WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

UNIT - 1

Introduction to 3G/4G Wireless Communications: Introduction, 2G Wireless Standards,

3GWireless Standards, 4G Wireless Standards, Overview of Cellular Service Progression
Principles of Wireless Communications: The Wireless Communication Environment,
Modeling of Wireless Systems, System Model for Narrowband Signals, Rayleigh Fading
Wireless Channel, BER Performance of Wireless Systems: SNR in a Wireless System,
BER in Wireless Communication System, Rayleigh BER at High SNR. Intuition for BER
in a Fading Channel. Channel Estimation in Wireless Systems, Diversity in Wireless
Communication.

What is Wireless Communications?

Transmitting/receiving voice and data using electromagnetic waves in open space.
Types of Wireless Communication
Mobile:
Cellular Phones (GSM / cdma2000.1x)
Portable:
IEEE 802.11b (WiFi),
IEEE 802.15.3 (UWB)
Fixed:
IEEE 802.16 (WirelessMAN)

Wireless vs Mobile:
• NOTE: Wireless does not necessarily mean mobile
• Wireless Systems may be
• Fixed (e.g., Metropolitan Area Network)
• Portable (e.g., wireless interaction between TV and VCR)
• Mobile (e.g., mobile phone)
• Wireless communication involves transfer of information without any physical connection
between two or more points.
• Wireless communication is any transmission that occurs without the use of a cable or wire. In
contrast, Wi-Fi is a specific subset of wireless that is defined by a set of technical specifications
outlined by IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) under the designation
802.11.
• Wireless communication technology transmits information over the air using electromagnetic
waves like IR (Infrared), RF (Radio Frequency), satellite, etc. For example, GPS, Wi-Fi,
satellite television, wireless computer parts, wireless phones that include 3G and 4G networks,
and Bluetooth.

The Different Types of Wireless Communication:

• Satellite Communication. Satellite communication is a crucial form of wireless
communication.
• Infrared Communication.
• Broadcast Radio.
• Microwave Communication.
• Wi-Fi.
• Mobile Communication Systems.
• Bluetooth Technology
• Radio and Television broadcasting, Radar communication, cellular communication, Global
Position Systems (GPS), WiFi, Bluetooth and radio frequency identification are all examples of
“wireless”, with wildly different uses in some cases.
• Wireless communications is a type of data communication that is performed and delivered
wirelessly.
• Wireless communication generally works through electromagnetic signals that are broadcast
by an enabled device within the air, physical environment or atmosphere.

Wireless communication has various forms, technology and delivery methods including:
• Satellite communication
• Mobile communication
• Wireless network communication
• Infrared communication
• Bluetooth communication
Wireless communication (or just wireless) is the transfer of information between two or
more points without the use of an electrical conductor, optical fiber or other continuous guided
medium for the transfer. The most common wireless technologies use radio waves.
Wireless Communication is a method of transmitting information from one point to
other, without using any connection like wires, cables or any physical medium.

What is Wireless Communication?

Communication Systems can be Wired or Wireless and the medium used for
communication can be Guided or Unguided. In Wired Communication, the medium is a
physical path like Co-axial Cables, Twisted Pair Cables and Optical Fiber Links etc. which
guides the signal to propagate from one point to other. Such type of medium is called Guided
Medium.
On the other hand, Wireless Communication doesn’t require any physical medium but
propagates the signal through space. Since, space only allows for signal transmission without
any guidance, the medium used in Wireless Communication is called Unguided Medium.
If there is no physical medium, then how does wireless communication transmit signals?
Even though there are no cables used in wireless communication, the transmission and
reception of signals is accomplished with Antennas.
Antennas are electrical devices that transform the electrical signals to radio signals in
the form of Electromagnetic (EM) Waves and vice versa. These Electromagnetic Waves
propagates through space. Hence, both transmitter and receiver consists of an antenna.

Current Wireless System

• Cellular Systems
• Wireless LANs
• Satellite Systems
• Wireless PANs (Bluetooth, UWB)

ADVANTAGES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION OVER WIRED

COMMUNICATION:
Cost:
The cost of installing wires, cables and other infrastructure is eliminated in wireless
communication and hence lowering the overall cost of the system compared to wired
communication system. Installing wired network in building, digging up the Earth to lay the
cables and running those wires across the streets is extremely difficult, costly and time
consuming job.
In historical buildings, drilling holes for cables is not a best idea as it destroys the
integrity and importance of the building. Also, in older buildings with no dedicated lines for
communication, wireless communication like Wi-Fi or Wireless LAN is the only option.
Mobility:
As mentioned earlier, mobility is the main advantage of wireless communication
system. It offers the freedom to move around while still connected to network.
Ease of Installation:
The setup and installation of wireless communication network’s equipment and
infrastructure is very easy as we need not worry about the hassle of cables. Also, the time
required to setup a wireless system like a Wi-Fi network for example, is very less when
compared to setting up a full cabled network.
Reliability:
Since there are no cables and wires involved in wireless communication, there is no
chance of communication failure due to damage of these cables, which may be caused by
environmental conditions, cable splice and natural diminution of metallic conductors.
• Disaster Recovery:
In case of accidents due to fire, floods or other disasters, the loss of communication
infrastructure in wireless communication system can be minimal.

Disadvantages of Wireless Communication

Even though wireless communication has a number of advantages over wired
communication, there are a few disadvantages as well. The most concerning disadvantages are
Interference, Security and Health.
Interference:
Wireless Communication systems use open space as the medium for transmitting
signals. As a result, there is a huge chance that radio signals from one wireless communication
system or network might interfere with other signals.
The best example is Bluetooth and Wi-Fi (WLAN). Both these technologies use the
2.4GHz frequency for communication and when both of these devices are active at the same
time, there is a chance of interference.
Security:
One of the main concerns of wireless communication is Security of the data. Since the
signals are transmitted in open space, it is possible that an intruder can intercept the signals and
copy sensitive information.
Health Concerns:
Continuous exposure to any type of radiation can be hazardous. Even though the levels
of RF energy that can cause the damage are not accurately established, it is advised to avoid RF
radiation to the maximum.

