Signals and Systems

Chapter 1
Introduction
Objectives

Introduce the mathematical description and representation of signals

 Classify signals: continuous-time & discrete-time, analog & digital, real
& complex, deterministic & random, even & odd, periodic & non-
periodic, causal, anticausal & noncausal, energy & power signals
 Sketch signals based on mathematical representation

2
Outline
 Introduction to signals and systems
 Classifications of signals
 Continuous-time & discrete-time
 Analog & digital
 Real & complex
 Deterministic & random
 Even & odd
 Periodic & non-periodic
 Causal, anticausal & noncausal
 Energy & power 3
Introduction to Signals and Systems

 Signals describe quantities that Dependent variables:

change.  Real valued scalar quantity:
 A signal is a physical phenomena 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝜋𝑡
that conveys information.  Complex valued quantity:
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑗3𝜋𝑡
 A Signal is a function of one or
more independent variables.  Vector valued quantity:
=> Signal can be described as one or 𝑦1 (𝑡)
more dependent variables. 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦2 (𝑡)
𝑦3 (𝑡)
4
Introduction to Signals and Systems

 Example of a multi channel signal is the EEG:

Eelectroencephalography (EEG)
21 lead EEG ( input)
Result 14 channel signal( output)

 E1 (t ) 
 E (t ) 
E (t )   2 
 
 
 E14 (t )
5
Introduction to Signals and Systems

Independent variables:
Signals can be functions of single or multiple independent
variables.
1. A speech signal is function of single independent variable,
particularly time s(t)
2. An Image signal is function of two independent variables
M(x, y)
3. TV signal is function of 3 independent variables I (x, y, t)
6
 Introduction to Signals and Systems

One dimensional signal: a function of a single independent variable

(eg: speech signal)

7
t
Introduction to Signals and Systems
Two dimensional signal: a function of two independent variables.
(eg: gray scale image)

pixels
𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝟏𝟏𝟎

x 8
Introduction to Signals and Systems

Three dimensional signal: a function of three independent

variables.
Eg: Video display: IR (x,y,t), IG (x,y,t), IB (x,y,t)
Coloured TV is a 3-channel , 3-dimensional signal

 I R ( x, y , t ) 
I ( x, y , t )   I G ( x, y , t ) 
 I B ( x, y, t ) 

9
Introduction to Signals and Systems

 A Signal is the function of one or more independent variables that

carry information to represent a physical phenomenon.
 Systems respond to signals and produce new signals

 Excitation signals are applied at system inputs and response

signals are produced at system outputs
10
 Introduction to Signals and Systems

source channel
coder coder

communications
channel
source channel
decoder decoder

Eg: A communication system made up of interconnection of subsystems.

11
Classification of Signals
x(t)
Continuous-time & discrete-time signal
 A signal x(t) is a continuous-time signal t
0
if t is a continuous variable.
 If t is a discrete variable (i.e. defined at x [ n]
a discrete times) then x(t) is a discrete-
time signal.
n
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 5
 It is often described as a sequence of
numbers denoted by x[n], where n is an
integer.
12
 Classification of Signals

Continuous-time & discrete-time signal

 x[n] may be obtained by sampling a continuous-time Sampling
interval x(t)
signal x(t):
x(t0), x(t1), ...., x(tn) => x[0], x[1], ...., x[n] x [ n]
Generally, xn = x[n] = x(tn)
 x[n]’s are called samples and the time interval n
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 5
between them is called the sampling interval.
When sampling intervals are equal then,
x[n] = x(nTs) where Ts is the sampling interval.
13
Classification of Signals
Continuous-time & discrete-time signal
 A discrete-time signal x[n] can  Explicitly list the values of the
be defined in two ways: sequence.
 Specify a rule for calculating
the nth value of the sequence. x[ n]  ...,0,0,1,2,1,0,1,0,2,0,0,...

(1 / 2) n n  0
E.g. : x[n]   Note : The arrow is used to
 0 n0 denote the n = 0 term else if no
 1 1  1  
n arrow is indicated, the first term
OR x[n]  1, , ,.....,   ,... corresponds to n = 0 term
 2 4  2  
14
Classification of Signals
Analog & digital signal
 If a continuous-time signal x(t)  If a discrete-time signal x[n]
can take on any value in the can take on only a finite
continuous interval, then the number of distinct values, then
continuous-time signal x(t) is we call this signal a digital
called an analog signal
signal.
x [ n]
x(t)

n
t -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 5
0
distinct values
Analog signal discrete times
15
Digital signal
Ex.

