F1 COMPUTER STUDIES NOTES

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

This chapter introduces the student to what a computer is, classifies

computers into different categories, compares the different classes of
computers and also introduces the keyboard as a basic input device.

a) Definition of a computer
b) Classification of computers
c) Physical size
d) The way they process data
e) By purpose
f) By use
g) Acquisition of Keyboard skills
h) Layout of keyboard
i) Summary
j) Questions

o DEFINITION OF A COMPUTER

Before we attempt to define a Computer, there are a number of

associated terminologies that the learner needs to know beforehand.
These are: Data, Information, and Programs.

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Data is the name given to facts. For example, in a school, the number of
students in a class, the number of teachers, names of students, the name
of customers in a business.

Information is result from processed data. For example adding some

numerical values like the numbers 14 and 17 into the computer will give
you the result of 31. The later is information you required. Information
can be defined as data computed into a more useful form than raw form.

Program is a series of instructions written in the language of the

computer for them to obey and perform specific tasks as outlined by the
instructions.
A Computer can therefore be defined as “an electronic machine that
takes in data (facts) in the raw form, processes the data to give out in
another form called information”.
When a computer is fed with data, it passes through four basic steps
before the data can be displaced;
• Input Process – the user will type the data from say the keyboard (to
be introduced later in the chapter) and the computer will accept the
dame and store within it.
• Storage Process – the data that is fed into the computer at the same
time is held, even during the time of processing and after processing;
it can further be stored for further reference. These data are held in
computer memory.
• Processing – the computer will manipulate the data held within it to
a more useful form – results (information).
• Output Process – the user is given the information he desired.

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The four basic processes can be summarized in the following way by

looking at the same terms of information processing cycle.

Organizing data for processing – to get quality results (information) you

must have quality data to start with. Unreliable original data generates
unreliable results. If you give a computer garbage, you get garbage in
return. Its called GIGO – Garbage In – Garbage Out.
Information Processing Cycle - Information Processing Cycle includes a
series of steps for transforming data into meaningful information for
people.
A cycle is defined as a sequence of activities performed in an order that
it produces expected and meaningful results.
A Processing Cycle is repeated, it means, if the same resources are used
in the same way, the same outcome will result. The standard cycle
followed to process data and deliver information comprises of 4 major
functions:
• Input Function - the input function gathers and collects stored
data items and enter them into the system for processing. Input can
come from many sources, for example from files kept in the office,
banking institutions and accounts.
• Storage Function – this function allows the user to store data being
processed in the memory of the computer as well as to store the
information for future use.
• Processing Function – the desired operation by the user is carried
out on the data keyed in and stored in the memory so as to turn it
into meaningful information.
• Output Function – the data stored is processed and then output into
files, printed as hard copies or displayed on the screen for the user.

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Note: For any information processing system to run smoothly on a day-

to-day basis, the processing activities must be organized. A system has
little work if it provides helpful information on one day and useless
information the next day. Output should be useful the first time and
every time for the system.

o CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
There are four basic ways by which computers can be classified:
a) Physical size i.e how large the computer is.
b) By the way they process data
c) By purpose
d) By use

▪ Physical Size
The following computer systems are categorized by how large they are:
a. Monster Computer
Sometimes it is referred to as Super computers or Maxi computers.
These are computer of enormous power and are very large in size. Its
installation requires special floors to carry its weights and it also needs
special plumbing to carry a fluid known as fluorocarbon needed to cool
it.
One unique feature of maxi computers is that when you purchase it, the
purchase price will include the services of 2 permanent engineers to
maintain it forever. They are typically used for scientific research and
military applications, petroleum engineering, nuclear physics and
meteorology.
Examples of monster computers include CYBER and CRAY
computers. For example, the whole globe needs only one monster
computer to forecast weather at once.

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b. Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are second in size to monster computers. These
computers perform more data processing work than any other type of
computers. For this reason they form a large portion of installation in most
organization.
As does the monster computers, mainframe computers also have
some special requirements, for the reason, they are housed in special
rooms brought about by the special power that they posses together
with environmental control requirements.
Mainframe computers can be used by more than one person at a time
since they can support a large network of other computers organizations
that employ mainframe computers alongside other computers are
banks, government agencies, commercial and industrial agencies.

c. Minicomputer
Also called Medium sized computers. These computers compared to
mainframe are smaller, slower and less expensive.
A minicomputer has an advantage over the previous two in the sense
that it does not have any special power or environmental control
requirements. For this reason, the medium sized computer can always
be located anywhere within the organization.
Minicomputers can do the work that the mainframe does but on a
small scale.

d. Microcomputers
Of the types of computers, microcomputers are the slowest. However,
they counteract this disadvantage because they are easy to use and the cost
of purchase is also low.
A microcomputer gets its name from the fact that its main computing
component, the microprocessor (to be introduced later) is located in one
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integrated circuit (IC) or what we call a Chip. Microcomputers fit nicely

on desktops, for that reason they are sometimes known as Desktop
Computers. They are also referred to as Personal Computers since many
individuals purchase them for personal use.

▪ Type of data processed

Classification of computers by the way they process data falls into 2 main
types with the third being a combination of the two:
(i) Analog and
(ii) Digital Computers
(iii) Hybrid

i) Analog Computers
These computers process data that vary continuously, for example
variations in temperature, amount of current flowing through an electrical
conductor and so on. The flow of such data is in the form of wave like
movement i.e. not predictable. Such computers are used for a wide variety
of industrial and scientific applications that require the processing of data
that are measured continuously.In conclusion, we say that analog
computers measure things.

ii) Digital Computers

As opposed to analog computers, these type count things. Data passed
to a digital computer is usually operated on in steps i.e. form of discrete
numbers, 0, 1, 2, 3, (a discrete operation). It is like counting on one’s
fingers (1, 2, 3, 4…). Most computers in use today are digital. This is
because there are more counting applications than there are applications
than there are applications that require continuous measurements.

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iii)Hybrid Computers
These computers possess features of both digital and analog
computers meaning both counting and measurement operations in one
computer.

▪ By Purpose
Classification by purpose falls into 2 categories:
• Special Purpose Computers
These are computers that are single task oriented. In other words, they
are designed to solve only a particular type of problem. Examples include
embedded computers in our common digital watches.
• General Purpose Computers
These are computers that can perform a vast number of operations or
solve problems of different varieties. Most of the computers in use today
are general purpose. However, it is wise to note that general-purpose
computers can always be adapted with special programs to do a job
specified hence becoming special purpose computer.
• Embedded Computers
These are computers attached to other computers that help in operating
them. E.g. computers embedded in lifts, petrol pumps, digital watches and
so on.

▪ By Use
It is worthy noting that we categorize these computers according to
what it is used for and when it is used. Under this category, the list is
endless. For this reason we will limit ourselves to only five main types.

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i) Personal Computers or Desktop Computers

These are also known as Microcomputers. They get their name from the
fact that they fit nicely on the desktop. They can also be used on the desk
in the office environment or for personal use at home.
ii) Home based Computers
These computers are those designed to be used at home. An individual
may install only games program in it or a word processor to enable them
write letters, still some would install accounting packages to enable them
budget and control their finances at home.
iii) Lap top Computers
These computers get their name from the fact that you can place them
on your laps while using. They are very small computers that have the
structure of a briefcase i.e. you open and close the same way. These have
a keyboard attached to them and a flat screen together with a mouse ball
and chargeable batteries. This means that you can use them in the rural
areas where the is no electricity.
Laptop computers also have ports (small slots) through which you can
attach an external keyboard, mouse or external drive like drive A:.

o ACQUISITION OF KEYBOARD SKILLS

There are many ways to enter data into the computer. However,
keyboard still remains the predominant input device for the many users.
A computers keyboard is used much like a typewriter keyboard. A
keyboard has alphabetic, numeric, and special characters found on a
typewriter. The only difference is that data keyed in, is recorded in the
computer systems’ data coding scheme and is stored in the memory. The
traditional format of a computer or terminal keyboard follows the
organization prescribed by the typewriter keyboard. This is known as

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QWENTY keyboard because of the sequence of the six letters on the

upper left corner of the alphabet position of the typewriter keyboard.

▪ Layout of Keyboard and Functions of Keys

A typical keyboard takes the form of a normal typewriter keyboard. A
keyboard usually has standard keys; that is letters of the alphabet plus
special characters e.g. ?, ‘, @ e.t.c.
In addition to the standard keys, one finds a numeric keypad which is
essential for applications that require entry of large amounts of
numerical information.
Function Keys are identified as F1 through F12, they can be
programmed to ease the work of frequently used operations. Cursor
control keys of direction keys the ones with arrows, move the cursor
on the CRT (screen).

Other special keys include: Delete keys and backspace keys which
deletes characters. Delete key deletes a character that is in front of the
cursor whereas backspace key delete characters before the cursor. Insert
key will insert characters from text. Others e.g home key will take you to
the top of the document and end key to the end of the document.
Computer keyboard employ one or more control keys. Control works
just like the shift key on a keyboard in that they cause other keys to
perform functions different from their normal operations. Example, if
you hold shift key down and press the letter “e”, you get a different
character “E”. Holding down the control key while you press any of the
other keys causes still another character to be sent to memory.

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Like the control keys, the escape key is used to cause other keys to
perform special functions. Unlike the control keys, however, it is not held
down while pressing another key. Once sending a signal to the computer
system, for that purpose. If you press another key following Escape, it
will cause the computer to execute a function established by the
program in use.

Fig. 1.3.1 Layout of the Keyboard

▪ SUMMARY

• A computer is a device that takes data in one form and processes it to

give out in another form called information.

• Data is the name given to facts.

• Information is processed data.

• Program is a set of instructions written in the language of the

computer indicating what the computer is to perform.

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• 4 basic functions of a computer: Input, Storage, Processing and

Output.

• Computers can be classified by: Size, The way they process data, By
Purpose and by use.