GENERATION OF WIRELESS SYSTEMS (EVALUATION OF WIRELESS

SYSTEMS)
1. First Generation (1G) Wireless (Cellular) networks
2. Second Generation (2G) Wireless networks
3. Third Generation (3G) Wireless networks
4. Fourth Generation (4G) Wireless networks
5. Fifth Generation (5G) Wireless networks

FIRST GENERATION (1G) WIRELESS NETWORKS:

• 1G refers to the first generation of wireless telephone technology, mobile telecommunications
which was first introduced in 1980s and completed in early 1990s.
• It's Speed was up to 2.4kbps.
• It allows the voice-only calls.
• 1G network use Analog Signal.
• AMPS (AMPS=Advanced Mobile Phone Service) was first launched in USA in 1G mobile
systems.
1G Analog Cellular Network Features
– 1G Characteristic: First wireless communication
– Bandwidth: Analog telecommunication (30KHz)
– Frequency: 150MHz / 900MHz
– Capacity (data rate): 2.4kbps
– Technology: Analog cellular
DRAWBACKS OF 1G:
• Poor Voice Quality
• Poor Battery Life
• Large Phone Size
• No Security
• Limited Capacity
• Poor Handoff Reliability

2G WIRELESS STANDARDS:
• 2G technology refers to the 2nd generation which is based on GSM(Global System for Mobile
Communication).
• It was launched in Finland in the year 1991.
• 2G network use digital signals.
• It’s data speed was upto 64kbps.
FEATURES INCLUDES:
• It enables highly secure voice
• It enables services such as text messages, picture messages and MMS (multi media message).
• It provides better quality and capacity.
The family of 2G wireless standards were initially proposed to provide basic wireless voice
communication facility to users with mobile cellular devices.
• Further, these comprised the first set of fully digital wireless communication devices
compared to 1G systems, which were analog in nature.
The most popular 2G standards include three TDMA standards and one CDMA standard
1. Global System Mobile(GSM)-TDMA
2. IS-136(TDMA-136) –Interim Stadard-136 also known as North American Digital
Cellular(NADC) or US digital Cellular(USDC)
3. Pacific Digital Cellular(PDC) ,a Japanese TDMA standard that is similar to IS-136
4. IS-95(CDMAone)-Interim Standard 95 CDMA-This the popular 2G CDMA standard
The dominant 2G standard, GSM, was initially proposed with an aim of developing a
multi-country joint standard in an effort to unify the mobile communication infrastructure
across the globe, thus providing better access and facilities.
Broad set of such standards and their data rates are given in Table 1.1

Hence, while GSM and IS-95(Interim Standard 95-It is also known as CDMAone) are
based on code division for multiple access (CDMA) are primarily based on voice
communication rates of around 10 kbps, the later add-on standards of General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution or Enhanced Data for Global Evolution
(EDGE) were proposed with an idea of increasing the data rates over cellular networks to
provide low-speed data access such as Internet, e-mail, etc, to users with mobile devices.
As given above, the data rates supported by such nascent data access standards was in
the range of 100 kbps. The increasing demand for higher data rates over mobile devices led to
the development of the 3G cellular standards.
DRAWBACKS OF 2G:
• 2G requires strong digital signals to help mobile phones work. If there is no network coverage
in any specific area, digital signals would weak.
• These systems are unable to handle complex data such as Videos.
2.5G and 2.75G TECHNOLOGIES:
• 2.5G and 2.75G are the technologies between the second (2G) and third (3G) generation of
mobile telephony.
• 2.5G is sometimes described as 2G Cellular Technology combined with GPRS(General
Packet Radio Service).
• 2G+GPRS=2.5G
• 2.5G is more efficient than 2G technology that led to 2.75G networks
• EDGE=2.75G
• EDGE is also known as Enhanced GPRS(EGPRS).

EVALUATION OF 2.5GTDMA STANDARDS:

• There are three TDMA upgrade paths and one CDMA upgrade path i.e.
1. High Speed Circuit Switched Data(HSCSD)-TDMA Standard
2. General Packet radio Service(GPRS)-TDMA
3. Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evaluation(EDGE)- TDMA
4. IS-95B-CDMA Standard

2.5G
14.4 kbps
HSCSD (2.5G)

9.6 kbps
GSM
2G

50 kbps 384 kbps

GPRS (2.5G) EDGE (2.75G)

9.6 kbps 14.4 kbps 64 kbps

IS-95 IS-95A IS-95B (2.5G)
2G

Note: Before making the major leap from 2G to 3G wireless networks, the lesser-known 2.5G,
and 2.75G also exists as a standard that linked them.
FEATURES INCLUDES:
• Phone Calls
• Send/Receive E-mail Messages
• Web Browsing
• Speed: 64-144 kbps
• Camera Phones
• Take a time of 6-9 mins. to download a 3 mins. Mp3 song
2G Mobile Phones Features
– 2G Characteristic: Digital telecommunication
– Frequency: 1.8GHz (900MHz)
– Capacity (data rate): 64kbps
– Bandwidth: 900MHz (25MHz)
– Technology: Digital cellular, GSM
Key Differences Between 1G and 2G
The key difference between 1G and 2G mobile cellular networks is that the radio signals
used by 1G technology are analog, while 2G wireless technologies are digital that allow voice
and data communication services such as text message services.

3G WIRELESS STANDARDS:
• 3G technology refer to third generation which was introduced in year 2000s.
• 3G is a high-speed IP data network that offers higher data transmission rates, increased
capacity, and multimedia support.
• Data Transmission speed increased from 144kbps- 2Mbps.
• Typically called Smart Phones and features increased its bandwidth and data transfer rates to
accommodate web-based applications and audio and video files.
FEATURES OF 3G TECHNOLOGY:
• Providing Faster Communication
• Send/Receive Large Email Messages
• High Speed Web / More Security
• Video Conferencing / 3D Gaming
• TV Streaming/ Mobile TV/ Phone Calls
• Large Capacities and Broadband Capabilities
• 11 sec – 1.5 min. time to download a 3 min. Mp3 song.
3G Network Features
– 3G Characteristic: Digital broadband, increased speed, fast communication, video calls.
– Frequency: 1.6 – 2.0 GHz
– Bandwidth: 100MHz
– Capacity (data rate): 144kbps – 2Mbps
– Technology: CDMA, UMTS, EDGE
The third generation, or 3G wireless standards, were proposed around the year 2000 and
primarily based on CDMA technology for multiple access because of the superior properties of
CDMA compared to the other access technologies such as Time Division for Multiple Access
(TDMA) and Frequency Division for Multiple Access (FDMA).
Also, 3G standards are termed wideband wireless technologies as they employ spectral
bandwidth generally in excess of 5 MHz.
The list of 3G standards and the associated data rates is given below.
The max speed of 3G was estimated to be around 2 Mbps for non-moving devices and
384 Kbps in moving vehicles. The theoretical max speed for HSPA+ is 21.6 Mbps.
HSPA+ means Evolved high Speed Packet Access. This is also termed as 3.75G.
With advanced encryption/encoding technique and using multiple antennas to transmit
and receive data requests. data transmission rates increased up to a peak speed of 42Mbps
uplink and 22Mbps downlink theoretically.
3G 3.5G 3.75G
WCDMA HSDPA/HSUPA HSPA+
384 kbps 5-30 Mbps 42 Mbps
The 3G standard of wideband code division for multiple access (WCDMA) is also sometimes
abbreviated as the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). • WCDMA is also
known as UTRA(UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access).
Another comparable 3G standard also based on CDMA is the CDMA 2000 standard,
primarily employed in North America, Japan, and some other countries.
Both are capable of data rates around 300 kbps necessary to support low-rate data access
over wireless networks.
The progressive demand for higher data rate led to the addition of High-Speed
Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA),
additions to the WCDMA standard.
HSDPA and HSUPA together known as HSPA(High Speed Packet Access). They both
evolved to HSPA+(3.9G).
These enhanced the capabilities of the WCDMA suite of 3G standards to the range of 5–
30 Mbps, capable of providing services similar to those available on the Digital Subscriber
Line (DSL) and Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) available on the wired network
infrastructure.
Further, the CDMA 2000 suite was also expanded to include similarly the 1x Evolution
Data Optimized (1xEVDO) standard and its subsequent revisions titled simply rev. A and rev.
B to enhance the data rates to close to 30 Mbps.
Thus, the 3G group of cellular services based on the above set of standards can support
data rates in excess of 10 Mbps, making it possible to transmit high-data-rate multimedia and
video content to mobile devices. These rates are expected to further increase manifold in 4G
cellular networks.