1. Determine the resultant discrete-time sequence obtained by

sampling of x(t) with sampling interval of (a) 0.25 s, (b) 0.5 s, and (c)
1.0 s.
x(t)
1
1  t 1  t  1
x(t )  
 0 otherwise
-1 0 1 t

16
Classification of Signals
Real & Complex signal
• A signal x(t) is a real signal if its value is a real number,
𝒀(𝒕) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒕
• A signal is a complex signal if its value is a complex number:
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒙𝟏(𝒕) + 𝒋𝒙𝟐(𝒕)
where: 𝒙𝟏(𝒕), 𝒙𝟐(𝒕) are real signals;
𝒋= −𝟏

17
Classification of Signals
Deterministic & Random signal
Deterministic signals: Random signals:
– Signals whose values are – Signals that take random
completely specified for any values at any given time
given time – Signals must be
– Signal can be modeled by a characterized statistically
known function of time t
(or n)

18
Classification of Signals
Even & Odd signal
Even signals: Odd signals:
A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to A signal x(t) or x[n] is an odd
as an even signal if signal if
x(-t) = x(t) x(-t) = -x(t)
x[-n] = x[n] x[-n] = -x[n]
x[n]
x(t) x(t)
x[n]

t n t n
0 0 0 0
19
Classification of Signals
Even & Odd signal
Any signal x(t) or x[n] can be expressed as a sum of two signals,
one of which is even and one of which is odd.
x (t )  xe (t )  xo (t )
x[ n]  xe [ n]  xo [ n]
where

xe (t )  x (t )  x ( t )& xo (t )  x (t )  x ( t )
1 1
2 2
and

xe [n]  x[n]  x[  n]& xo [n]  x[n]  x[  n]

1 1
2 2 20
Ex.

2. Sketch the even and odd components of the signal shown below.

X(t)

t
-1 0 1 2

21
Classification of Signals
Periodic & nonperiodic signal
 A continuous-time signal 𝒙(𝒕) is said to be periodic with period 𝑻
if there is a positive nonzero value of 𝑻 for which
𝒙(𝒕 + 𝑻) = 𝒙(𝒕) all 𝒕 x(t)

-2T -T 0 T 2T t

=> 𝒙(𝒕 + 𝒎𝑻) = 𝒙(𝒕) for all 𝒕 and any integer 𝒎.

=> The fundamental period T0 of 𝒙(𝒕) is the smallest positive value of 𝑻
22
Classification of Signals
Periodic & nonperiodic signal
 A sequence (discrete-time signal) x[n] is periodic with period N if there
is a positive integer N for which
𝒙[𝒏 + 𝑵] = 𝒙[𝒏] 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝒏
x[n]

-N 0 N n

=> 𝒙[𝒏 + 𝒎𝑵] = 𝒙[𝒏] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝒏 and any integer 𝒎

=> The fundamental period 𝑁0 𝑜𝑓 𝑥[𝑛] is the smallest positive integer 𝑵
23
Classification of Signals f(t)

Causal, anticausal & noncausal signal

 Causal signals are signals that are zero for
t

all negative time f(t)

 Anticausal are signals that are zero for all

positive time t

f(t)

 Noncausal signals are signals that have

nonzero values in both positive and
negative time t

24
Classification of Signals
Energy & Power signal
For arbitrary signal x(t) or x[n]:
The normalized energy content E of the signals is defined as


 x[n]

E E
2 2
x(t ) dt

n  

The normalized average power P of the signal is defined as

1 T/2 N
P  lim  x(t ) dt
2 1
P  lim 
2
x[n]
T  T -T/2 N  2 N  1
n N
25
Classification of Signals
Energy & Power signal
1. x(t) (or x[n]) is said to be an energy-type signal (or sequence) iff
𝟎 < 𝑬 < ∞, and so 𝑷 = 𝟎.
2. x(t) (or x[n]) is said to be a power-type signal (or sequence) iff
𝟎 < 𝑷 < ∞, thus implying that 𝑬 = ∞.
 Signals that satisfy neither property are referred to as neither
energy nor power-type signals.