• Typical keyboard is the same as a typewriter keyboard, has: standard

keys, Numeric Keypad, Function keys, Cursor Control keys or Direction
keys, Control Keys, Alternate keys, Escape keys e.t.c.

▪ QUESTIONS:

i. Define a Computer.

ii. Differentiate between Data and Information.

iii. What is a Computer Program.

iv. What are the 4 basic functions a Computer will perform on data.

v. Discuss in detail how computers can be classified.

vi. Discuss the layout of a typical keyboard and functions of the different
keys

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CHAPTER 2
COMPUTER COMPONENTS
This chapter introduces the student to the computer hardware system.
At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to: differentiate
between hardware and software, identify the elements of a computer
systems’ hardware, explain the functional organization of the elements of
a computer system, describe the central processing unit, describer the
types of input and output devices, describe the types of secondary storage
devices and media and finally be able to distinguish between system
software and application software.

a. Diagrammatic Representation of Divisions

of a Computer System.
o Distinction between Hardware and Software.
o The Complete Computer System.
o Elements of a Computer Hardware System.
o Functional Organization of the Elements
of a Computer System.
o Description of Central Processing Unit.
o Description of types of Input Devices.
o Description of types of Output Devices.
o Description of types of Secondary
Storage Devices and Media.

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▪ Distinction between System Software

and Application Software.
▪ Summary.
▪ Questions.
Fig. 2.1

o DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF DIVISIONS OF A COMPUTER

The following diagram shows the basic physical computer breakdown
that will serve as a reference throughout the chapter.

Fig. 2.1

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KEY:
C.P.U - Central Processing Unit
A.L.U - Arithmetic Logic Unit
DOS - Disk Operating System
ROM - Read Only Memory
RAM - Random Access Memory
DBMS- Data Base Management System

o DISTINCTION BETWEEN HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

A Computer hardware from the simplest point of view is the physical
or tangible parts of a computer whereas software are the intangible parts
that help the computer to do its task. From a technical stand point, the
following are the valid definitions and hence the distinction between the
two terms.

A hardware is a name that describes all the electronic, electrical and

mechanical components of a computer together with its peripheral
devices.
A software is the name that describes all the programs that are used to
run the computer or do a specific task together with its documentation.

Explanation of the terms

Peripheral devices referred to above are: input devices e.g keyboard,
mouse or output devices e.g monitor, printer. These are devices that are
used at the periphery or at the side or alongside the computer.

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Documentation refers to, in its simplest form, the manual that helps the
user to know how the different parts of the software work, how to install
it, uninstall, trouble shoot or as a reference book. The definition of
software is not complete until documentation is included.

o THE COMPLETE COMPUTER SYSTEM

Because of the recent advances in hardware technology, people have

thought of computers as hardware devices only. This is far from the truth.
The fact is, the hardware is only one part of the complete system. Without
programs to tell the computer what to do, they remain immobile and
unproductive, just like an automobile without fuel.

A computer system is therefore defined as a combination of hardware

devices and programs assembled to accomplish specific tasks. The broad
categories of programs are often employed by computer’s operation. One
category of program is known as Operating system. As the name
suggests, the operating system controls the basic aspects of the computer’s
operation. It is the driver of the computer.

The other category consists of the Application program which

instructs the computer to perform those procedures necessary to get some
jobs done; for example Word-processing, Accounting programs; as a
group are often called Software. Therefore, the three components of a
complete computer system are: Hardware, the Operating System and
Application Software. The following diagram (fig. 2.3) shows the
relationship between these three components.

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APPLICATION
INPUT SOFTWARE OUTPUT

OPERATING
SYSTEM

HARDWARE

FEEDBACK

Fig. 2.3

o ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER HARDWARE SYSTEM

The hardware components of a computer system consist of a set of

interconnected electronic and mechanical devices. All computing
machines be it a calculator, a microcomputer or a mainframe has the same
parts.
The parts of a hardware system are: Input devices e.g Keyboard,
Output devices e.g Monitor, Printer and the Central Processing Unit
which comprises of Control Unit (CU) and the Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU) and Memory.
The figure 2.5 shows the parts of a computer hardware system.

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Processor

Control Arithmetic/Logic
Unit Unit
Input Input
Devices Devices

memory

C.P.U

Fig. 2.5: Components of a Computer Hardware System

o Functional Organization of the Elements of a Computer System

Fig. 2.6 below shows the major physical components of a computer

system

Monitor

C.P.U.

Disk Drive

Mouse
Keyboard

Fig. 2.6
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o DESCRIPTION OF THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The Central Processing Unit is the main component of a computer

hardware system. It is usually referred to as the CPU. It consists of three
parts. The main part of the CPU is the memory or primary storage,
where data being processed and the programs controlling the computer
are contained.

Arithmetic Logic Unit forms the second part of the CPU. The ALU
performs the calculations and makes comparisons between units of data.
The last component is the Control Unit (CU), the work of which is to
control the operations of the hardware for example by issuing commands
to all elements of the computer as per the dictations of memory. (e.g from
the input devices to memory, from memory to output devices, etc).
The Central Processing Unit determines the power of a computer
hardware system which is described in terms of :
a) Size of Memory, which is measured by the number of characters of
ve
data it can store
b) Speed of the Control and Arithmetic Logic Unit, which is measured
in millions of instructions per second (MIPS).

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The work of the various input devices such as terminal keyboard, disk
storage units and tape storage units is to send data into the CPU, whereas
the work of the output devices such as printers, visual display units, disk
and tape units is to give out the results from the processing operations.

The Central Processing Unit also “houses” Registers. The latter is a small
part in the CPU that holds data before processing or probably after. They
store data to be processed and thereafter partial results. Registers are of
different kinds performing different functions:
• Ordinary Counter Register (OC) – This register addresses the next
instruction to be expected or we could say it contains the addresses of
the next instruction to be executed.
• Instruction Register (IR) – This register contains the actual
instruction under execution.
• Accumulator Register – This register stores data to be processed or
the results of a partial execution.

The processor communicates with the main memory through 2 registers:

o Memory Address Register (MAR)
o Data Address Register (DAR)

When reading a word from the memory, the CPU stores the address of
that word in MAR and sends a read signal to a main memory. After one
memory cycle, the value of the word is in DAR from where the CPU will
search for it.

When reading a word, the CPU stores in MAR the address of where
the write operation will take place. The value to be written will be stored
in the DAR and then it sends the write signal to the memory.

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Execution of an Instruction
The execution of an instruction of the central processing unit is performed
through the following steps:
• Storage of the next instruction to be executed from the main memory
to the instruction register (IR);
• Modification of the contents of the OC registers the address of the
next instruction;
• Recording of the instruction recently stored;
• Localization of the data needed by the instructions in the memory;
• Storage of data if necessary into the internal registers of the CPU
generally the accumulator;
• Execution of the instruction;
• Storage of the results in the appropriate place;
• Return to step (i) for the execution of the next instruction.

The Processor
The Control and Arithmetic/Logic Units are usually considered as a
hardware device separate from the memory. This is because the size of
the memory may vary independently from the Control and
Arithmetic/Logic Units. As separate devices they are known as Processor.
Processors used in microcomputers are known as microprocessors
(refer to chapter 1), but conceptually they are the same processors found
in larger computer systems.

Memory
A computer’s memory stores data before, during and after processing
as well as the application program in use at the time. These data are stored
in cells of the memory. Each memory cell contains one byte of data (a
byte = 8 characters: a character is say a letter of the alphabet, or a number).
Therefore, one cell will contain eight characters called a byte.
The size of the computer memory is measured in terms of “Kilobytes”
or “Megabytes” or “Gigabytes”. Since “Kilo” stands for 1,000 and

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“Mega” for 1,000,000, computer memory is measured by the thousands

or millions of bytes that can be stored in memory at one time.
In computer usage, the prefix “Kilo” actually stands for 1024 bytes
and “Mega” for 1,048,576 bytes (explanation later in form 2 – Number
systems).

Computer memory is sometimes known as Primary memory Storage,

Main Memory and RAM (Random Access Memory).

Primary Memory
Primary storage or RAM is the computer’s working bench. All data
to be processed must first be recorded in it and all output of results draws
data from it. Primary storage has 2 crucial characteristics. The first is that
data can only be stored temporarily, and two, it cannot store a great deal
of data.

Secondary Storage
These characteristics of primary storage give rise to the requirements
to store large quantities of data in machine readable form that can be fed
into RAM in small segments for processing. Units that do this are called
secondary storage devices also referred to as Auxiliary Storage or
Backing Storage. (Description of these devices latter in the chapter).

The two most prevalent of these are disks and magnetic tapes. These
media offer the ability to store data off line, meaning that data can be
processed from time to time by the computer system and are not stored
permanently as part of the hardware configuration. When needed, they are
mounted on data reading and writing device, called drops, as required by
their application programs.

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• The processor receives data from main storage, performs operations

on them, then the result is given back to the same.
• Data then goes to the main memory comes from input devices or
secondary devices, and data from the main memory goes to backing
storage or output devices.
• The ALU and CU combine to form the processor as discussed.

o DESCRIPTION OF TYPES OF INPUT DEVICES

Input devices in whatever form as the name suggests are devices that help
the user to communicate with the computer by issuing commands in
different ways which the computer obeys.

▪ Keyboard
Please refer to 1.4 for full keyboard explanations. Using the keyboard is
a matter of knowing which command you want to issue to the machine
or what entries in the form of characters you want to make; then simply
type in the right characters from the keys of the keyboard.
▪ Mouse
This is another type of input device but as opposed to the keyboard,
it doesn’t have keys. A mouse has usually two buttons (but not always).
When installed in your machine, a pointer is always seen on the screen.
Underneath the mouse is a rotating ball which with the slight movement
of the device on a pad, the pointer will correspondingly move on the
screen by the same distance and to the right direction. To issue an
instruction to the system, the user simply needs to click (press the mouse
button once – usually the left) a menu and choose a command he wishes
to issue or click a command he would want to use.

