Industrial Control System

Specific Objectives

By the end of the sub module unit, the trainees should be able to:

 Define PLC system

 State the components of PLC

 Explain the function of the components of plc

 Describe the architecture of PLC hardware

 Carry out the PLC programming

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The need for PLCs

Hardwired panels were very time consuming to wire, debug and change. GM identifies
the following requirements for computer controllers to replace hardwired panels:

1. Solid state not mechanical

2. Easy to modify input and output devices

3. Easily programmed and maintained by plant electricians

4. Be able to function in an industrial environment

Definition

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a specialized computer used to control

machines and process. It uses a programmable memory to store instructions and
specific functions that include On/Off control, timing, counting, sequencing, arithmetic,
and data handling.

Advantages of a PLC

1. Eliminates much of the hard wiring that was associated with conventional relay
control circuits. The program takes the place of much of the external wiring that
would be required for control of a process.

2. Increased Reliability: Once a program has been written and tested it can be
downloaded to other

PLCs. Since all the logic is contained in the PLC’s memory, there is no chance of
making a logic wiring error.

3. More flexibility: It is easier to create and change a program in a PLC than to wire
and rewire a circuit. End user can modify the program in the field.

4. Lower costs: Originally PLCs were designed to replace relay control logic. The cost
saving using PLCs have been so significant that relay control is becoming obsolete,
except for power applications i.e if an application requires more than about 6
control relays, it will usually be less expensive to install a PLC

5. Communications capability: it can communicate with other controllers or computer

equipment. They can be networked to perform functions such as; supervisory
control, data gathering, monitoring devices and process parameters, and
downloading or uploading of programs.

6. Faster Response Time: PLCs operate in real-time which mean that an event taking
place in the field will result in an operation or output taking place e.g. machines

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 that process thousands of items per second and objects that spend only a fraction
of second in front of a sensor require the

PLC’s quick response capability.

7. Easier to troubleshoot: PLCs have resident diagnostic and override functions

allowing users to easily trace and correct software and hardware problems.

Types of PLCs
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are integrated as either single or modular
units.

An integrated or Compact PLC is built by several modules within a single case.

Therefore, the I/O capabilities are decided by the manufacturer, but not by the user.
Some of the integrated PLCs allow to connect additional I/Os to make them somewhat
modular.

Integrated or Compact PLCs

A modular PLC is built with several components that are plugged into a common rack
or bus with extendable I/O capabilities. It contains power supply module, CPU and other
I/O modules that are plugged together in the same rack, which are from same
manufacturers or from other manufacturers. These modular PLCs come in different sizes
with variable power supply, computing capabilities, I/O connectivity, etc.

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A modular Types of PLC

Modular PLCs are further divided into small, medium and large PLCs based on the
program memory size and the number of I/O features.

i. Small PLC is a mini-sized PLC that is designed as compact and robust unit
mounted or placed beside the equipment to be controlled. This type of PLC is used
for replacing hard-wired relay logics, counters, timers, etc. This PLC I/O module
expandability is limited for one or two modules and it uses logic instruction list or
relay ladder language as programming language.

Medium-sized PLC is mostly used PLC in industries which allows many plug-in
modules that are mounted on backplane of the system. Some hundreds of input/
output points are provided by adding additional I/O cards – and, in addition to
these – communication module facilities are provided by this PLC.

iii. Large PLCs are used wherein complex process control functions are required.
These PLCs’ capacities are quite higher than the medium PLCs in terms of
memory, programming languages, I/O points, and communication modules, and
so on. Mostly, these PLCs are used in supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) systems, larger plants, distributed control systems, etc.