26
Ex.

3. Determine whether the following signals are energy signals, power

signals, or neither.

a. x(t )  e  at u (t ), a  0
b. x(t )  A cos(0t   )
c. x(t )  tu (t )
d. x[n]  (0.5) n u[n]
e. x[n]  u[n]
f. x[n]  2e j 3n

27
 Elementary Signals
Objectives

Introduce the mathematical description and

representation of continuous-time (c-t) signals
 Define:
 The unit-step function,
 Unit impulse function,
 Sinusoidal signals, and
 Complex exponential signals both in c-t and d-t

28
Outline

 C-T unit step signal

 D-T unit step sequence
 C-T Unit rectangular signal
 C-T Unit impulse signal
 D-T Unit impulse sequence
 C-T Sinusoidal signal
 D-T Sinusoidal sequence
 C-T Complex exponential signal
 Condition for Periodicity for C-T
 D-T Complex exponential sequence
29
 C-T Unit Step Function
u(t)
• The unit step function u(t), is defined as 1
1 t 0
u (t )  
0 t 0
0 t
• The function is discontinuous and its value is
undefined at t=0.
• The shifted unit step function u(t-t0) is defined as u(t-t0)
1 t  t0 1
u (t  t 0 )  
0 t  t0
0 t0 t
30
 D-T Unit Step Sequence

• The unit step sequence u[n], is defined as

u[n]
1 n0
u[ n ]   1
0 n0 ...

• The value of u[n] at n=0 is defined and equals to -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n

unity (unlike c-t step function, u(t)).
• The shifted unit step sequence u[n-k] is defined as
u[n-k]
1 nk
u[ n  k ]   1
0 nk ...

-2 -1 0 1 2 k n
31
 C-T Unit Rectangular Function

• Unit rectangular pulse is defined as

Rect(t/T)

1, T / 2  t  T / 2
rect (t / T )  
0, otherwise
t
-T/2 0 T/2

• Time-shifted rectangular pulse

Rect[(t-t0)/T)]

t
0 t0-T/2 t0 t0+T/2
32
 Unit Ramp Function

t , t  0  t
ramp  t       u    d   t u t 
0 , t  0  

•The unit ramp function is the integral of the unit step function.
•It is called the unit ramp function because for positive t, its
slope is one amplitude unit per time.
33
 C-T Unit Impulse Function

• The unit impulse function 𝛿(𝑡), (also known as Dirac delta function) plays a central
role in system analysis. (t)

• Unit impulse properties:

0 t  0 
 (t )  
 t  0
   (t )dt  1
 unit area 0 t
• Mathematically defined by


 
 (t ) (t )dt   (0) (t-t0)

• The delayed delta function 𝛿(t-t0) is defined by

(sifting property)


 (t ) (t  t 0 )dt   (t 0 )
0 t0 t
where  (t ) is any regular function continuous at t=t0
34
 C-T Unit Impulse Function…..
• Some additional properties of d(t) are
1
 ( at )   (t )
a
 ( t )   (t )
x (t ) (t )  x (0) (t ), if x(t) is continuous at t  0
x (t ) (t  t 0 )  x (t 0 ) (t  t 0 ), if x(t) is continuous at t  t 0
 

 (t ) (t  t 0 ) dt   (t 0 )  x(t ) 
 


x (t ) (t   ) d
 ( t )   (t ) 

• Using the above eqns, any C-T signal x(t) can be expressed as
35
 D-T Unit Impulse Sequence
[n]
• The unit impulse (or unit sample) sequence 𝛿[𝑛], is
1
defined as
1 n0
 [ n]  
0 n0 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 n

•The delayed/shifted unit impulse/sample sequence [n-k]

𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑘] is defined by 1
1 nk
 [n  k ]  
0 nk
-2 -1 0 1 2 k n
36
 D-T Unit Impulse Sequence…
• From the definitions of [n] and x[ n] [ n]  x[0] [ n]
[n-k], it is readily seen that x[ n] [ n  k ]  x[ k ] [ n  k ]

• Note that [n] and u[n] are

related by  [ n]  u[ n]  u[ n  1]
n
u[ n]    [k ]
k  

• Any sequence x[n] can be

n
expressed as x[ n]   x[k ] [n  k ]
k   37
 C-T Sinusoidal Signals
x(t)
 A c-t sinusoidal signal can be expressed as T0=2/0
A
x(t )  A cos( 0t   ) Acos
0 t
Where A is the amplitude (real),
-A
0 is the fundamental frequency in radians/sec
 is the phase angle in radians.