You can use a mouse also to draw different shapes of your style apart
from simply clicking commands. A mouse (mice – plural) is usually
employed in Windows Applications without which the Windows
Operating System become incomplete.
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Fig. 2.7.2 Mouse

▪ Light Pens
Looks like an ordinary pen but its tip is a light sensitive detector.
When you touch the tip of the pen to the display screen, the computer
locates what are called the x-y -ray coordinates of that point. By touching
the screen at various points, or by moving the pen across the surface of
the screen, you can write and draw.

Normally used with palm tops. Since palm tops are very small light
pens replace mouse.

Photoelectric Cell Cable link to computer

terminal

Fig. 2.7.3 Light Pen

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▪ Joy Stick
This is a device that permits you to move a picture, line, word, or cursor
from point to point in a display screen. Used normally in playing computer
games.

Fig. 2.7.4 Joy Stick

You operate a joystick by moving it in various directions. It caries out
the same functions as the locate keys (cursor control) on the keyboard.
But it is faster and lets you move in 8 directions instead of four.

▪ Graphic Tablet
It lets you draw a design just as you might do on paper. You use a
special pen or your finger to do the drawing on a flat, table like surface.
Your drawing appears immediately on the display screen.

Fig. 2.7.5 Graphic Tablet

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▪ Laser Scanner
This input device is used to scan a picture or other documents from
print onto the screen and hence can be available for storage in the
computer memory for processing or future reference. Some printers come
with inbuilt scanners. However, we have small scanners (manual) that are
held in the hand while scanning an object to the monitor into the memory.
You can scan for example your photograph,
signature, and logo on other documents. Another scanner is known as
flat bed which is used by placing the document to be scanned on it.

Fig. 2.7.6 Laser Scanner

▪ Voice Input
Voice input systems require that the user pronounce the vocabulary of
voice command several times while the system does the “listening” and
analyses the voice patterns of the various words. After this, using an
airplay of the voice patterns, the system will respond to the commands as
dictated. Once the computer has been initialized with the voice pattern of
the person, such system will always not respond to anyone else. Example
is voice dialing in a mobile phone.

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▪ Voice Input
Voice input systems require that the user pronounce the vocabulary
of voice command several times while the system does the “listening” and
analyses the voice patterns of the various words. After this, using an
airplay of the voice patterns, the system will respond to the commands as
dictated. Once the computer has been initialized with the voice pattern of
the person, such system will always not respond to anyone else. Example
is voice dialing in a mobile phone.

▪ Optical Character Reader (OCR)

This device along with others to be discussed shortly after, have been
developed to make data input to computer systems independent of any
human operations. Optical Character Readers (OCR) accept data input
optically or with machines that respond to magnetic ink or magnetic Ink
Character Reader (MICR).
▪ Optical Mark Readers (OMR)
This device will place marks placed on forms for data gathering purposes.
Such marks will then be translated into the computer by the device as
input data.
▪ Bar Code Readers (or Line Code Readers)
Bar Code Readers will read price and inventory codes printed on products
that are frequently purchased such as in supermarkets. This code is usually
referred to as Universal Product Code (UPC). Such Bar Code Readers
employed in supermarkets are one type of remote date entry terminals.

Fig. 2.7.10 Bar Code

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They are known as Point-Of-Sale (POS) terminals. Remote data entry

terminals promote entry of data directly into the computer system for the
purpose of updating, inventing files and preparing customer’s bills and
other similar tasks. They are often used in manufacturing and distribution
in warehouses, retail stores, bank teller counters and other business
offices. Workers and executors in the field usually use portable data entry
terminal to enter and retrieve data directly into and from the main
computer control via telephone lines.

▪ Key to Tape / Key to Disk

This is a system of data entry normally employed when processing
spiral documents usually in batches. In any key to disk system, there
must be a microcomputer that is used as the processing computer or
server. There will be a special computer terminals, each with a different
operator in front of it. Provision for a fixed disk drive where data is stored
when keyed in is made, and finally there is a tape drive where after
completing a given batch of data, then you re-locate. One of the
terminals is usually dedicated for a supervisor to the system that
oversees the whole operation.
▪ Key to Disk Operation
Each operator loads the program usually employed to enable data entry
of batches., then keys in the data from the original documents usually
source documents. The program in use will validate the data entry and
incase of any error; this will be given on the screen and then will enable
the operator to correct. Once this is corrected, the data is stored on disk
and the second operator is given the same source document to verify
using the same process to the terminal and program. Once a batch is
verified as compact, the data is transferred from the disk to the tape
drive and finally physically transferred to the server (minicomputer) for
processing.

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DESCRIPTION OF TYPES OF OUTPUT DEVICES

There are several output devices that are available within the current
technological advancement. For our level, we will limit ourselves to the
following: Printers, Monitors, Plotters, Sound Output and Microfiche
/Microfilm devices.

▪ Printers
Printers are necessary when hard copies of displayed work on the
monitor have to be sent to customers, report prepared by the
Management and the Board of Directors and so on must be printed. It’s
not disputable the fact that other electronic means of transmitting
information are now available. Printed-paper, however, still remains the
most popular means of communicating the same information. Printers
fall into three main categories classified by the amount of printed work
the device is able to produce in one operation.

o Page Printers
These printers print a whole page at once. They are sometimes
known as image printers. They produce the images by laser or
electrostatic means. The quality of output from such printers is

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sufficiently high for business correspondence. They use toners just like a
photocopy.
o Line Printers
These type of printers produce a whole line of a text at ago. They are
very fast but the quality of the output is always low.
It is important to note that the length of a line is not standard as it
differs with the requirement of the application in use. However, most of
the printers will print between 120 and 144characters per line. This will
require approximately paper width of about 14 inches so as to
accommodate the said character scale. 132 characters are often the
most common width. These use cartridges.
o Character Printers
Form or print one character as a time on the paper. This rate of
printing varies between 20 and 600 characters per second depending on
the mechanism or use in the different makes employed. These printers
make use of ribbons.
There are many different types of character printers. The first is
called Daisy Wheel Printer, which creates fully formed letters much like
a typewriter sometimes called Letter Quality Printer. The output is often
good enough for business correspondence.

b) Detail of the Daisy

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Daisy Wheel
a) The Whole
The Whole Daisy Wheel

Fig. 2.8.1(c) (i) Daisy Wheel Printer

The second is Dot Matrix Printer, which creates characters as spools
of dots in a rectangular matrix. The speed of the dot matrix printer is
much higher than that of a daisy wheel but the quality of the former is
not sufficient enough for business correspondence. A dot matrix printer
has a print head consisting of a number of small pins between 9 and 24
depending on the make. A printer with a 9 pin print will give a poor
quality print compared to that of a 24 pin print head since the dots in the
former are widely spaced apart. If a dot matrix is to produce a better
quality output, sometimes referred to as Near Letter Quality (NLQ), then
a line is printed twice with the print head being moved along very slightly
in the second printing so that those moved spaces between the dots are
filled into ensure continuity. One advantage with the dot matrix printers
is that they can print from either side, meaning the print head does not
have to move say to the left side of the paper in order to begin printing
but begin from the right as well. With the dot matrix printer you simply
need to change the ribbon of different colour to get a colored output.

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Fig. 2.8.1(c) (ii) Dot Matrix Printer

How Character printer operates:

A paper is passed through a printer that has a moving belt or a chain
containing a complete character set – as seen from the keyboard. A
paper is then hit from behind by a set of hammers, which are aligned for
each printing position on the line. This will then pass a paper against an
inked ribbon behind which is the character to be printed.

Another way to categorize printers is by whether or not the print

head strikes the paper. If it does, it is called Impact Printer and if it does
not it is called a Non-Impact Printer. Dot matrix and Daisy wheel printers
fall in the former category; all strike the paper while printing.

Non-impact printers are usually the fastest since they minimize the
amount of physical movement required during the printing process.
Examples of non-impact printers include Thermal Printers, Inkjet and
Electrostatic Printers.

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Impact Printers are usually noisy given the physical motion involved
during the printing process when the printing device strikes the paper.
To get multiple copies from impact printers, all you need to do is
interlace a carbon paper between the papers.

How Non-Impact Printers work

o Thermal Printers
The slowest of all non-impact printers, form characters by burning them
on specially treated paper. They operate at about 30 characters per
second.

Thermal Printer
o Electrostatic Printers
They form characters by charging the paper electrically. The paper is
then passed through a toner solution. Particles of the toner solution (ink)
stick to the electrically charged areas of the paper. When the paper is
heated, the particles melt thus producing the characters. They are quite
fast; some print about 300 pages per minute.

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o Ink Jet Printers

These printers “spit” streams of ink to the surface of the paper. The ink
then drips almost immediately. They are fairly slow. They produce from
about 50 to 100 characters per second. These printers offset their
relative disadvantage of slowness by their low cost and multiple colour
printing.

▪ Voice Output
Computer voice output is common place. For example a computer
could be programmed to offer telephone information service, like
directory help. Others let you know if you dialed a wrong number or if
the number you are calling is out of order or busy and the like.

▪ Plotter
This is an output device used to produce graphical output like drawing
graphs, charts, maps or electric circuits. The design of the graph, circuit
is done on the computer then the output is sent to the plotter. Plotters
are of two types: one that has a single sheet sometimes called Flat Set
Plotter and the second uses a continuous sheet which rolls continuously
on drum like cylinders: also known as Drum Plotters.

▪ Microfiche/Microfilm
Microfiche and Microfilm are both better known collectively as
microform. The later is a document photographed and hence stored in a
film. Microfiche is a sheet of film that measures 105mm x 148mm
whereas a microfilm is actually a 16mm roll film. A typical 16mm will hold
the equivalent of 3,000 A4 Pages. One typical microfiche will hold the
equivalent of about 98 A4 Pages.