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Some of the manufacturers or types of PLCs are given below:

Manufacturers or Types of PLCs

 Allen Bradley PLCs (AB)

 ABB PLCs (Asea Brown Boveri)

 Siemens PLCs
 Omron PLCs

 Mitsubishi PLCs
 Hitachi PLCs

 Delta PLCs
 General Electric (GE) PLCs

 Honeywell PLCs
 Modicon PLCs

 Schneider Electric PLCs

 Bosch PLCs

ASSIGNMENT

Describe the following need of PLCs for the industrial software engineering

i. Process control

ii. Process monitoring

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Components of PLC

A basic PLC system consists of the following components:

 Input module
 Output module
 Processor
 Memory
 Power supply
 Programming device

ii. Input/ Output Section: The input section or input module consists of devices
like sensors, switches and many other real-world input sources. The input from
the sources is connected to the PLC through the input connector rails. The output
section or output module can be a motor or a solenoid or a lamp or a heater,
whose functioning is controlled by varying the input signals.

iii. CPU or Central Processing Unit: It is the brain of the PLC. It carries out all the
processing related to the input signals in order to control the output signals based
on the control program.

iv. Programming Device: It is the platform where the program or the control logic
is written. It can be a handheld device or a laptop or a computer itself.

iv. Power Supply: It generally works on a power supply of about 24 V dc, used to
power input and output devices.

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 v. Memory: The memory is divided into two parts- The data memory and the
program memory. The program information or the control logic is stored in the
user memory or the program memory from where the CPU fetches the program
instructions. The input and output signals and the timer and counter signals are
stored in the input and output external image memory respectively.

Operation Principle of a PLC

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The input sources convert the real time analog electric signals to suitable digital electric
signals and these signals are applied to the PLC through the connector rails.
These input signals are stored in the PLC external image memory in locations known as
bits. This is done by the CPU, the control logic or the program instructions are written
onto the programming device through symbols or through mnemonics and stored in the
user memory.

The CPU fetches these instructions from the user memory and executes the input signals
by manipulating, computing, processing them to control the output devices.

The execution results are then stored in the external image memory which controls the
output drives.

The CPU also keeps a check on the output signals and keeps updating the contents of
the input image memory according to the changes in the output memory.

The CPU also performs internal programming functioning like setting and resetting of the
timer, checking the user memory.

Types of PLC Designs (constructions/units)

There are three types of PLC designs each with distinct features. They include modular,
rack mounting and unitary.

1. Unitary PLC Design

A Unitary PLC contains all the features of a basic system in one compact unit. They are
fitted directly to the component or machine that they are controlling.

Components

 A power supply.

 The main module which contains a central processing unit (CPU).

 The input module.

 The output module

Advantages
iii. They are small and compact.

iv. They hold all the basic components in one unit.

v. They allow portable and easy access.

vi. They are usually the cheapest type of PLC.

Disadvantages

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  They cannot be expanded.

 If any feature fails then the whole unit has to be replaced.

 They are very simple and basic.

Applications

Unitary PLC’s can be used for any application that does not require a lot of inputs or
outputs. For example, a car park barrier, this would not use many inputs/ outputs and
would only require a simple program.

2. Modular PLC Design

Modular PLC’s are a system of modules that can be slotted together to build up a
system. Other types of module can be attached as well as extra input and output
modules to increase the capacity or to cope with changes in hardware system.

Components/features
 A power supply.

 The main module which contains a central processing unit (CPU).

 The input module.

 The output module.

Advantages

 The amount of input and output terminals can be expanded to cope with any
changes to the hardware system.

 If any feature fails then only that part has to be changed saving on cost.

Disadvantage
 They are expensive compared to unitary PLC’s.

Applications

Modular PLC’s are useful for applications where there would be a lot of inputs and
outputs because more input/output modules can be added if needed. This type of PLC is
widely used in the manufacturing industry to control process lines.

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 3. Rack-Mounted PLC Design

The design and characteristics of a rack mounted system are very similar to a modular
system however these modules are on standard cards which then slot together into a
rack inside a control cabinet. These modules communicate via the rack.

Advantages
 They are easily modified or expanded.

 They have more I/O points than any other type of PLC.

 If any feature fails then only that part has to be changed saving on cost.

Disadvantages
 They are usually the most expensive of the three PLC’s

Applications

Like the modular PLC this type of system is widely used in the manufacturing industry.
This is mainly because of the amount of input/output points that the system can contain
but also because it has the ability to communicate with other networks.
PLC Programming

The basic functioning of the PLC relies on the control logic or the programming
technique used. Programming can be done using flowcharts or using ladder logic or
using statement logics or mnemonics. The flow chat symbols are given below.

