Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

1.2
 Data Representation

• Text: represented using bit patterns

• ASCII: 7-bit (128 symbols)
• Extended ASCII: 8-bit (256 symbols)
• Unicode: 16-bit (65,536 symbols)
• ISO: 32-bit (4B symbols)

• Numbers: represented in binary

• Images: bit patterns for pixels and colors
• Audio: analog or digitized form
• Video: analog or digitized form

1.3
 Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

1.4
 1-2 NETWORKS

• A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by

communication links.

• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device

capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.

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 Network Criteria

• Performance
• Reliability
• Security

1.6
 Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

1.7
 Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

1.8
 Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

1.9
 Mesh Topology

• Point-to-point
• n(n-1)/2 dedicated links
• (n-1) I/O ports per device
• Advantages:
• Full capacity
• Robustness (one link failure does not fail whole network)
• Privacy and security
• Easy fault detection and isolation
• Disadvantages:
• Cabling (installation)
• I/O ports
• Space
• Cost
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 Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

1.11
 Star Topology

• N dedicated point-to-point links to the hub

• Indirect connections among the nodes
• 1 I/O port per device

• Advantages:
• Robustness
• Easy fault detection and isolation

• Disadvantages:
• Single point of failure at the hub
• Bottleneck at the hub.

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 Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

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 Bus Topology

• Multi-point
• 1 backbone link
• 1 I/O port per device
• Advantages:
• Ease of installation
• Minimum cabling at installation
• Disadvantages:
• Limited taps and distance to node
• Limited node addition after initial installation
• Limited quality due to signal reflection at taps
• Difficult fault isolation

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 Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

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 Ring Topology

• Point-to-point
• n dedicated links
• 2 I/O ports per device
• Advantages:
• Easy installation
• Easy fault detection and isolation
• Disadvantages:
• Speed: store-and-forward at each node
• Ring length and number of nodes

1.16
 Chapter 2
Network Models

2.17 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

2.18
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

◼ Example: Sending a letter

◼ Components:
◼ Sender, Receiver, and Carriers

◼ Hierarchy:
◼ The tasks are done in order

◼ Services: the relations between layers

◼ Each layer uses the services of the layer below it

2.19
 Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.20
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL

➢ ISO was Established in 1947

➢ ISO is a multinational body for worldwide agreement on
international standards
➢ An ISO standard for network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
➢ The OSI model was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.21
 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

◼ Each layer represents a set

of networking functions
with related uses
◼ Comprehensive and flexible
modular architecture
◼ Each layer uses the
services of the layer
immediately below it via an
interface
◼ Each layer in the sending
side communicates with its
peer in the receiving side
using peer-to-peer
protocols

2.22
 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.23
 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.24
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.25
 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

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 Functions of the Physical Layer
◼ The physical characteristics:
◼ The interface between devices and the transmission media
◼ Representation of bits:
◼ The type of encoding into signals
◼ Transmission data rate:
◼ The number of bits per second and the bit duration
◼ Synchronization of bit transmission:
◼ Clocks between the sender and receiver
◼ Line configuration:
◼ The connection of devices to the media
◼ Physical topology:
◼ mesh, star, bus, etc.
◼ Transmission mode:
◼ duplex, simplex, etc.

2.27
 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.28
 Functions of the Data Link Layer

◼ Framing: divides the bit stream from network layer into frames
◼ Physical addressing: specifies the physical addresses (e.g. the
MAC addresses) of the sender and/or the receiver of the frame
◼ If the receiver is outside the sender’s network, the frame is sent to
the network connecting device (router or gateway)
◼ Flow control: a mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver
buffers by the sender’s data
◼ Error control: a mechanism to detect and/or correct
transmission errors caused by the physical channel.
◼ Detection and retransmission of damaged frames
◼ Prevent frame duplication
◼ Access control: determines and controls the access of the
communication link among the devices sharing the link

2.29
 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.30
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
2.31
 Functions of the Network Layer

◼ Packet delivery:
◼ From source host to destination host across multiple networks.
◼ Logical addressing:
◼ For packet delivery outside the local network (or subnet), a
logical address is needed (e.g. IP address)
◼ Packet routing:
◼ Defines the routing or switching mechanism for the connecting
devices (i.e.; routers) in order to deliver the packets to the final
destination through an internetwork

2.32
 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.33
 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

2.34
 Functions of the Transport Layer
◼ Message delivery:
◼ From a specific process in the sending host to a specific process in
the destination host
◼ Segmenting and reassembling:
◼ Divide the message from the application layer of the sender side
into transmittable segments containing sequence numbers
◼ Reassemble the segments into messages at the receiver side
◼ Connection control:
◼ The type of connection: connectionless or connection-oriented
◼ Connectionless: packet are sent independently (e.g. UDP protocol)
◼ Connection-oriented: a connection is first established with the peer
before delivering the packets (e.g. TCP protocol)
◼ End-to-end flow control
◼ End-to-end error control

2.35
 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.36
 Figure 2.12 Session layer

Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
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 Functions of the Session Layer

◼ Dialog Control
◼ Allows two systems to enter into a dialog
◼ Allows two processes to communicate
◼ Synchronization:
◼ Establish, maintain, and synchronize communicating
system interaction
◼ Add checkpoints in order to resume a session in case of a
crash

2.38
 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.39
 Functions of the Presentation Layer

◼ Handle the syntax and semantics of the information

exchange
◼ Translation:
◼ Sender-dependent formats into common formats
◼ Common formats into receiver-dependant formats
◼ Encryption and decryption:
◼ Encrypt sensitive sender information to insure privacy
◼ Decrypt at the receiver side to retain original message
◼ Compression:
◼ Reduce the size of transmitted message to speedup the
transmission

2.40
 Figure 2.14 Application layer

Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
2.41
 Functions of the Application Layer

◼ Enables the user, whether human or software, to

access the network
◼ Network virtual terminal:
◼ Software emulation of a terminal at a remote host
◼ File transfer, access, and management:
◼ Remote access and management of files and contents
◼ Mail services:
◼ Transfer and management of email messages
◼ Directory services:
◼ Access to distributed database sources

2.42
 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.43
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.44
 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.45
 Questions??

1.46
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000