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Usually this technique of giving output to a microfilm/microfiche or

microform is usually referred to as COM (Computer Output to a
Microform). The technique is simple, a machine called a microfilm
Recorder reads output that is relayed onto a magnetic tape for the
computer, once read, the output is copied out on microfilm/microfiche.
The application of COM is suitable where an organization has to
store data over a long period of time or where backup copies need to be
made. Records that need to be out a long time would include: receipts
and invoices of an organization or say catalogues in a library or a
bookstore.

o DESCRIPTION OF SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA

As mentioned earlier, secondary storage or backing storage provide

supplementary memory to main memory of the computer. The following
auxiliary media and devices will be discussed: Magnetic tape Drive and
Magnetic Tape, Magnetic Disk Drive and Magnetic Disc, Magnetic
Diskette Unit and Magnetic Diskette, Optical Disk Unit and Optical Disk,
Mass Storage Devices and Media.

▪ Magnetic Tape Drive and Magnetic Tape

The concept of storage in magnetic tape device used by computers
is identical to tapes you may have in your home video or audiotapes
recorder. As a matter of fact, most microcomputers can use exactly these
devices to store data. Magnetic tape consists of a large strip of plastic
that has been coated with iron oxide compound that can be magnetized.
This strip is typically wound on a 10½ inch for mainframe and
microcomputer applications. Microcomputers employ audiotape
cassettes. Data is recorded on and read from the tape using a tape drive.
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The latter has a “read head” for reading the information stored on the
tape that’s for transforming data from the tape into main memory. It also
has a “write head” for recording the information. Usually, to read from,
write to an individual tape, you have to mount it on a tape drive.
In processing data is read from the tape into main memory (or
RAM) where processing takes place. The results are given out only as a
written report or as another tape file written on another drive. Because
RAM capacity is limited, only a small amount of data is used for the input
tape or written to the output device at one time.
Data that is stored on magnetic tape as well as other auxiliary
storage devices are usually organized into records. A record for now
should be understood as a unit of data consisting of characters about
someone or something. How data processing uses records is a matter of
loading one or more records into RAM for an output device. Processing
those records and sending the result to an output device.
This technique of sorting records on tape in the form of groups that
are read into or written from RAM all at once giving rise to a number of
technical terms that are used in all types of secondary storage media.
See fig. 2.9.1 below.

I I I
100 Logical 100 Logical 100 Logical
R Records R Records R Records
G G

Physical Record

Fig. 2.9.1: Magnetic tape with a Blocking Factor of 100

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A group of records is called Physical Records or Block. Each record

in the group is known as a Logical Record. The number of logical records
in a physical record is referred to as the Blocking Factor. A blocking
factor of ten will indicate that ten logical records make up one physical
record or block. The term block refers to a group of logical records, all of
which are read onto or written from RAM at once. The physical records,
or block, are suspended from each other by blank spaces on the tape
known as Inter-record Gap (IRG). Sometimes known as Interlock Gap.
Magnetic tape is a sequential medium, this means that records appear
on it in sequential order for example personal records will appear by:
employee number, account number and so on. Because data is stored on
tape sequentially, they must also be processed sequentially. If a tape file
has only 60,000 records, access to record number 50,747 can be had only
by reading through all of the proceeding 50,746 records. This is usually a
very slow way of accessing data.

▪ Magnetic Disk Drive and Magnetic Disk

Magnetic disk storage is the preferred medium for most secondary
data storage today. As opposed to magnetic tape files, disk files need not
be processed sequentially, although they may be if the application calls
for it. Any record stored on disk may be retrieved without having top
process through all of the proceeding records on the file. For this reason,
a disk is usually referred to a Direct Access Storage Device (DASD). This
factor is what makes a magnetic disk faster and more flexible than the
tape.

Physically a magnetic tape consists of circular platters of non-

magnetic such as aluminium and plastic, which is combined with the same
sort of non-oxide coating used on magnetic tape. As with, characters are
recorded by magnetizing microscopic magnetic fluids on the disk surface
using the usual data coding schemes. Magnetization in one direction
represents a zero in the other direction a one.
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To use a disk one has to mount it on a spindle that causes it to rotate.

A read/write head, similar to that of magnetic tape, moves back and forth
across the disk radius rotating and storing data as required. The read/write
head can move to different sections of a record without necessarily having
to write or read this section; only when the instruction was prompted!

Disk Drive is the device on which the disk is mounted when used to
store and retrieve data. The device can position the read/write head in a
number of portions along the disk radius. As the disk rotates past the
read/write head, data is recorded in a circular track. This means therefore,
that there are as many concentric tracks displayed on the surface of the
disk, as there are positions for read/write head. This is illustrated in Fig.
2.9.2 (a)

Each track is divided into sections or blocks, similar to the blocks of

data in magnetic tape. Each sector has an address. To store/retrieve data,
the system finds the disk address used to contain data by moving the
read/write head to the appropriate track where it waits until the desired
sector passes by.

Fig. 2.9.2 (b) shows how a track is divided into sectors and how the
sector contains an address used to locate where data is stored on the
disk. A hard disk with a capacity of 300k for example contains forty tracks
(40) of nine sectors each; having a total of 360 sectors available on each
side; of a two-sided disk for a total of 720 sectors. Each sector contains
512 bytes or 4096 (512 x 8)characters, so the disk offers a total data
storage capacity of 368,649-bytes. Such a disk is said to be a 360k disk
following the conception that “k” equals 1,024 (360 x 1024= 368640).

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Read/Write
Head
Track Disk

Access
Rotation Arm

Spindle

Fig. 2.9.2(a)

Address Data

Fig. 2.9.2(b)

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Disk storage media take different forms. Hard disks are rigid in
nature. They contain the most data. Hard disks may be fixed in their
devices or may be removed. They are usually 14” in diameter, although it
is unusual to the smaller had disks in microcomputers. One such system
is known as Winchester, so named because its prototype makes use of two
drops of thirty million bytes each has effectively the “30-30”. It uses a 14”
plotter. Later versions called Mini-Winchester or Mini-winns” used 8” or
6” and one-quarter inch plotters, which are stored in the drives and can
store up to 85,000,000 bytes.

▪ Magnetic Diskette Unit and Magnetic Diskette

This is another form of disk storage media. Flexible disks or simply
diskettes often called floppy disks or floppies because they use a thin sheet
of plastic as their case. They are an important data storage medium for
micro and mini computers.

Diskettes range in size from 3 ½” to 8”. They offer the advantages of

ease of transport and low cost. They are encased permanently in a
protective envelope, which is insulated in the disk drive. The entrance to
the drive is a narrow slot in front of the drive. This slot has a small flap
over it, which must be clipped shut once the disk is inserted.

▪ Optical Disk Unit and Optical Disk

Optical disk is a kin to audio compact disk or CD that you might have
in your home. The device is made of plastic cover, which has transparent
material. The principle of work is the same as that of the CD; sound is
recorded in them in digital form.

Data is recorded beneath the transparent layer that cover the surface
of the CD by burning a permanent pattern into the surface of the disk by
means of a laser beam. Reading the data is also by a laser beam in an
optical disk recorder.
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The capacity of a CD is usually about (600 – 750MB). 1 Gigabyte,

which is made up of 40,000 tracts each divided into 25 sectors. 1 GB is
equal to 1 million characters-(1 GB).

One advantage of CDs to magnetic disks is that loosing of data is not

as rampant as with the latter. One disadvantage is that some (i.e CD-R)
CDs are not reusable. They are usually referred to as WORM, which
stands for Write Once Read Many times. Reading from the CDs tends to
be slower than that of the magnetic disks. However, with the advert of
CD-RW (Re-writable CDs) you can use a CD writer to delete obsolete
work and write new data.

▪ Mass Storage Media

A great need for machine-readable data storage in industries has
prompted computer equipment manufacturers to develop storage devices
with even higher capacities. The top of the time disk unit manufactured
by IBM doe example, stores more than 2.5 billion bytes of data. Data Car-
tridge System store data in series of 50 MB cartridges. These devices
provide up to half a million bytes of on line storage.

The operation is similar to that of other secondary storage devices. A

cartridge is loaded into the read/write mechanism, the data is processed
and then the cartridge is replaced in its honeycomb-the storage bin. Then
the read/write mechanism moves onto find the next catalogue to be
processed. Cartridge systems are slower than disk systems because they
involve more physical movements.

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o SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND APPLICATION SOFTWARE

▪ System Software
System Software are programs with their associated
documentations that control the entire operation of the computer. It is
what tells the computer what to do when you issue a command or when
you switch on the computer. Within the set of system software, we find
a set of programs called Operating Systems. The latter is usually defined
as a set of programs that standardize the way a computer’s resources are
made available to the user and to applications software. The resources
here refer to the hardware components of the computer.

The system software command imprinted on a type of memory

called ROM (Read Only Memory). Such memories are usually reserved
for such data of the operating system that the user must not modify or
inadvertently delete. It is usually protected by the manner in which it is
manufactured. ROM is used to store programs and data that are
essential for the proper operation of the computer system and of the
application program that are integral parts of the operation. ROM is non
– volatile; this means whatever is stored in such memory remains
whether or not the power is on. (RAM – discussed earlier is volatile).
Programs such as operating systems and application programs stored in
ROM are often called Firmware, meaning software that is engrained /
fixed into the hardware.

System software also has what we refer to as Utility Programs for

File management, editing files, management of disks and so on. These
are commands resident in system software.

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▪ Application Software
This is a program that is usually applied on one area of operation only
– not as all encompassing as system software. Application software is
usually divided into 2 categories:

• Standard Packages or Application Packages (General Application

Software)
These are packages that are designed to be used to solve a particular
type of problem for example Lotus 123, Ms Excel are all spreadsheet
packages meant to be applied in accounting operation only. Word
perfect, Ms-Word are all word processors. D-base 4, Ms Access are
database packages and so on.
• User Developed Software (or Specialist Application Packages)
These are suites of programs with their associated documentation that
are tailor made to solve specific tasks only. Usually, a user will give a
specification to a programmer of the suite he wants to be developed to
meet his business or individual needs. This kind of software is only
restricted to solving problems to which it is programmed to solve. Tailor
made software is sometimes known as Bespoke Packages.

o SUMMARY

• Computer Hardware is defined as all the electrical, electronic and

mechanical components of the computer together with their devices
used at the peripheral.