3.5G or HSPA symbol:

• Soon 3G technology was improved and released as 3.5G or say HSPA (High Speed Packet
Access). 3.5G was an enhanced version of WCDMA technology based on GSM standards.
• Theoretical data rate was improved to 14Mbps at the uplink/upload side and 5.76Mbps at the
downlink/download side. This was 4-5 times more than W-CDMA technology.
• Practically, in 3.5G we get around 500 kbps download and 200 upload speed. Video
streaming improved in 3.5G and the network latency reduced to a greater extent. The 'H'
symbol on the mobile network represents HSPA or 3.5G network.

3.75 Technology:
3.75G or HSPA+ symbol
After another improvement and advancement in the HSPA network, an evolved version
in release 7 of 3GPP was launched as HSPA+ or Evolved high Speed Packet Access. This is
also termed as 3.75G. With advanced encryption/encoding technique and using multiple
antennas to transmit and receive data requests. data transmission rates increased up to a peak
speed of 42Mbps uplink and 22Mbps downlink theoretically. It was the upgraded version of
W-CDMA technology. This introduced stable Mobile broadband services. Any mobile device
could be used as a Wi-Fi hotspot and via dongle also, internet could be accessed in computer.
H+ symbol in mobile network terms represents HSPA+ or 3.75G network.

DRAWBACKS OF 3G TECHNOLOGY:
• Expensive fees for 3G Licenses Services
• It was challenge to build the infrastructure for 3G
• High Bandwidth Requirement
• Expensive 3G Phones.
• Large Cell Phones

What is the difference between 2G and 3G networks?

The main difference between 2G and 3G networks is that GSM (2G) can provide voice
and video communication using GPRS, while 3G provides high-speed internet, high-speed
video communication, video conferencing, etc. The data transmission rate on a GSM (2G)
network is 200-300 Kbps, while the downloading speed can go up to 42Mbps in 3G networks.
Overall, 3G networks are much better and work faster than the 2G network.

4G WIRELESS STANDARDS: 4G TECHNOLOGY (Anytime ,Anywhere)

• 4G technology refer to or short name of fourth Generation which was started from late
2000s.
• 4G refers to the development of mobile broadband that is being deployed for the purpose of
quality of service (QoS), efficiency and performance.
• Capable of providing 100Mbps – 1Gbps speed.
• One of the basic term used to describe 4G is MAGIC.
MAGIC:
• Mobile Multimedia
• Anytime Anywhere
• Global Mobility Support
• Integrated Wireless Solution
• Customized Personal Services
• Also known as Mobile Broadband Everywhere.
The next generations of wireless technology that promises higher data rates and expanded
multimedia services.
• Capable to provide speed 100Mbps-1Gbps.
• High QoS and High Security
• Provide any kind of service at any time as per user requirements, anywhere.

4G Network Features:
– 4G characteristic: High speed, all IP
– Bigger battery usage
– Good QoS + high security
– Bandwidth: 100MHz
– Frequency: 2 – 8 GHz
– Capacity (data rate): 100Mbps – 1Gbps
– Technology: LTE, WiFi
FEATURES INCLUDE:
• More Security
• High Speed
• High Capacity
• Low Cost Per-bit etc
The set of 4G wireless standards is based on the revolutionary new technology of
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
The multiple access technology based on OFDM is termed Orthogonal Frequency
Division for Multiple Access (OFDMA).
Also, another breakthrough technology employed in 4G wireless systems is termed
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO), which basically refers to employing multiple
antennas at the transmitter and receiver in such systems.
Thus, these radical advancements help 4G wireless systems achieve data rates in excess
of 100 Mbps. The specific standards and associated rates are listed in Table 1.3.

Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and LTE Advanced are the standards developed by the 3 rd
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) standardization body while the Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is under the purview of the WiMAX forum.
Currently, 4G devices and networks are being tested and partially implemented in several parts
of the world.
DRAWBACKS OF 4G:
• Battery uses is more
• Hard to implement
• Need complicated hardware
• Expensive equipment required to implement next generation network.

What is the difference between 3G and 4G technology?

1. The primary difference between 3G and 4G networks is speed. 4G speed is ten times faster
than 3G.
2. The 3G network provides 21 Mbps data bandwidth while 4G offers 1 Gbps maximum data
bandwidth and brings broadband to your phone.
3. 3G technology uses a wide-area cell-based network while 4G technology uses a hybrid
network architecture.
4. 3G technology uses packet switching for data transmission while 4G technology uses both
packet and message switching.
5. 3G networks employ code-division multiple access (CDMA) while 4G networks utilize
orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA).

5G TECHNOLOGY:
• 5G technology refer to short name of fifth Generation which was started from late 2010s.
Complete wireless communication with almost no limitations.
• The fifth-generation cellular networks technology (5G wireless technology) is the latest
communication technology for smartphones, which is hundreds of times faster than its 4G
predecessor.
• It is highly supportable to WWWW(Wireless World Wide Web).
BENEFITS OF 5G TECHNOLOGY:
• High Speed, High Capacity
• 5G technology providing large broadcasting of data in Gbps.
• Multi - Media Newspapers, watch T.V programs with the clarity as to that of an HD Quality.
• Faster data transmission that of the previous generations.
• Large Phone Memory, Dialing Speed, clarity in Audio/Video.
• Support interactive multimedia, voice, streaming video, Internet and other.
• 5G is More Effective and More Attractive.