 The sinusoidal signal x(t) is periodic with fundamental period, T0  2 or

1 0
with fundamental frequency, f 0  hertz (Hz)
T0
 Using Euler’s formula,
cos   e j  e  j  & sin   e j  e  j 
1 1
2 2j

A cos (0t   )  A Re e j (0t  ) 
A sin ( t   )  A Ime
0
j ( 0 t  )
 38
 D-T Sinusoidal Sequences
 A sinusoidal sequence can be expressed as
x[n]  A cos(W0 n   )

If n is dimensionless, then both W0 and  have units of radians.

x[n]=cos(n/6)

-6 6
-12 -9 -3 0 3 9 12 n

Sequence above is periodic with fundamental period 12.

39
 C-T Complex Exponential Signals
 The complex exponential signal
j 0 t
x (t )  e
 Using Euler’s formula
j 0 t
x (t )  e  cos  0t  j sin  0t

 The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is given by

2
T0 
0
Note that x(t) is periodic for any value of 0.
40
 C-T General Complex Exponential Signals
Plot of Re{x(t)} & Im{x(t)}
 Let s=s+j be a complex number. We
define x(t) as x(t)
σ>0
x (t )  e st  e (s  j )t  est (cos t  j sin t )
t
 Above equation is known as a general
complex exponential signal whose real part
σ<0 x(t)
est cost and imaginary part est sint are
exponentially increasing (s>0) or
decreasing (s<0) sinusoidal signals t

41
 Condition for Periodicity for C-T
 For a given sinusoidal or complex exponential signals, we can prove
mathematically that the signals is periodic by checking
x(t+T) = x(t), where T = fundamental period
2
e.g: x(t )  7 sin 3t , where 0  3, T0 
3
 2 
x t    7 sin( 3t  2 )  7 sin( 3t )
 3 
 The sum of 2 c-t signals x(t )  x1 (t )  x2 (t ) is period if the ratio of
T1 k2
equal to a ratio of two integers
T2 k1
where T1 & T2 is the fundamental period of x1(t) & x2(t) respectively.

42
 D-T Complex Exponential Sequences
W 0n
 The complex exponential sequence is of the form x[ n ]  e j

W 0n
 Using Euler’s formula x[ n ]  e j
 cos W 0 n  j sin W 0 n
real imaginary

 For x[n] to be periodic with period N, W0 must satisfy the following

condition
W0 m
 m  positive number
2 N

 Fundamental period of sequence, N0 is given by

 2 
N 0  m  
 W0 
43
 D-T Complex Exponential Sequences -
Condition for Periodicity
• A sum of 2 D-T sequences x[n] = x1[n] + x2[n] is periodic if
W1 m1 W 2 m2
 &  = a rational number
2 N1 2 N2
Where m1 & m2 take positive integer value and
N1 & N2 is the fundamental period of x1[n] & x2[n] respectively

Note: If x1[n] is a sequence with period N1, and x2[n] is another sequence with period N2, the sum
x[n]=x1[n]+x2[n] will always be periodic with a fundamental period

N1 N 2
N where gcd(N1, N2) means greatest common divisor of N1 and N2.
gcd( N1 , N 2 )
The same is true for x[n]=x1[n]x2[n]; however, the44fundamental period may be smaller
 Complex Exponential Sequences….Periodicity
 Consider the complex exponential sequence with frequency (W0+2k),
where 𝑘 is an integer:
j ( W 0  2k ) n jW 0 n j 2kn jW 0 n
x[ n]  e e e e

since e j2kn =1.

 Thus, we see that the complex exponential sequence at frequency W0 is the

same as that at frequencies (W0+2), (W0+4), and so on.