• Software are programs that are used to run the computer together
with the associated documentation.
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• Computer hardware comprises of Input devices, Output devices and

the Central Processing Unit.

• A complete computer system comprises the operating system, system

software, application program and hardware.

• CPU is consisted of Arithmetic and Logic Unit which performs

arithmetic and logic comparisons, the control unit which coordinates
the activities of the hardware (I/O operations) as per the dictates of
the memory, memory which stores data being processed, results and
the application in use, registers which are slam areas in the CPU that
holds data before processing and probably after.

• Storage Devices are in two forms: Primary Storage devices, the Main
Memory and Secondary Storage devices which supplements the main
memory.

• Input devices include: Keyboard, mouse, paper scanner and magnetic

ink holder. Other data capture methods include: speech, magnetic,
optical character readers and optical mark reader.

• Output devices include: Printers – which could be line, page or

character printers, they are also categorized by whether the print
head strikes the paper while printing – impact and non-impact
printers, visual display Unit, (or monitor) – displays the text/graphics
for the user to see and plotters for plotting graphical output, electric
circuits, charts etc.

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• Secondary storage media and devices include: Magnetic tapes and

disks, optical disks and mass storage media.

• System software are programs that control the entire operation of the
computer together with the associated documentation. An
application program is software that is usually applied on one area of
operations only. They could be standard packages or user developed
packages.

2.11 QUESTIONS

i. Differentiate between hardware and software in a computer.

ii. What does computer hardware consist of:

iii. Discuss the functions of components of a computer hardware system.

iv. A complete computer system comprises of which components?

v. Discuss any 4 input devices.

vi. Discuss any 4 output devices

vii. What do you understand by secondary storage devices?

viii. Discuss any three backing storage media and devices.

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ix. Distinguish between System Software and Application Software.

x. What is an Operating System?

xi. What are Utilities?

xii. What is Firmware?

xiii. What are the two types of Application Software? Discuss.

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CHAPTER 3

SAFE USE AND CARE

OF COMPUTERS
This chapter lets the student to be aware of the computer, its safety rules
and how to apply them. The safety rules to be observed regard personnel,
materials and equipment in the computer laboratory. The student is also
expected to state correctly safety precautions required in the lab and be
able to identify possible causes of loss of data and their precautions.

• Behaviour in the Computer Lab.

• Handling of Materials and Equipment.
• Fire and Accidents.
• Chemicals and Combustible Materials.
• Ventilation in the Computer Lab.
• Safety Precautions and Practices.
• Possible Cause of Loss of Programs and Data.
• Precautions.
• Summary
i. Questions

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• BEHAVIOUR IN THE COMPUTER LAB

Computer lab forms a very important section of an organization or

school and therefore strict rules in terms of behaviour of
personnel/students working/studying in the lab needs to be put in place
and adhered to.
One factor to be taken into consideration is the cost involved in
setting up the lab including the cost of equipment. This should not be
taken for granted and computers and other peripherals damaged in the
short run could result in great losses to the organization.
Cleanliness is a factor that stands out in the lab. The personnel need
to be clean while in the lab. Dust in the hands, oil on fingers is not allowed
among personnel/students. Foodstuffs to the lab is not allowed as the
broken pieces from such will ultimately find their way into the
peripherals e.g keyboards, disk drive and so on.
Depending on what material cover is on the floor, certain shoes tend
to cause a lot of distraction by making noise to the rest of the seated
personnel. This slows down the work process as attention will definitely
be shifted. External disks into the lab are not recommended as this may
result in virus infection to the system in the lab from outside sources.
Internal disks should not be allowed to leave the room. Some
stringent procedures should be laid down to check the personnel who
ignore the rule. If this is not observed, it may lead to data from the
organization being exposed to rivals or would be “hackers” – those who
gain access to the system without authority.
Any mechanical or technical faults noted should always be reported
to the technical personnel immediately for attention. Non-technical
personnel should never attempt to deal with such a fault!

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It is important also that every personnel make routine backup copies

of every work done in the lab as this will save the organization from any
data loss in the event of disaster.
Shutting down and booting of computers is very important. Strict
procedures depending on the operating system specification should be
adhered to, otherwise damages to the disk in the long run and
fragmentation of files and storage in the storage location will happen.
This will cause delays in reading and writing to the same. All equipment
should not be moved around the lab rather they should always be used
where they are installed!
Changing of peripherals from one machine to another is not an
encouraged practice. Let a mouse meant for machine A remain the
machine; if it does not work, please ask a technical personnel to attend
to it, but do not interchange it with another!

• HANDLING OF MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

Handling of some materials and equipments in the lab should be a
privilege. In other words, some disks and special machines like a server
(in the case of a network) should not be for everyone, only those
authorized should be allowed for example to keep installation disks and
so on.
Generally the computers and peripherals in the laboratory should
always be handled with care since all of them have soldered electronic
parts within them that when poorly handled and perhaps dropped then
such parts will always either break or be dislocated. This will mean the
equipment is damaged. It is recommended that every movement to
machines in the lab be done using a trolley. No equipment should ever
leave the lab unless with direct authority from the right person.

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Computer cables should, if detached, be properly returned each to

the right machine. Technical operations in the lab should be left for only
technical personnel. If every Tom, Dick and Harry in the lab assume to
repair every damaged equipment, then more will be worse off than they
were.
Disks should be kept from natural hazards like excessive
temperatures, water and dust places and a way from magnets if data
integrity is to be maintained.

• FIRE AND ACCIDENTS

Fire and other accidents in the lab are possibilities. Such accidents
would include electrocution of an employee/student, slipping and falling
on a slippery floor.
Fire is a big threat to data loss and equipment. Every lab should
always offer training of how to handle fir in thee event of such calamity
and of course fir-fighting equipment like fire extinguishers for example
hand held CO2 and BCF extinguishers should always be available.
Data should also always be kept in fireproof safes to avoid loss of
data loss in such event. Insuring of equipment and software in the
organization with insurance firms will help since after such an accident,
the firm is paid.

• CHEMICALS AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL

Chemicals and combustible materials should always be located on
special places. False floors and ceilings should always be available for
chemicals like fluorocarbon fluid used as a cooling agent for mainframe.
Such pipes and ducts should pass either up on false ceilings or below
false floors.

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Combustible materials like fire extinguishers should be located in

places visible to everyone but with strict instructions to be touched only
in the event of a fire break out. Other materials that could be harmful to
the environment should be transmitted through properly located ducts.

• VENTILATION IN THE COMPUTER LAB/WORKING AREA

Windows provide adequate ventilation in labs. Such windows must
not be very wide as such will always be vulnerable to entry by intruders.
Any ventilation apart from the window should always be higher up and
very small in size. Every ventilation again, mostly windows, should have
a well-dropped curtain so as to keep private the operations in the lab.

• SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND PRACTICES

i. Cabling
Cables in the lab should be properly located either on false floor or
ceiling or along the walls so as to avoid interference for example with
communication coolers in the lab. Cables put haphazardly may result in
possible power disconnection if stepped on or pushed around.

ii. Stable Power Supply

Provision for stable, adequate and independent power supply is very
important. Fluctuation in voltage frequency, sudden cut in power supply
and spikes cause damages to the computer system.
Interruption of power supply for example will damage disks, damage
the processor and spikes will cause loss of data and fluctuations, voltage
frequency will cut off other areas from the return.
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As a precaution, large batteries, Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS)

and generators should always be on standby to such a crisis.

iii. Burglar Proofing Counter

All doors to the computer lab should be burglar proof. This is a
physical security measure since this will avert any attempts by intruders
to break in and interfere with data and equipment in the lab.

iv. Ventilation
It is a good practice to include ventilation in a computer room but the
same should not provide an entrance to hackers to tamper with data.

v. Floor space
The space on the floor should be wide enough to provide a thorough
route for equipment installation and other movements of the trolley to
transfer equipment. It should also provide for an emergency exit.
NB: Slippery floors are not recommended in a computer lab. Such a floor
if there is, should be covered with mats and the like.

VDU LEGISLATION
This is a legislation (British) that was passed in 1990 for frequent
users of computer screens in the lab. It states as follows:
▪ One should not use a computer for more than one hour continuously.
▪ While using the VDU, the eyes should not look at the screen directly
but at an angle of 30-60.
▪ The distance from the screen should be between 300mm-480mm.
▪ While using the keyboard, the arms and elbows should be at right
angles and parallel to the ground.

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▪ The seats and desks in the lab should be adjustable to the users height
this is to aid (iv) and avoid Repetitive Strains Injuries (RSI) of the
fingers and wrists. The seats should have backrests!
▪ All seats in the lab should be fitted with castors – to make them mobile
and less noisy.

NB: An Anti-glare screen is still recommended.

COMPUTER LAB DESIGN

Before we look at the safety regulations in the lab, it is vital to look
at what factors must be put into consideration when designing a
computer room.
Constraints of Computer Room
The following requirements must be observed in any computer room
design:
• The need for air conditioning
• The dimensions of size of the lab
• The need to observe cleanliness
• Equipment sitting in the lab
• Accessibility for machinery maintenance and media re-supply.
• Consideration for health and safety
• Consideration for noise

Air Conditioning
Air conditioning is very essential in the computer room where main
frames are housed or some minicomputers together with their
associated peripherals. Most devices however, usually contain their own

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environmental controls that are automatic for example fans, filters and
sealed units.