What are the Advantages of 5G Technology?

1. The most prominent advantages of 5G network technology may include:
2. 5G networks have the potential to deliver speeds 100 times faster than our current 4G
network.
3. 5G will contribute to connecting devices globally.
4. Browsing the internet is very, very fast.
5. 5G networks have very low latency that allows users to experience less delay when
requesting data from a network.
6. 5G will be very important for the development of automatic control and robotics.
7. You can use internet calls like normal calls without cutting.
8. Downloading high-definition files and videos will take place in 2 seconds.
9. Companies will be forced to develop a very large capacity battery.
10. 5G will help to make successful self-driving cars and self-driving drones.
11. 5G will be available in most regions of the world by the end of 2020.

5G Technology Features:
– High speed and capacity
– Faster data transmission than 4G
– Capacity (data rate): 1Gbps – UNLIMITED
5G network Supports
– Voice streaming
– Interactive multimedia
– Buckle up... Internet

How 5G Network is Different from 4G?

• 5G networks are widely believed to be faster, smarter and more efficient than 4G networks.
• 5G technology promises superfast speeds and an end to congestion and overcrowding. • 4G
technology has technical limits on how much data 4G network can transfer quickly across
spectrum blocks.
• One of the main differences between 5G and 4G is that 5G technology will eliminate this
congestion and overcrowding problem.
• It is expected that 5G technology will revolutionize mobile networking and create new
economic opportunities for data-driven industries, infrastructure management and smart cities.
• Overall, 5G has several advantages over 4G; Higher speeds, better efficiency, lower
interference, low latency and capacity for a larger number of connected devices, as 5G uses
new technologies, spectrum, and frequencies.
• Now, we will show you 10 things where 5G networks are different from 4G:
1. 5G Powered Holographic Calls
2. Digital Broadcasting at 8K Resolution
3. Virtual Reality Game-Streaming
4. Event Broadcasting with VR Technology
5. Event Live Streaming or Conference Live Streaming
6. Smart Homes and Smart Cities
7. Download Large Amounts of Data at a Glance
8. Live Streaming Games without Delay as if Stored on the Device
 9. 5G Technology can Improve Augmented Reality Technologies
10. 5G Networks Will Drive the Adoption of Self-Driving Cars

Technology 1G 2G 3G 4G
Design Began 1970 1980 1990 2000
Implementation 1984 1999 2002 2010?
Service Analog voice, Higher Capacity, Higher Capacity, Higher Capacity,
synchronous data Packetized data broadband data up completely IP-
to 9.6 kbps to 2 Mbps oriented,
multimedia, data
to hundreds of
megabits
Standards AMPS, TACS, GPRS, EDGE, WCDMA, Single standard
NMT, etc.. 1xRTT CDMA2000
Data Bandwidth 1.9 kbps 384 kbps 2 Mbps 200 Mbps
Multiplexing FDMA TDMA, CDMA CDMA CDMA?
Core Network PSTN PSTN, Packet Packet Network Internet
network

Technology 1G 2/2.5G 3G 4G 5G
/Features
Start/ 1970/1984 1980/1999 1990/2002 2000/2010 2010/2015
Deployment
Data 2 kbps 14.4-64 kbps 2 Mbps 200 Mbps to 1 1 Gbps and
Bandwidth Gbps for low higher
mobility
Standards AMPS 2G: TDMA, WCDMA, Single unified Single unified
CDMA, GSM CDMA-2000 standard standard
2.5G: GPRS,
EDGE, 1Xrtt
Technology Analog Digital cellular Board Unified IP and Unified IP and
Cellular technology bandwidth seamless seamless
Technology CDMA, IP combination of combination of
technology boardband, boardband
LAN/WAN
Technologies 1G 2/2.5G 3G 4G 5G
/Features
Evolution 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Deployment 1984 1999 2002 2010 2015
Data Rate 2 kbps 14.4-64 kbps 2 Mbps 200 Mbps to 1 Gbps 10 Gbps to 100 Gbps
for low mobility
Famous AMPS 2G: GSM, WCDMA, LTA, WiMAX Not yet defined
Standards CDMA CDMA-2000
2.5G: GPRS,
EDGE, 1xRTT
Technology Analog Digit cellular Board Undefined IP and Undefined IP and
behind cellular technology bandwidth seamless seamless
technology CDMA, IP combination of combination of
technology boardband. broadband.
LAN/WAN/ LAN/WAN/
PAN/WLAN PAN/WLAN
Service Voice 2G: Digital Integrated high Dynamic information Dynamic information
Voice, SMS quality audio , access, wearable access, wearable
2.5G: video and data devices devices with AI
voice+data capabilities
Multiplexing FDMA TDMA, CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA
Type of Circuit 2G: Circuit Packet Packet Packet
Switching 2.5G: Circuit
and packet
Handoff Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal and Horizontal and
Vertical Vertical
Core Network PSTN PSTN Packet Internet Internet
network
Comparison 2G 3G 4G 5G
Introduced in year 1993 2001 2009 2018
Technology GSM WCDMA LTE, WiMAX MIMO, MM Waves
Access system TDMA, CDMA CDMA CDMA OFDM, BDMA
Switching type Circuit switching for Packet switching Packet switching Packet switching
voice and packet except for air
switching for data interference
Internet service Narrowband Broadband Ultra broadband Wireless world wide
web
Bandwidth 25 MHz 25 MHz 100 MHz 30 GHz to 300 GHz
Advantage Multimedia features High security, Speed, high speed Extremely high
(SMS, MMS), international handoffs, global speed, low latency
internet access and roaming mobility
SIM introduced
Applications Voice calls, short Video High speed High resolution
messages conferencing, applications, mobile video streaming,
mobile TV, GPS TV, wearable remote control of
devices vehicles, robots, and
medical procedures

OVERVIEW OF CELLULAR SERVICE PROGRESSION:

• As the data rates have progressively increased in successive generations of cellular networks,
the nature of applications and services offered by such networks have diversified and grown
richer.
• A brief summary of typical services in various cellular networks is given in Table 1.4
all the services of the previous generations in addition to the newer services offered in the
present generation.
• High-Definition Television (HDTV) streaming applications in 4G networks typically require
a data rate of 10 Mbps per stream

The Wireless Communication Environment:

In conventional wireline communication systems, there is a single signal-propagation

path between the transmitter and the receiver, which is constrained by the propagation medium
such as a coaxial cable or a twisted pair.
• However, in wireless systems, the signal can reach the receiver via direct, reflected, and
scattered paths as shown in Figure 3.1.
• As a result, at the receiver, there is a superposition of multiple copies of the transmitted
signal. These signal copies experience different attenuations, delays, and phase shifts arising
from the varied propagation distances and properties of the scattering media.
• Hence, at the wireless receiver, there is interference of signals received from these multiple
propagation paths, which is termed multipath interference.
• The multipath interference, in turn, results in an amplification or attenuation of the net
received signal power observed at the receiver, and this variation in the received signal strength
arising from the multipath propagation phenomenon is termed multipath fading or simply
fading.
• Strong destructive interference at the receiver is referred to as a deep fade, and such a
condition may result in temporary failure of communication due to a severe drop in the SNR at
the receiver.
• This phenomenon of fading is the critical difference between the wireline and wireless
communication systems, which causes a radical paradigm shift in the nature of wireless
communications, necessitating the development of a fundamentally novel approach to design
wireless systems.
• One of the main objectives, therefore, in wirelesssystem design, is to develop schemes to
combat fading and ensure reliability of signal reception in wireless communication systems.

MODELLING OF WIRELESS SYSTEMS:

• To gain a better understanding of the nature of the wireless environment and quantitatively
analyze the performance of wireless communication systems, one needs to develop accurate
analytical models to characterize them.
• Let us consider • s(t)= The transmitted passband wireless signal, which is transmitted across a
wireless channel
Such a passband signal can be described analytically as,
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒{ 𝑠𝑏 (𝑡) 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 }
Where 𝑠𝑏 (𝑡) = The complex baseband representation of the transmitted signal and
𝑓𝑐 = The carrier frequency employed for transmission.
Next, we need an analytical model for the wireless communication channel.
• Let us assume that the wireless channel is time invariant.
• Let us consider a channel with L multipath components.
• Observe that each path of the wireless channel basically has two characteristic properties.
• Firstly, it delays the signal because of the propogation distance.
• Secondly, there is an attenuation of the signal arising because of the scattering effect.
• Let 𝑎𝑖 = the signal attenuation of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ channel
• 𝜏𝑖 = the signal delay of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ channel, respectively.
• The impulse response of an LTI system which attenuates a signal by 𝑎𝑖 and delays it by 𝜏𝑖 is
given as
ℎ𝑖 (𝜏) = 𝑎𝑖 𝛿(𝜏 − 𝜏𝑖 ) (1)
Hence, the above equation gives the impulse response of a single path of a wireless
communication system.
Further, observe that the wireless channel represents a linear input–output system, since the
signal observed at the receiver is the sum of the different multipath signal copies impinging on
the receive antenna.
• Therefore, a typical Channel Impulse Response (CIR) of a multipath-scattering based wireless
channel is given by the sum of the above impulse responses corresponding to the individual
model,
ℎ(𝜏) = ∑𝐿−1
𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝛿(𝜏 − 𝜏𝑖 ) (2)

The above impulse response is also termed the tapped delayline model because of the nature of
the arrival of several progressively delayed components of the signal.
• It can be observed that the above wireless channel model consists of L propagation paths
arising from the several reflection and scattering multipath Non-Line-Of-Sight (NLOS)
components.
• One of the multipath components can also be a direct LineOf-Sight (LOS) component.
Each such 𝑖 𝑡ℎ path is characterized by two parameters, which are,
1. The attenuation factor 𝑎𝑖
2. The path delay 𝜏𝑖
• Since the above wireless is a linear time-invariant (LTI) system, the received signal y(t) can
be expressed as the convolution of the transmitted signal s(t) with the CIR h(t). Therefore, the
received wireless signal y (t) is given as
∞

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡) = ∫ ℎ(𝜏)𝑠(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏

−∞
By inserting the expression for the tapped delay-line channel in Eq. (1) in the above
convolution, the expression for the received wireless signal y(t) across this tapped delay-line
channel can be derived as
𝐿−1 ∞ 𝐿−1

𝑦(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 ∫ 𝛿(𝜏 − 𝜏𝑖 ) 𝑠(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 𝑠 (𝑡 − 𝜏𝑖 )𝑑𝜏

𝑖=0 −∞ 𝑖=0
Further, this expression for the received signal can be written in terms of the transmitted
baseband signal 𝑠𝑏 (t) by substituting the relation between s(t) and 𝑠𝑏 (t) in Eq. (1) in the above
expression and simplifying it as

From the above expression, it can readily be seen that 𝑦𝑏 (t), the complex baseband signal
equivalent of the received signal y(t), is simply given as
𝐿−1

𝑦𝑏 (𝑡) = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝜏𝑖 𝑠𝑏 (𝑡 − 𝜏𝑖 )
𝑖=0
Notice that in addition to the attenuation and delay parameters in the passband channel model
described earlier, the baseband system model consists of the addition phase 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝜏𝑖 parameter.
This basically arises because of the path delay of the carrier signal ej2πfct corresponding to the ith
path.
On close observation of the above expression, one can readily see that the received baseband
signal consists of multiple delayed copies sb (t − τi) of the transmitted signal sb (t).
Each such 𝑖 𝑡ℎ signal copy arising from the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ multipath component is associated with the
following three parameters.
1. The attenuation factor 𝑎𝑖
2. The path delay 𝜏𝑖
3. The phase factor 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝜏𝑖
The different signal copies for a typical baseband BPSK information signal sb(t) is shown in
Figure 3.2.
• The quantity T denotes the symbol time, while 𝑇𝑚 , which is the delay between the first and
last arriving copies of the signal, is termed the delay spread.
• This is an important parameter of the wireless channel.
• For a narrowband channel, i.e., one in which 𝑇𝑚 << T.

EXAMPLE: Consider a wireless signal with a carrier frequency of 𝑓𝑐 = 850 MHz, which is
transmitted over a wireless channel that results in L = 4 multipath components at delays of 201,
513, 819, 1223 ns and corresponding to received signal amplitudes of 1, 0.6, 0.3, 0.2
respectively. Derive the expression for the received baseband signal 𝑦𝑏 (t) if the transmitted
baseband signal is 𝑠𝑏 (t).