Mnemonics:
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Mnemonics are instructions written in symbolic form. They are also known as Opcode
and are used in handheld programming devices. Different Symbols are as given below:
LD – Load; N/O

LDI – Load; N/C

AND- And logic

OR- Or logic

ANI – NAND logic

ORI- NOR logic

OUT – Output

Introduction to Ladder Logic

Ladder logic represents a graphical way of representing logical flow and control. A
hardwired control circuit can

be represented by conventional hardwired relay ladder diagram. In any hardwired

circuit, there should be

electrical continuity in order for the load to energize.

Basics about conventional ladder and PLC ladder logic

Ladder logic symbols

Electrical sequence of operation in hardwired relay circuits can be represented by

electrical ladder diagram. Ladder diagram shows the interconnection of field devices. In
the ladder diagram, each rung show how a field device is turned on and also shows how
it interacts with next field devices. The difference between a PLC ladder program and

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relay ladder rungs is the continuity. In an electrical rung diagram, there is an electrical
continuity only when the current flows from left power rail to right power rail.

Fig (a), shows electrical continuity when SW1 is closed, as the current flows from L-1 to
L-2 energizing the load. Even though PLC ladder logic was modeled after the
conventional relay ladder, there is no electrical continuity in PLC ladder logic. PLC ladder
rungs should have logical continuity in order for the output to energize. PLC ladder
program uses familiar terms like "rungs" and "normally open" and “normally closed”
contacts, but the relay ladder logic has no electrical continuity between an input and the
controlled output.

Rung: One step in the ladder is called a rung. In simpler words, the basic statement or
one control logic is called a Rung.

Note: - There is no physical conductor that carries the input signal through to the
output.

Each rung in a ladder diagram is a program statement. This program statement consists
of a condition or sometimes conditions, along with some type of action. Inputs are the
conditions, and the action, or output, is the result of the conditions.

As in case of physical wiring hardware devices connected in series or parallel, PLC also
combines ladder program instructions in series or parallel. However, rather than working
in series or parallel, the PLC combines instructions logically using logic operators. Logical
operations performed by PLC are nothing but fundamental logic operation, using
fundamental logic operators like: AND, OR, and NOT. These operators are used to
combine the instructions on a PLC rung so as to make the outcome of each rung either
true or false.

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The AND-logic function

The series circuit of 2 switches can be looked as an AND logic function. In fig (b) and fig
(c), both switch1 and switch2, must be closed to have electrical continuity. When there
is electrical continuity, output (light1) will energize. Hence the keyword here is AND.

The circuit in fig (b) is represented as a schematic diagram ladder rung in fig (c). When
switch1 and switch2 is closed, electrical continuity is established to L-2. This is shown in
fig (d).

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The various possible switch combinations are shown in the truth table below.

Table 1: Truth table for AND logic

Fig (d) can be written in PLC ladder format as shown in the figure below

Here is the program listing for a typical PLC, if you are entering the program with a
handheld programmer.

LOAD I1

AND I2

OUT O5

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The above instruction tells the processor to load input 1 (I1) into memory, AND it with
input 2 (I2) and then output the result to output 5 (O5). The resulting output will be
based on the truth table fig (e).

The OR-logic function

In an OR - LOGIC function, the output is true if any input is true. The OR logic also
states that if all inputs are true, the output will be true.

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In the above figure, if switch1 OR switch2 is energized then light1 will energize. Also, if
both SW1 and SW2 are true, the output will also be true. Fig (g) is converted to PLC
ladder rung and it looks like fig (h)

A PLC rung of logic will have normally open or normally closed contacts instead of
normally open or normally closed switch symbols. Addresses and instructions are
included. Here, in additions to each contact and its address, text information such as
SW1, SW2 and L-1 is used and they are referred to as instruction comments. These
instruction comments can be added from programming software.

Table 2: Truth table representing two-input OR function

The NOT-logic function

A normally closed relay contact passes power any time when the relay coil is not
energized. In the same manner, the normally closed PLC ladder logic instruction will

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pass power any time when the input status file bit associated is not a 1. In this
condition, the physical hardware input is not sending an input signal into the PLC's input
module. The opposite of normally open PLC instruction or contact is the NOT logic. NOT
logic can be used in conjunction with AND or OR logic, when a logical 0 in the status file
is expected to activate some output device. In other words, NOT logic is used when an
input is not energized i.e., 0 in the associated status bit, the output should be energized.
Also, when the input is energized i.e., 1 in the associated status bit, the output should
not be energized.

