototypes; Therics - “time release delivery” drugs; Laser Engineered
Net Shaping (LENS) supports the same for metals. Applications: medicine, aerospace,
gears …
Conclusions - Gradient Objects
• The bottleneck for adopting FGM in today’s product
development is the lack of modeling and analysis tools:

• Existing CAD packages store only boundary information and assume

the interior to be homogeneous. Therefore, they do not support
design using FGM.

• Any CAD/CAM system uses two representations of the boundary,

one for user-friendliness (CSG/ FBM) and the other for system-
friendliness (B-Rep). Along with these, we need a third
representation for the interior.

• Interior can be represented only through inexact models such as

voxel (uniform) or octree (adaptive or hierarchical).
 Conclusions
• An object has not only shape and size but many other properties such
as tolerance, surface finish, color etc.
• As mentioned earlier, natural objects are not homogeneous.
• We so far are successful in representing the objects using our sense of
vision. But we experience an object using our five senses. Therefore, its
CAD representation is not complete without incorporating these other
representations.
• It also may have other characteristics that go beyond our senses.
• Furthermore, any simulation will require incorporation of gravity,
friction, viscosity, forces, torques, deflections etc.

We are still not successful in representing the object’s

geometry itself satisfactorily. This shows how much more
to be achieved!