 We need only consider the interval 0<W0<2 or -<W0< for D-T

exponentials.
45
 General Complex Exponential Sequences…
 The most general complex exponential sequence where C and a are in
general complex numbers, x[ n ]  C a n
 Special case
If C and a are both real, then x[n] is a real exponential sequence; 4 distinct
cases:
a 1 0 a 1

... ... ... ...

n n
1  a  0 a  1

... ... ... ...

n n 46
 Ex.
1. A c-t signal x(t) is shown below. Sketch and label each
of the following signals.
a. x(t)u(1-t);
b. x(t)[u(t)-u(t-1)]
c. x(t)(t-3/2)

x(t)

2
1

-1 0 1 2 t
47
 Ex.
2. A d-t signal x(t) is shown below. Sketch and label each of
the following signals.
a. x[n]u[1-n];
b. x [n]{u[n+2]-u[n]}
c. x[n]𝛿[n-1]

x[n]
3

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n

48
Ex.

3. Consider the sinusoidal signal x(t) = cos 15t

(a) Find the expression of sampling interval Ts such that x[n]=x(n Ts) is
a periodic sequence.
{Hint: For x[n] periodic, the ratio of sampling interval to fundamental period of
x(t) i.e Ts/T0, is a rational number which equals m/N0 where m is an integer and
N0 is the fundamental period of x[n]}

(b) Find the fundamental period of x[n]=x(n Ts) if Ts =0.1p seconds.

49
Ex.

4. Determine whether or not each of the following sequences is periodic.

If a sequence is periodic, determine its fundamental period.
a. x[n]=exp[j(p/4)n]
b. x[n]=cos(1/4)n
c. x[n]=cos(p/3)n+sin(p/4)n
d. x[n]=cos2(p/8)n

50
 System Classification and properties
Objectives
Introduce the mathematical description and representation of
systems
 Define and classify systems based on its properties

51
 Outline

 System Representation - Intro

 Continuous-Time & Discrete-Time Systems
 Systems with Memory and without Memory
 Causal and Noncausal Systems
 Linear Systems and Nonlinear Systems
 Time-Invariant, Time-Varying Systems, LTI Systems
 Stable Systems
 Feedback Systems
52
 System Representation - Intro
• A system is a mathematical model of a physical
process that relates the input (or excitation) signal to x System y
the output (or response) signal. T
• Let x and y be the input and output signals,
respectively, of a system. Then the system is viewed
as a transformation (or mapping) of 𝑥 into y x1 y1
System
represented by *
* T
*
*
𝑦 = 𝑻𝑥 x2 y2
where 𝑇 is the operator representing some well-
defined rule.

53
 Continuous-Time & Discrete-Time Systems

• If the input and output signals x and y are c-t

signals, then the system is called a c-t system x(t) System y(t)
T
(i.e. c-t continuous-time system, d-t discrete-time
system)

• If the input and output signals x and y are d-t x[n] System y[n]
T
signals or sequences, then the system is called a d-t
system

54
 Systems with memory and without memory
• A system is said to be memoryless if the output at any time depends on only the
input at that same time. Otherwise, the system is said to have memory.
• A system is said to be with memory, if its output depends on both present and
past inputs.
• Example - Memoryless System:
A resistor R with input x(t) as the current and the voltage taken as the output
y(t).
The input-output relationship of a resistor is Y(t) = Rx(t).
x(t)
x(t) y(t)
y(t)
55
 Systems with memory and without
memory…
• Example 1 - System with memory:
A capacitor C with the current as the input x(t) and the voltage as the
output y(t):
x(t)
1 t
y (t ) 
C 

x ( ) d x(t)
y(t)
y(t)

• Example 2 - System with memory:

A discrete-time system whose input and output sequences are related
n
y[ n]   x[k ] 56
k  
 Causal and Noncausal Systems
x(t)
• A system is causal if output of the system
depends only on the present and past values of
the input.
(i.e. not possible to obtain an output before an x(t) causal y(t)
input is applied). system
Note: all memoryless systems are causal but not
vice versa. y(t)
e.g: Causal System
y(t)=x(t-2)+x(t)
Non-causal System
y(t)=x(t+2)+x(t-2)+x(t)
57
 Invertibility of a Systems