Air conditioning is done to enable control the following:

a) Temperature – for equipment should be between 18C and 24C.
b) Humidity – this helps to avoid moisture precipitation and build up of
electrostatic charges. Recommended humility should be 45% - 55%.
c) Dust control – disk media require high level of cleanliness.
Processors with highly packed electronics require high levels of
cleanliness. To help keep high level of cleanliness, the lab should
have positive pressure, air lock and sticking nuts on the floors.

Dimensions of the Lab

The size of the computer room should take into account the following:
i) Requirements specified by the equipment supplier
ii) Operating conditions and
iii) The need for future expansion.
The height should be enough to provide for false floors and ceiling
to help spread equipment loads provide safe cable paths and air ducts.

Accessibility
While installing equipment in the lab, there must be a provision for
a through route, which is also important for emergency exit. Only for
security purposes should such a route be closed.
Corridors of the lab must be high enough with double doors and
floors, stairs or lifts must be strong enough t bear the load of equipment.
It is often recommended that ground floor should be used but this again
has many security risks.

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Reception should always be spacious enough to allow for storage of

trolleys (used for moving equipment around the lab).

Equipment Sitting
Design of the sitting equipment should always be such that it ensures the
workflow of the operator and minimizes the walking distance from one
equipment to another. This means for example that the location of a
stand-alone computer and the printer should be close enough to ease
the work!
Health and Safety
For the sake of health and safety of the staff and equipment, the
following should be observed:
a) Lighting
There should be a provision for large lighting so as to avoid minimized
reflections and glare. A further provision should be for emergency
lighting.
b) Alarms
Fire alarms in the lab must be very clear (audible) and visible from any
angle you are placed. This will allow for quick action and reaction in the
event of a fire break out.
c) Communications
To avoid noise in the lab, telephone lines should be strategically placed
with visible indicators for quick response.
d) Physical security
General:
a. Only authorized personnel should be allowed into the computer
room.
b. The lab should not have any outside walls to keep off intruders.
c. The lab should have small windows’ provision for ventilation.
d. Video cameras should be on to monitor the activities of the
personnel and intruders.
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e) Fire
Alarms should be in place as discussed earlier. Automatic detection of
smoke and electrocuting system should be provided for. In the computer
room, there should be hand held Co 2 and BCF extinguishers. The
personnel should be given evacuation training in the event of the fire break
out.
f) Flooding
Computer labs should never be sited in basements where they are
vulnerable to floods. No water pipes should be placed under, over or in
the computer rooms. This is because water is likely to destroy equipment,
programs and data in the lab.
g) Power
The computer room should have independent power supply, stable and
adequate with shrouded panic off button. Problems with power supply
come in three main forms:
i. Supply interruption – is caused by a number of factors that include
transformer failure, cutting of supply lines by accident, by people,
lightening and so on.

ii. Spike – this is a voltage level imposed onto the supply by interface
source such as switches, electro-mechanical devices and so on.
The problem caused by spikes is generally loss of data as soon as power
is removed. Disk files also get corrupted when store cycles are
interrupted by removal of power.

iii. Voltage Frequency Variation – this is variation or fluctuation in the

voltage frequency of electricity supply. Such fluctuations normally
do not have effect since in most computers, there are power supply
units that are designed to adequately cope with any small
fluctuations

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Problems caused by voltage frequency variations is generally loss of

users in the sense that terminal links get broken in those parts of a
network whose power is interrupted or destroyed. So this problem
is normally experienced when computers are networked.
When designing a computer lab, it is important to have a stand by
generator, large batteries or other uninterrupted power supply
(UPS) units so that in the event of power failure, the data is not lost,
or users disconnected or disk media damaged etc.

vi. Dust/Dump Proof

Disk storage media and processor require a high level of cleanliness
and standard temperature in order to maintain the data stored and of course
for power to adequately function.
The lab should therefore have a positive pressure, suitable building
materials to reduce dust, special floor covering to reduce the dumpness
and so on.

vii. Lighting
The computer lab should have adequate lighting. This lighting
should be large enough to minimize reflections and glare on the part of
the user. There should also be a provision for emergency lighting.

viii. Standard Furniture

The furniture used in the lab, that is the table on which the machine
is placed should be stable and firm with enough room under for the user’s
legs and clearance to allow posture changes. The surface of desk should
be spacious enough to allow flexible arrangements of items, it should be
glare free.

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The chair should be adjustable as to allow different personnel of

different heights to use the desk.

ix. Fire Fighting Equipment

Provision for the fighting equipment in the lab is vital. Fire
extinguishers like hand held BCF and Co2 extinguishers should never
miss.
Supply equipment should always be located in visible places for
staffs. More important is the adequate training of how to handle such
equipment and precaution techniques for the personnel.

• POSSIBLE CAUSES OF LOSS OF PROGRAMS AND DATA

Loss of programs and data to the organization results in loss of

information that may not be put in monetary value. Some of the causes
include:

x. Power Supply
Power supply problem result in two forms:

• Power supply interruption - is one form which can be caused by

transformer failure, cutting of supply lines, by accident, by people,
lightening and the like, inadvertent switching off of the machine also
could interrupt power supply.

• Spike – is the second form of power supply problem, this is a situation

where a voltage level is imposed onto the supply by interference
source such as switches, electromechanical devices and so on.
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All these forms of power problems especially supply interruption and

spikes result in damage to disk heads which often crush when power is
suddenly removed.
This will mean loss of data since it will be hard to read or write to such a
disk. Spikes often result in serious loss of data since RAM being volatile
losses data immediately power supply is cut off.
Disk files also get crumpled when stores are interrupted by removal of
power.

xi. Virus
A virus is a peace of software (program) that replicates itself
without the user intending it or noticing it. Viruses often affect our
computers having been brought about by hardware/software engineers
who move from one computer to another carrying out demonstrations
or through external infected disks, which are brought into the lab.
Such disks are often infected with boot sector virus (boot sector is
the first partition of the hard disk/floppy). When it (infected disk) is put
into the drive, it will be loaded into memory. The disk is now infected
since the memory to which it must be loaded first is now infected.
A virus usually has many effects for example replication where a
virus divides itself repeatedly thus spoiling the data on the
screen/memory/or disk.

Viruses have so many effects they cause to data/information and to

the user. What we need to note here is simply the fact that viruses will
change or modify the data that was stored to take a different format that
is never useful to the operator.
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xii. Accidental Erasure

It is possible that the user without him wanting it, could erroneously
erase data. This usually comes about for instance while using a delete
command say in Ms – Dos(next chapter), one happens to delete a whole
directory while the intention was to delete a single file in the directory.
As will happen, one uses a disk command like disk copy without
identifying the source diskette from the destination disk. If the two are
mixed, then it is possible to wipe the contents of the source disks
erroneously.

xiii. Crashing Disks

Disk heads, as mentioned earlier, often crush when there is sudden
power supply disconnection. Data is often lost since reading from one disk
and writing to them is not possible. This means that data in that disk was
lost.

xiv. Poor Storage of Disks

We said that the disks require very high levels of cleanliness above
any other. Dusts will clog the disk head. That causes a problem in reading
and writing to the disk. Storing disks in dump places and very dry places
have effects on the disks, surface will either become too delicate or fold
away from its shape. All these minimize the reading and writing processes
to data in the disk.

xv. Unauthorized Access

Only authorized personnel should always be allowed into the lab. It
is possible that hackers could gain access to the room and “steal”
data/information, which could be tampered with in some way or even a
virus infected into the system.

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Also unauthorized persons could perform some fraud with the data
for say personal gain at the expense of the organization. A hacker could
gain access to for example change an existing invoice to reflect a higher
or lower bill, clear an invoice, etc.

• PRECAUTIONS
The following precautions should be put in place to avert the possible
loss of data through the risks identified above.

xvi. a) Power Failure

Power failure is a risk to data in the organizations. Precautions to be
taken include:
o Regular Saving of Documents/Files
The user of the system should always ensure that the work is saved as
regularly as possible, say after every 5 to 10 minutes. Some application
will always do this automatically for the user. If you don’t save your work
periodically, then any power interruption/spike will mean all the work you
did will be lost.

o Use of UPS
UPS in short for Uninterrupted Power Supply. This is a simple device
that consists of suitable sized strapped across the input supply. Its size is
dependent upon the capacity of the system it is required to support and for
how long. This method can be interrupt driven from a simple hardware
dictation circuit which automatically locks the user out as soon as an
interruption is detected and all data is automatically stored and also safely
packed before the system is switched off.

o Use of Batteries and Generators

Standby generator systems together with large batteries are necessary
to sustain the continuity of computer facilities in such organizations as
hospitals, military installations, factories and some offices. In the event of

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power interruption, what happens is that the system is first maintained by

the battery while the generator is started up.

xvii. Virus
The following precautions should be adhered to so as to guard against
virus:
o Write Protection Disks
Every floppy 3½ disk contains a physical write protect tab on the left
hand corner that slides down to indicate its “on”. When the disk is write
protected, it means you cannot be able to write anything or change a word
in it, you can only read! This will protect you against virus since it cannot
allow any external data of any form!

o Restriction of Disk Movement

Strict procedures should always be put in place and adhered to by all
IT staff. Such software will ask the user to “repair” hard disks and floppies
as well as the boot sector from viruses. Such a procedure should be for the
sake of data integrity, no disk from the organization should leave the
computer room and at the same time any external disk should not be used
in the system unless “sheep dipping” is carried out. The term simply
means scanning the disk for viruses first before being used.

o Disable Disk Drives

Another viable alternative to virus protection would be to physically
remove all the disk drives once the normal working hours are over. This
should be done by the technical staff only. When this is done, it means
that even if you had your disk to use you cannot because the disk drive to
let you read and write to the disk is not there. This will help protect the
organization against boor sector virus and the like.

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o Anti Virus Software

Software are available in the market today that help to disinfect
diskettes (disks) and of course the main memory from the virus infection.
Since new viruses come up often, it is always recommended that such
software installed into your system should be regularly updated or a newer
more powerful one installed. Such software is often easy to use once
installed.