SYSTEM MODEL FOR NARROWBAND SIGNALS:

• A fairly simplistic approximation of the baseband system model can be arrived at by
employing the narrowband signal approximation, which can be stated as follows. For a
sufficiently narrowband signal 𝑠𝑏 (t), the different delayed components 𝑠𝑏 (t – 𝜏𝑖 ) are
approximately equal to each other, i.e., 𝑠𝑏 (t − 𝜏𝑖 ) ≈ 𝑠𝑏 (t).
• Hence, for a narrowband transmit signal 𝑠𝑏 (t), the expression for the received baseband signal
𝑦𝑏 (t) can be further simplified as

Hence, the output baseband signal 𝑦𝑏 (t) is related to the input baseband signal
𝑠𝑏 (t) by a complex attenuation factor 𝑎𝑒 𝑗𝜑 . The fading nature of the wireless channel can now
be readily observed from the above expression.
The signal power at the receiver critically depends on the magnitude of the
overall attenuation factor 𝑎𝑒 𝑗𝜑 . For instance, consider a two-component multipath channel
with identical magnitude and exactly out-of-phase components, i.e., 𝑎0 = 𝑎1 and 𝑒 −2𝑗𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝜏𝑜 =
−𝑒 −2𝑗𝜋𝑓𝑐𝜏1 .
In this extreme case, the received signal 𝑦𝑏 (t) = 0, resulting in 0(i.e., −∞ dB)
received signal power and the channel is in a deep fade.
Thus, the fortunes of the signal processor at the receiver are hinged on this erratic
𝑗𝜑
factor 𝑎𝑒 , which is also termed the complex baseband fading coefficient or simply, the
fading coefficient.
Further, regarding the narrowband approximation, it is instructive to note that the
narrowband approximation does NOT hold in a wideband system such as a CDMA-based one.
Moreover, the narrowband assumption essentially implies that the carrier phase is
sensitive to the delay spread while the baseband signal is not. This is essentially a rehashing of
one of the most common assumptions in communication systems, which states that “the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal is usually orders of magnitude smaller than the carrier
frequency 𝑓𝑐 ”. Next, we initiate a statistical characterization of the fading coefficient.

RAYLEIGH FADING WIRELESS CHANNEL:

Let h = The complex fading coefficient
h can be expressed in terms of its real and imaginary components as,
𝐿−1
𝑗∅
ℎ = 𝑎𝑒 = ∑(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑗𝑦𝑖 ) = 𝑋 + 𝑗𝑌
𝑖=0
• Thus, X, Y, which are the real and imaginary components of the fading coefficient 𝑎𝑒 𝑗𝜑 ,.
Hence, it is reasonable to assume that X, Y are random in nature.
• A simplistic model for the statistical characterization of X, Y,
• Let us assume that X and Y are Gaussian and uncorrelated.
• The assumption of Gaussianity is lent support by the central limit theorem.
• The central limit theorem states that a normalized random variable derived from the sum of a
large number of independent identically distributed random components, converges to a
Gaussian random variable.
• The above assumption is valid as L → ∞, i.e., the number of multipath components is fairly
large. Hence, X, Y are distributed as N(0, 1/2)(assuming zero-mean and variance 1/2).
• Further, since X, Y are Gaussian in nature and uncorrelated, it directly follows that they are
independent.
The joint distribution of X, Y is given by the standard multivariate Gaussian as
1 −(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2)
𝑓𝑋, 𝑌 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒
𝜋
Where x = a cos φ, y = a sin φ
The joint distribution f A,Φ(a, φ) can be derived from fX,Y(x, y) using the relation for
multivariate PDF transformation as
1 2
𝑓𝐴, ∅ (𝑎, ∅) = 𝑒 −𝑎 𝐽𝑋,𝑌
𝜋
2 2 2
where we have used the property that x + y = a in the above expression.
The quantity JX,Y is termed the Jacobian of X, Y and is given by the expression

where |A| denotes the determinant of the matrix A. Substituting the Jacobian in the expression
for multivariate PDF transformation above, the joint PDF with respect to the random variables
A, Φ can be derived as
𝑎 2
𝑓 𝐴, ∅ (𝑎, ∅) = 𝑒 −𝑎
𝜋
The marginal distributions fA, fΦ with respect to the amplitude and phase factor random
variables A, Φ can be readily derived from the above joint distribution as

We have now derived one of the most popular and frequently employed models for the wireless
channel, termed a Rayleigh fading wireless channel. This nomenclature arises from the
distribution fA of the amplitude factor a, which is the well known Rayleigh density, shown in
Figure 3.3.
The average power in the amplitude a of the Ralyeigh fading channel coefficient h is given as
𝐸 { |ℎ|2 } = 𝐸 {𝑎2 } = 𝐸 {𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 } = 1
the term Rayleigh refers to the distribution of the amplitude factor, the Rayleigh fading
wireless channel characterizes both the amplitude factor as a Rayleigh fading random variable
and the phase factor as uniformly distributed in (−π, π).
Finally, it can be readily seen that the joint distribution fA,Φ (a, φ) is related to the marginals fA
(a) , fΦ (φ) as,
Figure 3.4 shows a scatter plot of the real and imaginary components of 10000 randomly
generated samples of the Rayleigh fading coefficient. From the circular symmetry of the plot, it
can be readily seen that the phase of the Rayleigh coefficient is distributed uniformly in (−π, π).

essentially implying that the random variables A, Φ are independent. This is a fairly important
result since it suggests that the random varying nature of the phase factor of the arriving signal
is independent of that of the amplitude, i.e., for a given amplitude a, all phase factors in (−π, π)
are equiprobable.

EXAMPLE: Derive the probability density function of the channel power gain g = a2, where a,
is the magnitude of the Rayleigh fading channel with E{ a2}= 1.
Solution: we have demonstrated that the pdf of the magnitude of the channel coefficient a,
where E {a2} = 1, is given by the Rayleigh distribution as

Define the function w as g = w(a) = a2. Then, from the standard result of the probability density
of a function of a random variable, the distribution of g is given by the pdf transformation
Observe that since g = w (a) = a2, we have w−1 (g) = a= √g. Hence, the above expression can
simplified as

Thus, the expression for the power gain of the wireless channel has a rather simple expression
given as fG (g) = e−g . However, it should be kept in mind that this is valid only for the case
• E={a2} = E {g} = 1. Further, one can confirm that E {g} = 1 as

EXAMPLE: In the wireless Rayleigh fading channel, consider a transmit power Pt ( dB) = 20
dB. What is the probability that the power at the receiver is greater than Pr ( dB) = 10 dB ?
Solution: First, let us begin by computing the appropriate linear power values for the above
given dB values.
• Pt ( dB) = 10 log10 (Pt).
• Hence, the linear transmit power Pt is given as Pt = 10Pt( dB)/10 = 102 = 100.
• Similarly, the linear receiver power corresponding to Pr ( dB) = 10 dB is given as Pr =
101 = 10.
• Also, observe that given a power gain g, the received power is simply Pr = g Pt.
Hence, for a received power Pr > 10, it naturally implies that