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Table 3: Truth table for NOT function

Analysis of rung 1

When I1 is true i.e. the input status file bit regarding I1 is true (1), the instruction I1 will
energize the output. The instruction I1 is considered true when it passes logical
continuity. If there is no valid input signal from the field input devices attached to I1's
screw terminal on the input module, a logical 0 will be placed in the associated input
status file bit. A logical 0 in the input status file will make the normally open input
instruction to become false. When normally open instruction is false, it will not pass
logical continuity.

Analysis of rung 2

The normally closed instruction works much like normally closed contacts on a hardware
relay. In the fig (k), when the normally closed instruction I2 is true, i.e. the associated
status file bit has a valid zero (0), logical continuity is established to energize the

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output. When the associated status file bit has valid 1, the NC instruction goes false and
there is no logical continuity and the output is not energized.
The PARALLEL NOT- logic function

PLC ladder rung has 2 input instructions, one normally open and the other one is
normally closed. This circuit contains parallel NOT logic. This schematic rung will be true
under the conditions shown in the truth table below.

Table 4: Input and output relation of a parallel NOT function.

Output L-1 will be energized only when input1 must be true OR input2 must not be true.

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The EXCLUSIVE OR-logic function

Table 5: Input and output relation of an exclusive OR function.

Ladder rung of EXOR GATE would look like this

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Case 1

When I1 = 0 and I2 = 0:

Let us analyze main rung. When I1 = 0, the normally open instruction is false and,
normally closed instruction is true, but since normally open instruction is false, there is
no logical continuity and output cannot be energized. Similar analysis can be done in
parallel rung, normally closed instruction will be true and normally open instruction will
be false and output is not energized.

Case 2

When I1= 0 and I2 = 1:

In main rung, normally open instruction will be false and, normally closed instruction will
be true, but since there is no logical continuity this rung logic cannot energize the
output. But, in parallel rung, normally closed instruction will be true, as well as normally
open instruction will also be true, hence there is logical continuity, and output is
energized.

Case 3

When I1 = 1 and I2 = 0:

This case is similar to case 2, only the role of inputs is interchanged i.e. here main rung
is true and energizes the output and parallel rung is false.

Case 4

When both inputs are true, the main ladder rung as well as the parallel ladder rung goes
false. In main rung, normally open instruction is true but normally closed instruction is
false. Hence, there is no logical continuity. In parallel ladder rung, normally closed
instruction is false and normally open instruction is true, and here also there is no logical
continuity. Hence, the output is not energized.

Programming Lists for PLCS

Instruction list is the method of entering a ladder programming text. It gives programs
as a series of instructions, with each instruction on a new line. Each instruction consists
of an operator followed by one or more operands, that is, the subjects of the operator.
For example, LD A to indicate that the operand A is to be loaded, LD being the operator
used to indicate loading.

Mnemonic codes are used for operators, each code corresponding to an operator/ladder
element. The codes used differ to some extent from manufacturer to manufacturer,
though a standard under IEC 1131-3 has been proposed and is being widely adopted

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UNIT: I.M.C TOPIC 7: INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS II

Ladder Programs and Instruction Lists

In ladder diagrams, whenever a rung is started, it must use a “start a rung” code (LD) to
indicate that the rung is

starting with open contacts, or LDI to indicate it is starting with closed contacts. All
rungs must end with an

output code (OUT). The following shows how individual rungs on a ladder are entered
using the Mitsubishi

mnemonics for the AND gate.