Examples of such software include: Norton Anti-virus, Dr. Solomon

Anti-virus Tool Kit, F-Prot Professional etc. Such software will scan and
ask the user to “repair” hard disks and floppies as well as the boot sector
from viruses.

xviii. Accidental Erasure

When a file, document, software is accidentally erased, it is possible
that you can put in place some recovery procedures provided for in the
form of utilities by the operating software. Depending on the operating
system in use, and the application software, the user can be able to
undelete an “already deleted file” or document by simply evoking the
utility.
If the data was lost as a result of formatting a disk, a utility to unformat
the same could be provided. These utilities will therefore help to recover
such accidental lost data.
Another precaution to put in place would always be to use backup
copies of the information lost. A backup copy is simply the alternative
copy that was made of the information contained in a particular disk. This
as the explanation states will help the organization to continue working
without any hitches.
Another option is to use fireproof safes (heat-resistant safes). Heat is
a threat to backup copies made on diskettes. Diskettes tend to fold under
excessive heat. To avoid the loss of data in this way, it is recommended
that such disks be kept in heat resistant safe always.
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xix. Crashing Disks

Power interruption, we said, causes the disk heads to crash. This
causes a problem in reading and writing to the same disks. A precaution
here would be to use backup copies of the same disks in the event of such
a crash.

To avoid such a crash, it would be important to observe precautions

for power failure.

xx. Poor Storage and Handling Disks

Disks are very sensitive storage media and a lot of care needs to be
taken to ensure that the data/information stored in them is safe and that
the disk can be read and written to. Most floppy disks are covered by
plastic material which react easily to excessive temperatures like direct
sunlight or very cold dump situations.
Therefore, to preserve the disks, keep them away from sunlight as
this is likely to cover the plastic envelope covering the disk which will
ultimately affect reading and writing; keep them away from water which
would make the disk surface dump and hence affect the storage layers
(sectors, tracks and cylinders) where data is stored.
Disks should also be kept away from dust environment, as those again
will make the disk drive heads. This will cause loss of data if the disk
heads cannot read and write.
The mode of storage to these magnetic disks is by magnetism of the
positive and the negative charges of the data to be stored. If disks are kept
next to magnets, it is possible that the demagnetization of this sequence
could be altered. This will of course destroy the data stored in the disk.

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xxi. Unauthorized Access

Access to the computer room should be a privilege. Only those
personnel working there should be allowed in. when access to the lab is
not restricted, then it becomes easy for hackers to gain access to the
system and hence destroy or “steal” information.
Fraudulent activities by the employees on information like leaking
confidential information to rivals for payment is also possible. Other
intruders could also gain access to the system and hence destroy or carry
out ridiculous acts like literally stealing the equipment.
Some files attributes should also be put in place to avert access to data
stored. For example, the use of passwords should be encouraged; data
encryption method should also be adopted.
Passwords could be a number(s) or a word that is only known to one
person or some “trusted” personnel in a department or a sector that will
enable the user to gain access to the system or a particular document or
file. The use of passwords will ensure that only those people who know
the password could gain access to those files in the system.
Passwords if to be used, should always be changed periodically in
case it has been leaked to someone who is not authorized to know it.
Data encryption is a way of writing a particular information using a given
grid that could only be deciphered by you or a group of personnel
authorized to for example: to encrypt the following statement in a 5 x 4
grid (i.e a row is 5 and a column is 4 letters) would be:

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The statement: MEET ME TONIGHT AT 8

MEET .
ME . TO
NIGHT
. AT . 8
The statement to be stored as data is MMN.EEIAE.GTTTH..OT8

The statement LICENCED TO KILL could be encrypted as

LCOLIE..CDK.E.I.NTL. in a 5 x 4 grid i.e.
LICEN
LICENCED.T
O.KILL
NB: Note that a word to be encrypted in full as you move along the row.
Separate each space by a dot. To read, read the first letter in the first
column and move down the column. Each dot is a space.

• SUMMARY

 Factors to consider when designing a computer lab are the following:

Dimension, accessibility, sitting of equipment, health and safety of
personnel, lighting, power supply, physical security and noise.

 Strict rules to the lab concerning behaviour as outlined should be

observed.

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 For safety precautions on the lab, the following should always be

considered: Fire fighting equipment, standard furniture, proper
lighting, dust/dump-proof lab, proper installations, stale power
supply and burglarproof doors.

 Possible causes of data loss and programs are the following: power
failure, viruses, accidental erasure, erasing of disks, poor storage and
handling of disks and unauthorized access by hackers and other
intruders.

 The following are precautions to be taken in the event of data loss

from such risks mentioned.

▪ Use UPS, large batteries and generators in the event of power

failure.
▪ Use of anti virus software, write protecting disks.
▪ Movement restrictions.
▪ Disabling disk drives to protect against viruses or accidental
erasure.
▪ Use of undeleted and unformatted utilities.
▪ Use of backup copies and heat resistant safes.
▪ Disks should be stored away from water, fire or excessive
temperatures and away from magnets and should be kept in dust
free environments.
▪ Use of passwords and encryption methods to protect files against
unauthorized access by people.

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• QUESTIONS

• List factors to consider while designing a computer lab.

• What points would be observed in the computer lab as far as

behaviour of personnel is concerned?

• Handling of materials and equipment in the lab is vital. Discuss.

• What safety precautions and practices should be put into place in a

computer lab?

• What are desirable and possible causes of data loss in an

organization?

• List and discuss the factors to be put in place as recovery measures

to the above data threats to an organization.

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CHAPTER 4
OPERATING SYSTEMS
This chapter will introduce the student to what operating terms are, the
functions and types. It will also serve to explain how disk Operating
System (DOS) organizes information. The student is expected to use some
DOS commands for file and disk management and be able to list external
and internal DOS commands at the end of the chapter.

a. Definition of the term Operating System.

b. Functions of Operating System.
c. Types of Operating Systems.
d. How DOS organizes information.
e. List of DOS commands.
f. File Management Commands.
g. Disk Management Commands.
h. Summary.
i. Questions.

a. DEFINITION OF THE TERM:

‘OPERATING SYSTEM’

Operating System as defined earlier, is a set of programs available

within the system software that standardizes the way a computer’s
resources are made available to the user and to applications software.

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b. FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

The following functions are identified as common to all Operating

Systems:

i. Memory Management
An Operating System allocates memory to itself and to its resident
system programs, sets aside areas of application programs and user
partitions, arranges the input and output buffers (areas on RAM where
input data and output data are temporarily stored) and reserves storage for
specialized purposes.

ii. Input/Output (I/O) Management

The Operating System controls reading of data coming in from the
various input devices into the memory and writing of data to output
devices such as printers.
The Operating System will ensure that each time the user types in
commands those inputs are accepted into the memory, and if the latter is
busy the it holds the same temporarily on buffers until the memory is free
and also does the same to output data awaiting to be displayed on the
monitor or to be sent to the printer if the same are busy.

iii. Resource Allocation

Operating System load programs into the computer memory and
starts them running after receiving instructions from the user, at the same
time, operating systems must have ability to divide resources available to
different users, memory and of course the peripherals to different
processors going on at the same time so that none of the users gets “stuck”
or “deadlocked” during the operation for lack of a computer resource.
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iv. Error Handling

Any Operating System must have the ability to handle errors in the
computer system be it hardware or software faults and be able to provide
routines to correct these errors.

v. Provision for User Interface

Any Operating System should have the ability to receive commands
from the user and respond to them accordingly.

vi. Interrupt Handling

An interruption could be caused by software errors, mechanical faults
of a machine or by the operator by pressing the Break key for example
which halts the system. The operating system should always be able to
handle such interrupts without causing any malfunctions as a result.

c. TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

There are majorly two types of Operating Systems that we will
discuss in this section.

vii. Single User System

In this type of Operating System, only one user can use the machine
at a time, load one program at a time in the main memory and process
only that one program. Most of the small microcomputers employ single
user systems. Examples are Ms-DOS, Pc-DOS and Windows.

viii. Multi User System

This system as the name suggests is for multi user, as opposed to the
single user system. This system is employed by larger microcomputers
and minicomputers. More than one program can be loaded into the main
memory by different users and processed at the same time in an interactive
manner. Examples of such an operating system are UNIX and Windows
NT.
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d. FILE MANAGEMENT
Medium of storage employed by most microcomputers is often disk.
Data that is stored on disks are often held in a file. The latter is often
referred to as a group of related records. The records may hold data about
customers, employees of the organization and names of students in a
school and the like depending on the organizations.
Therefore, the file as a group of program instructions is actually a
computer program. When files are stored on such storage media, then the
term “file” refers to anything stored on the medium, be it a program or
data file.

ix. File and Directories

The work of the Operating System is to keep or maintain a directory
of the address of the files on disk. Each file on the storage media is
assigned a name called filename (one word). The directory is a list of
filenames and the disk addresses at which the file may be found. When
the user refers to a particular filename, it causes the operating system to
consult its directory of filenames, locate the address of the required file
and make it ready for use.
Let us have a look at a directory listing of files of a system disk using
Ms DOS. All of the files in this directory are programs. A system disk is
so called because it contains the directory system. We shall list directory
for system drive A:
Volume in drive A: has no label.
Directory of A:
COMMAND COM 18107 13-12-97 13.00PM
SYS COM 7407 13-12-97 13.00PM
DIRECTORY COM 1307 13-12-97 13.00PM
FIND EXE 1278 13-12-97 13.00PM
4 FILE(S) 142890 BYTES FREE
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What the list shows:

a) the name of the file e.g. COMMAND
b) Filename extension e.g. COM
c) The number of bytes contained in this file
d) Date and time on which it was printed into the directory.
e) The total figure at the bottom of this directory listing show the
number of bytes remaining for storing other files.
MS-DOS has certain rules for formation of filenames for example;
A filename must not exceed 8 characters in length and in some cases
requires filename extensions, which is 3- character in addition to the
filename. In the above example, COM and EXE are extensions. Although
not visible, there is usually a full stop between the filename and the
extension e.g. Diskcopy.COM is the complete name for the above file.
The user has to type in the computer name of the file including the
period in order to effectively use some file maintenance utilities like
copying or deleting. Filename extensions
-75-
usually indicate the type of file
for example “COM” and “EXE” above will refer to program files.

x. Directory Hierarchy
Files stored on a disk can always be organized into subdirectories.
Directory hierarchy refers to a “tree” like structure formed by directory –
subdirectories – files. For example, we could have a directory called
KENYA with subdirectories of towns NAIROBI, MOMBASA,
NAKURU and files of Estates within each town, e.g. Hurlinghum, Nyali
and Milimani. The figure below shows the directory hierarchy.