Thus, the probability that the received power is greater than 10 essentially corresponds to the
probability that the random power gain g of the Rayleigh fading wireless channel is greater
than 1/2
This probability can be readily computed as
BER PERFORMANCE OF WIRELESSSYSTEMS:
• The bit-error rate (BER) is the most widely used metric to characterize the performance
of digital communication systems.
• DEF: Bit-error rate (BER) states that it is the average rate of erroneously decoding the
transmitted information bits at the communication receiver.
• For instance, in the BPSK example, it would refer to decoding a transmitted +√P
(corresponding to the information bit 1) erroneously as the 0 bit and vice versa.
• Note: If the symbol constellation is BPSK of average symbol power P , the transmitted
symbol levels are given as +√P , −√P for the information symbols 1, 0 respectively.

SNR IN A WIRELESS SYSTEM:

• Similar to the wireline or the simple nonfading AWGN channel described previously,
consider the transmission of the BPSK symbols x(k) = ±√P across a Rayleigh fading
wireless channel.
• We know that the baseband Rayleigh wireless system can be modeled as
𝑦(𝑘) = ℎ𝑥(𝑘) + 𝑛(𝑘)
• Observe that the critical difference between the above wireless channel and the wireline
channel is the multiplicative fading coefficient h, due to which the received baseband
signal is hx(k).
• Therefore, the received signal power in the wireless channel is given as
𝐸 { |ℎ𝑥(𝑘)|2 } = |ℎ|2 𝐸 { |𝑥(𝑘)|2 } = |ℎ|2 𝑃 = 𝑎2 𝑃
• where ‖h‖2=a2 since h = aejφ . This clearly illustrates the fact that the received power at
the wireless receiver depends on the amplitude a of the random channel fading
coefficient h.
• Further, we will term this SNR at the receiver, as a function of the fading amplitude a as
the instantaneous SNR, i.e.,
𝑃
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 𝑎2 2
𝜎𝑛
• Further, notice that the average SNR in such a wirelwss system can be obtained as
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 𝐸 { 𝑎2 } = 𝐸 {𝑎2 } = 𝜎2
𝜎𝑛2 𝜎𝑛2 𝑛

• 2 2
since E{a } = E {|h| }= 1,
• Therefore average SNR of this wireless system = P/σn2
 BER IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:
• By applying the result for the wireline channel, the instantaneous BER (a) for a
particular value of the amplitude a of the Rayleigh fading channel coefficient h is given
by the standard Gaussian Q function as

Observe that the above expression for BER in the wireless channel depends on the
instantaneous amplitude a of the fading coefficient, which is a random quantity.
Thus, the above BER itself is random in nature, i.e., it is low for high values of a and vice versa.
Therefore, to get a fair idea of the BER in such a system, one has to consider the average of all
such observed BERs, which is obtained by averaging the above function BER (a) over the
2
distribution of the amplitude given as 𝑓𝐴 (𝑎) = 2𝑎𝑒 −𝑎 .
The average BER in a Rayleigh fading channel, denoted by 𝐵𝐸𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ is given by averaging
2
the above BER over the Rayleigh distribution 𝑓𝐴 (𝑎) = 2𝑎𝑒 −𝑎 as
 The above expression for 𝐵𝐸𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ can be further simplified by recasting it as

Hence, the final expression for BERRayleigh, the average bit-error rate for a Rayleigh fading
wireless channel, can be derived in terms of the baseband SNR of the communication system
as
Fig: BER of BPSK detection over a Rayleigh fading wireless channel. The term ‘theory’ in the
legend refers to the theoretical value of BER.

Comparing this with the corresponding BER for the wireline channel derived previously, it can
be seen that the BER for the fading wireless channel is approximately 100 times higher
compared to the wireline channel.

RAYLEIGH BER AT HIGH SNR:

• It is instructive to study the behaviour of the Rayleigh BER under high SNR conditions.
• We know that the expression for BER can be written as

As system SNR → ∞, the BER expression in the above Eq. can be simplified as
Thus, at high SNR, the BER of a wireless fading channel decreases at a very slow rate of
1/SNR compared to that of a wireline channel with decreases exponentially as e −SNR/2. Thus,
this naturally results in a very high BER for the wireless communication system.

EXAMPLE: Compute the 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 required to achieve a bit-error rate of 10−6 over a Rayleigh
fading wireless channel. • Solution: To compute this, one can use the high SNR approximation
for the wireless BER. We, therefore, have,

Converting the above SNR to the dB scale, we have the required 𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 57 dB. Comparing
the above SNR with that required to achieve a similar BER of 10−6 over the wireline channel,
one can readily observe that the SNR required for a Rayleigh fading wireless channel is
approximatley 57 − 13 = 44 dB higher.
• Thus, the SNR required for the Rayleigh wireless channel is significantly higher compared to
that required for a wireline channel.
• It can be seen that for a given SNR, the BER of a Rayleigh fading wireless link is significantly
higher compared to that of the conventional wireline channel.

INTUITION FOR BER IN A FADING CHANNEL:

• Consider the baseband wireless system model described as
Employing this approximation, the above integral can be readily simplified as

Therefore, the probability that the system is in a deep fade is 1/SNR, which is proportional to
the BER for the fading wireless channel, i.e., 1/2SNR.
• This remarkable observation essentially implies that the significant adversity for
communication across a wireless channel is the random variation in the received signal power
due to the fading process.
• The BER is basically the probability that the system is in a deep fade, implying that whenever
the system is in a deep fade, which occurs with probability of 1/SNR , the entire stream of bits
is received with an extremely high percentage (roughly 50% as shown by the factor of 1/2 in
BER) of bit errors.
• Hence, it is extremely critical to combat these ill effects of fading over the wireless channel.
• The fading nature of the wireless channel results in an extremely high BER and poor quality
of communication.
• Lowering the BER and enhancing the reliability of data transmission over the fading wireless
channel is the central focus of our study in wireless communications.
• Diversity plays a fundamental role of overcoming the ill effects of the fading wireless channel
and forms the bedrock of techniques designed to achieve high data rates in the wireless system.
• A Simpler Derivation of Approximate Rayleigh BER:
• A simple derivation compared to elaborate the approximate BER over a Rayleigh fading
wireless channel is given below. Towards this end, one can employ the Chernoff bound for the
Gaussian Q (x) function, which states

the instantaneous BER (a) for a particular value of the amplitude a of the Rayleigh fading
channel coefficient h is given by the standard Gaussian Q function as

The instantaneous BER of the wireless channel from the above Eq. can be upper bounded

Averaging the above quantity over the Rayleigh distribution fA (a) of the Rayleigh wireless
channel, the average BER for the Rayleigh fading wireless channel can be upper bounded as

As can be readily observed, the above bound for the probability of bit error for BPSK is similar
to the high SNR approximation of the BER derived in Eq.
𝐵𝐸𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ =1/2SNR.
• In fact, at very high SNR, i.e., as SNR → ∞, the above bound can be simplified as 1/SNR,
which is similar to the one in the above Eq. in that the bit-error rate decreases at the rate of
1/SNR.