• A system is invertible if the input of the system

can be recovered from output of the system.
=> H(t)H-1(t) = 𝐼
H-1(t): inverse operator and the system is called x(t) y(t)
H(t)
inverse system.
-1 is to indicate H-1 it is inverse of H
𝐼 is identity operator. x(t)
y(t)
• The output of a system described by 𝐼 is exactly H-1(t)
the same as the input of the system.
• One-to-one mapping between input and output
of a system has to be obtained to say the system
58
is invertible.
 Linear Systems and Nonlinear Systems
Additive
• If the operator T in y(t) = Tx(t) satisfies the
following two conditions, then T is a linear x1 System y1
T
operator, and the system represented by a linear
operator is a linear system: x2 System y2
T
1. ADDITIVITY:
Given that T{x1}=y1 and T{x2}=y2 x1+x2 System y1+y2
then T{x1+x2}=y1+y2 T
2. HOMOGENEITY (or SCALING):
Homogeneity
Given that T{ax} = ay
for any signals x and any scalar a. ax System ay
T
59
 Linear Systems and Nonlinear Systems…

• The additivity and scaling properties can be combined into a single

condition called the superposition property,

T{a1 x1 + a2 x2} =a1 y1 + a2 y2 a1 x1 + a2 x2 System a1 y1 + a2 y2

where a1 and a2 are arbitrary scalars. T
Examples of linear systems are the resistor and the capacitor.

• Any system that does not satisfy the superposition property is

classified as nonlinear system.
y  x2
E.g.
y  cos x 60
 Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems,
LTI Systems
• In a time-invariant system, a time shift (delay or advance) in the input signal
causes the same time shift in the output signal.

C-T: T {x(t   )}  y (t   )

D-T: T {x[n  k ]}  y[n  k ]

• A system which does not satisfy the above equation is called a time-varying
system.
• If the system is linear and also time-invariant, then it is called a linear time-
invariant (LTI) system
61
 Stable Systems
• A system is bounded-input/bounded-output (BIBO) stable if for any bounded
input x defined by
x  k1
the corresponding output y is also bounded defined by
y  k2

where k1 and k2 are finite real constants.

• The output of such systems doesn’t diverge if the input doesn’t diverge

62
 Feedback Systems

• A special class of systems having feedback.

x(t) System y(t)

T

• In a feedback system, the output signal is fed back and added to

the input to the system as shown.

63
Ex.

1. Consider the system shown below. Determine whether it is

(a) memoryless,
(b) causal,
(c) linear, x(t)
multiplier
y(t) = x(t) cos wct
(d) time-invariant, or
(e) stable.

cos wct

64
 Objective

Introduce the mathematical operations performed on elementary signals

 Basic mathematical operations on elementary signals.

Time shifting

Time scaling

Time inversion/time folding

65
 Operations of Signals

 Signals can be represented mathematically, and such

representations can represent the signals completely or
approximately.
 Therefore, it is possible to apply different mathematical
operations on signals.
 Some of the operations on signals can be
o Time Shifting
o Time Scaling
o Time Inversion or Time Folding

66
 Time Shifting
 The original signal x(t) is shifted by an amount tₒ.

 X(t) => X(t-to) => Signal Delayed => Shift to the right

67
 Time Shifting

 X(t) => X(t+to) => Signal Advanced => Shift to the left

68
 Time Scaling

 For the given function x(t), x(at) is the time scaled version of x(t)
 For a ˃ 1, period of function x(t) reduces and function speeds up.
Graph of the function shrinks.
 For a ˂ 1, the period of the x(t) increases and the function slows down.
Graph of the function expands.

69
 Time scaling

Example: Given x(t) and we are to find y(t) = x(2t).

The period of x(t) is 2 and the period of y(t) is 1,

70
 Time scaling

• Given y(t),
find w(t) = y(3t) and v(t) = y(t/3).

71
 Time Reversal

 Time reversal is also called time folding

 In Time reversal signal is reversed with respect to time i.e.
y(t) = x(-t) is obtained for the given function

72
Operations of Discrete Time Functions

Time shifting n  n  n0 , n0 an integer

73
 Operations of Discrete Functions

Scaling; Signal Compression

n  Kn K an integer > 1

74