EXAMPLE 1: AND GATE

The rung starts with LD because it is starting with open contacts. For Figure, since the
address of the input is X400, the instruction is LD X400. This is followed by another open
contacts input, and so the next program line involves the instruction AND with the
address of the element; thus, the instruction is AND X401. The rung terminates with an
output, so the instruction OUT is used with the address of the output, that is, OUT Y430.
The single rung of a ladder would thus be entered as:

LD X400

AND X401

OUT Y430

Example 2: OR Logic

The instruction for the rung starts with an open contact and is LD X400. The next item
is the parallel OR set of contacts X401. Thus, the next instruction is OR X401. The last
step is the output, hence OUT Y430. The instruction list would thus be:

LD X400

OR X401

OUTPUT Y430

Example 3: NOR gate rung

The rung starts with normally closed contacts, so the instruction is LDI. When added to
Mitsubishi instruction, I is used to indicate the inverse of the instruction. The next step is
a series of normally closed contacts and so the instruction is ANI, again the I being used
to make an AND instruction the inverse. The instructions for the NOR gate rung of the
ladder would thus be entered as:

LDI X400

ANI X401

OUT Y430

Example 4: NAND Gate rung

The Figure starts with the normally closed contacts X400 and so starts with the
instruction LDI X400. The next instruction is for a parallel set of normally closed
contacts; thus, the instruction is ORI X401. The last step is the output, hence OUT Y430.
The instruction list is thus:

LDI X400

ORI X401

OUT Y430

Example 5: XOR Gate

The EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR) gate shown in the Figure above has two parallel arms with an
AND situation in each arm.

The first instruction is for a normally open pair of contacts X400. The next instruction is
for a series set of normally closed contacts X401, hence ANI X401. After reading the
first two instructions, the third instruction starts a new line. It is recognized as a new
line because it starts with LDI, all new lines starting with LD or LDI. But the first line has
not been ended by an output.

The PLC thus recognizes that a parallel line is involved for the second line and reads
together the listed elements until the ORB instruction is reached. The mnemonic ORB
(OR branches/blocks together) indicates to the PLC that it should OR the results of the
first and second instructions with that of the new branch with the third and fourth
instructions. The list concludes with the output OUT Y430. The instruction list would thus
be entered as: ANI X400

LDI X401 AND X400 ORB X401 OUT Y430

Example 6: Two branched AND Gates

The Figure shows a circuit that can be considered as two branched AND blocks. The
instruction used here is ANB.

The instruction list is thus:

Task: Draw a ladder circuit with the following instruction list

LD X400

OUT Y430

LDI X400

OUT Y431

(The ladder will have two rungs. In writing the instruction list we just write the
instructions for each line in turn. The instruction LD or LDI indicates to the PLC that a
new rung is starting.)

Application examples

Draw the ladder circuit and write the related instruction list for each of the following:

1. A signal lamp is required to be switched on if a pump is running and the pressure

is satisfactory or if the lamp test switch is closed.

Description:

For the inputs from the pump and the pressure sensors, we have an AND logic situation,
since both are required if there is to be an output from the lamp. However, we have an
OR logic situation with the test switch in that it is required to give an output of lamp on,
regardless of whether there is a signal from the AND system.

2. A valve that is to be operated to lift a load when a pump is running and either the
lift switch operated or a switch operated indicating that the load has not already
been lifted and is at the bottom of its lift channel.
Description:

We have an OR situation for the two switches and an AND situation involving the two
switches and the pump.

3. A system in which there has to be no output when any one of four sensors gives an
output and otherwise there is to be an output.

Description:

One way we could write a program for this situation is for each sensor to have contacts
that are normally closed, so there is an output. When there is an input to the sensor, the
contacts open and the output stops. Thus, we have an AND logic situation.

SCADA Maintenance

Maintaining the various components that comprise a Supervisory Controls and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) system isn’t always easy. Below are some of the tips to operate a
smooth SCADA network

 Use standardized systems for alarm identification: critical alarms should be

easily distinguished from warning alarms and other distractions

 Adopt systems that drive consistency between the various locations to ensure
efficiency and safety.

 Ensure secured internal and external data backup systems which can easily be
accessed in time of need

 Prevent unauthorized entry to the system to improve the network security

without comprising efficiency
 Use integrated data storage so that data can be shared among authorized
users. Manual transfer process is time wasting and error prone.

 Provide training to employees to alert them on the new technology, threats and
necessary protection measures needed to protect SCADA new network
environment.

 Perform regular security testing: of both infrastructure control systems and

RTUs, of SCADA networks needs to evolve from a technical basis to a more risk
based, process-oriented management basis.

 Replace obsolete components