CHANNEL ESTIMATION IN WIRELESS SYSTEMS:

• Consider the wireless channel model given as
• y(k) = hx(k) + n(k)
• where h = the flat-fading channel coefficient
• The estimate ˆx(k) of the symbol x(k) can then be recovered from y(k) simply as ˆx(k) =
1/h y(k). This is termed the zero- forcing receiver in wireless system.
• It can be seen now that in order to detect the transmitted symbol
x (k) at the receiver, one needs to know the channel coefficient h.
• The process of computing the channel coefficient h at the wireless receiver is termed channel
estimation and is an important procedure in every wireless communication system.
• A popular scheme for estimating the wireless channel is through the transmission of pilot or
training symbols.
• Pilot symbols are a predetermined fixed set of symbols which are transmitted over the
wireless channel. This set of symbols is known to the wireless receiver as it is programmed
beforehand.
• The receiver observes the outputs corresponding to the transmitted pilot symbols and with
knowledge of the transmitted pilot symbols, proceeds to estimate the unknown fading channel
coefficient. This procedure for pilot-based channel estimation is described below.
• Consider the transmission of 𝐿(𝑝) pilot symbols 𝑋 (𝑝) (1), 𝑋 (𝑝) (2),………., 𝑋 (𝑝) (𝐿(𝑝) ) for the
purpose of channel estimation.
• Let the corresponding received outputs be 𝑌 (𝑝) (1), 𝑌 (𝑝) (2) , . . . , 𝑌 (𝑝) L(p) , i.e., each 𝑌 (𝑝) (k)
, 1 ≤ k ≤ L(p) is the output corresponding to the transmitted pilot symbol 𝑋 (𝑝) (k).
• The model for these received pilot symbols is given as
𝑌 (𝑝) (k) = h𝑋 (𝑝) (k) + n(k)
• To simplify the derivation below, let us assume for the moment that all the quantities 𝑌 (𝑝) (k),
𝑋 (𝑝) (k), n (k) and the channel coefficient h are real.
• Due to the presence of noise n(k) in the above system, it is clear that y(k) ≠ hx(k) for any k.
• Thus, one has to determine an estimate of h from the noisy observation samples y(k).
Intuitively then, a reasonable estimate ˆh of h can be derived as a minimizer of the cost
function.

• The above minimization aims to find the best estimate of h which corresponds to the lowest
observation error ξ(h) and is, hence, termed the least-squares estimate.
• Naturally, the convenient way to minimze the error function ξ(h) above is to differentiate it
and set it equal to zero. This procedure yields

Thus, one can compute the channel estimate ˆh of the fading channel coefficient h.
• Let us now derive a more elegant matrix-based framework to derive the result above.
• The vector model for the pilot-symbol transmission reception is given as

Hence, the vector model for the above system can be comprehensively given as
𝑌 (𝑝) =h𝑋 (𝑝) +n
where y(p), x(p), n are L(p) dimensional vectors
The least-squares estimate of the channel coefficient h given as

As illustrated previously, to minimize the observation error, one can now differentiate the above
cost function ξ(h) and set it equal to zero, to compute the estimate ˆh as

Further, one can now easily derive the expression for the channel estimation for complex
numbers h, 𝑌 (𝑝) (k), 𝑋 (𝑝) (k) by simply replacing the transpose operator above with the
Hermitian operator.
• Hence, the general expression for the channel estimate ˆh when the various quantities are
complex numbers is given as
Solution:
• As can be observed, the number of pilot symbols 𝐿(𝑝) = 4.
• Further, pilot symbols and received outputs are complex in nature, corresponding to a
complex baseband representation of the wireless communication system.
The estimate ˆh of the channel coefficient can be computed using the equation

The quantity (x(p))H x(p) can be simplified as

DIVERSITY IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS:

Fig (1): Schematic of diversity-based wireless system

The theory of diversity lies at the heart of all modern wireless communication theory and
technologies.
• It is by far the best tool available to combat the effects of multipath fading in a wireless
channel and thereby ensure reliable communication.
• The probability of bit-error (BER) in a typical wireless fading channel for BPSK transmission
at a reasonably high SNR of 13–14 dB can be as high as 10−1 , thus raising the spectre of an
extremely error-prone communication system.
• Diversity techniques can be employed in such scenarios to substantially improve the reliability
of wireless communication, while reducing the BER.
• Diversity is based on the simple fact that independent wireless channels experience randomly
independent levels of fading. Hence, the probability that multiple independent wireless channels
are simultaneously in a deep fade is drastically lower compared to that of a single fading
channel.
• One can, therefore, significantly improve the reliability of symbol detection by simultaneously
transmitting multiple versions of the same information signal over a set of independent fading
channels.
• At the receiver, these signals can then be judiciously combined using appropriate schemes to
maximize the reliability of symbol detection. This key principle behind diversity is
schematically represented in above Fig(1).
• Observe that the wireless system on the left fails because of the single link in deep fade.
However, the diversity-based system, which operates on four parallel links in the above
example, is able to operate even with two links in a deep fade.
• Hence, the philosophy of diversity can, therefore, be stated concisely as
• “transmission of multiple copies of the information signal over independent channels, thereby
substantially reducing the chance of information loss due to the erratic nature of the wireless
channels which causes any one or a subset of these channels to be in a deep fade”.
• A typical example of such a diversity-based system is the multiple receive antenna wireless
system, also termed the Single-Input Multiple-Output (SIMO) wireless system, schematically
shown in Fig(2).
 Fig.(2) Schematic of multiple receive antenna wireless system
• The single transmit antenna in this system is denoted by Tx #1, while the L receive antennas
are denoted by Rx #i, 0 ≤ i ≤ L.
• In this system, there is a wireless link between the transmit antenna and each of the receive
antennas, thus accounting for a total of L links between the transmitter and receiver. Hence,
naturally, such a system is a diversity-based wireless system.