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KENYA

NAIROBI MOMBASA NAKURU

HURLINGHUM NYALI MILIMANI

Fig. 4.4.2

To be able to specify which file to open, the user has to specify to the
operating system the data path or path to that file. For example, to open
a filename Milimani, the following path must be specified:
Kenya\Nakuru\Milimani.
A path is often defined as a logical, sequential list of directories and
subdirectories leading to a filename. The names of directories and
subdirectories are separated from each other by determinates which
could be a backslash(\) or a hyphen (-) or a slash (/) depending on the
Ms-Dos version in use.
The directory names have extension DIR wheras the files have TXT.
The directory named Kenya under which the subdirectories Nakuru,
Mombasa and Nairobi are stored is called root directory.

xi. Volume Lables and Directories

A labels is a name given to a disk to enable you identify the contents
from those of other disks when it’s off-line in that if it’s not mounted on
a drive.
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Since the use could have multiple disk drives on-line (mounted) at
one time, the operating system must have a way of determining when
disks are actually mounted on the driver. To do this, we use volume labels
or volume directory, which simply a name assigned to each disk used in
the computer installation. The difference between volume labels identifies
a storage medium as physical unit while the latter two identify data stored
on disk. Suppose we gave a volume label country to the hierarchy above,
the complete name for reaching Milimani file will be:

COUNTRY\KENYA\NAKURU\MILIMANI

The operating system will ensure that disk on a volume label Country
is located first if it is the one mounted, before it searches for the actual file
in the specific directories.

xii. Tab Control

Computers and their operating systems can perform a great
number of different tasks, not just one job as say a stand-alone word
processor or a calculator. Therefore, the user of the system must be
prepared to tell the operating system what particular task to perform at
the moment.
When the computer system is complete, usually the application
program is what the user communicates with the program when a
particular task is desired. When the application program finishes, it is no
longer a part of the system.
The user therefore must communicate with the operating systems
to tell it what to do next. He or she does this through the use of what we
call OS’s Tab Control Language or TCL. TCL consists of a number of
operating system commands also called system commands that control
the operating system.
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How does one know that the application program has finished its
work and it is no longer loaded by the operating system? The operating
system will display that by displaying its prompt; it could be a character
or two that will signal the user it awaits further system commands.
The MS-DOS Operating System, uses the prompt C:\> or C>. The “C”
in the prompt indicates the disk drive in which the operating system will
look for any files referred to by the next TCL instructions. The disk drive
attached to the system are usually identified by letters of the alphabet
through a system with four drives could have drive identifiers A: through
D. Any reference to a drive must include the colon in the drive identifier.
The drive identifier displayed by the dos prompt is known as a logged
drive, the default drive or the active drive.

e. MS-DOS COMMANDS
Using system commands is quite easy. It is a matter of knowing the
right commands key, key it in and press enter key for the command to
be accepted. System commands help us to manage our files and
directories for example; we can copy a file from one disk to another,
delete files or change names. We can also manage our disks for example
to format a disk, label a disk or copy disks.

The Syntax of a Dos Command

A Dos command usually has a command name (i.e the system
command the user intends to use) and an argument which is information
required by the command. An argument used with a Dos command will
indicate the disk drive on the file to be used by the command

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Example: COPY ANN 1 TO ANN 2

The command has a command name COPY. The arguments are
ANN 1 and ANN 2. This command copies a file known as ANN 1. The new
copy is named ANN 2.
N/B: ANN 1 and ANN 2 are arguments and are separated from each
other by a blank space. They are also separated from the command
name by a blank space.

xiii. Running a Program

It is important to note that a Dos Command represents a program.
A command name is just like a file name of any other program. To be
able to run a program using Dos, first the operating has to be loaded.
Loading the operating system is simply switching on the computer, it will
open a program loaded in ROM to check if the operating system is loaded
in drive A or any other and load, other wise it will load from the hard
disk.
To run a program with filename extension COM, BAT, TXT, simply
enter its filename without the extension for example to a Basic Program
simply enter BASIC. Its filename is BASIC.COM.
When you want to execute a program that is not stored on a disk
in the logged drive, the first thing would be to change the logged drive
to the disk containing the program. For example, suppose you wanted to
run a program with the filename MILO.EXE which is on the disk in drive
B:, and the logged drive is A:, to specify the drive on which Dos should
look for the program, proceed with the filename with the drive identified
with no blank in between the colon and the filename.
B:MILO

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f. FILE MANAGEMENT COMMANDS

xiv. Changing the Logged Drive

To change the logged drive from the active one, simply enter the
letter of the alphabet for the new drive at the prompt of the active drive
followed by the colons and then press Enter key.
For example, if the active drive is C:\>, simply type A: at the prompt
and press Enter.
C:\> A:\>
A:\> or A:\>

xv. Determining the Contents of a Diskette

To determine the contents of your disk, Dos provides a program
command DIR (Directory) that will display the files stored in your disk
with the exception of the hidden files.
The files are usually listed one per line with their filenames,
filename extension, size and the date and time they were last saved.
If you have many files than can be displayed on the screen, then
Dos passes them so fast over the screen that you cannot be able to read
or identify a particular program. There are two solutions to that program:

• /P (Pause) Switch
To see the files with all the relevant information i.e. filename,
filename extension, size and date and time, then /P switch does the
work. The files will be shown one screen at a time and tests the user to

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see the files with instructions to “press any key to continue…” The format
is DIR/P <ENTER>

• /W (Wide) Switch
This command will display filenames and their extension only for
the entire directory at once. They will be displayed in rows five files wide.
The format is DIR/W <enter>.

To see only a particular file on Disk

Simply use the filename of that file as the argument, thus:
DIR B:FILENAME.TXT

In this case, Dos will display the particular information about that file or
tell you that it is not on disk.

To see Directory files with similar extensions.

If your files have the following extensions; BAS for Basic Programming
files, DBS for Database files, to see their directory of all the Basic
programming files, enter:
DIR*.BAS or DIR/P.BAS or DIR/W*.BAS
The asterisk is called a wild card. What it means is that you “substitute
the position with any characters.” For instance in the command DIR*.BAS
will list all the files with the .BAS extension.

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Directory of files with similar names and different extensions

Suppose your filenames are the same but have different extensions, all
that you need to do is:

DIR Same.*
All files called “Same” will be displayed.
Suppose you decided to identify your files as Same 1, Same 2 and so on,
and therefore you wanted to only display a filename Same but with
specific extension DBF, you would enter:

DIR Same*.DBF
To see all same files you would enter:
DIR Same*.*

The asterisk wildcard is a many character wild card. It fills out a filename
or extension from its position to the end of the name in the above EXE
file, the asterisk is the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth character if they
exist in the filename beginning with SAME.
Another wild card used in the Dos command if? It is usually called a one
character wild card. When it appears in a command, you can substitute
it with one character e.g.
DIR ?AME*.DBF, will substitute ? with any character as long as the next
line i.e AME is part of that filename. So if it is a command, like DIR
SAME*??? Would be the same as DIRD SAME*.* when the three
questions marks in the former stand fir three character.

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xvi. Changing Directories

Let us go back to the example we gave with root directory KENYA.
Suppose you wanted to make Hurlinghum your current directory, you
simply need to enter to command:
CD C:\NAIROBI\HURLINGHAM. <ENTER>
If you are already in C: as the logical drive, you do not need to enter
it again, simply type: CD. If you wanted to move up one level of the
directory i.e. to Nairobi, type:
CD.. <ENTER>

Suppose you were to go straight to the root directory i.e. KENYA,

all you need to type in at the prompt is:
CD\ <ENTER>
If you want to see the subdirectory of a current directory, type DIR.
<ENTER>.

For example if you have made Nakuru your current directory, to

see subdirectory like Milimani simply enter the latter command!

xvii. Making Directories

Suppose you wanted to make a subdirectory of your current directory
Nakuru, what you need to do is enter that command MD (Make Directory)
and the name you intend to call the subdirectory, thus:
MD LANGA <ENTER>
If towards creating the directory named LANGA you want to work in
it, simply use the CD command to place yourself in it, thus:
CD LANGA <ENTER>
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xviii. Removing Directories

To remove a directory, first ensure that the directory to be removed is
empty. You can empty a directory by using DEL command after making
back-up copies of the same.
To effect the command to remove a directory like NYALI, ensure you
place yourself in MOMBASA directory first, thus:
CD MOMBASA <ENTER>
RD NYALI <ENTER>

xix. Copying a File

It is often necessary to make a copy of a file. All important files
should always be copied so as to guard yourself against the loss of data.
Data loss often occurs if you accidentally erase a file, Power goes off
before you save your files, store data under an incorrect name, do physical
damages to a diskette.

When you copy a file to protect against loss of data we say you are
backing up a file. The copy command requires 2 parameters/arguments to
accomplish the task. It is a resident command.
• The first argument is the name of the file to be copied.
• The second argument is the filename for the copy. If the file is
not on the logged drive, then drive identification must be
included.
•

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1. Copying from the same Drive

Thus: Copy SAME1.DBF ZAME2.DBF

The above command will copy file named SAME1 on the same drive
and give it a new name ZAME2.DBF. it is important to note that if you
are copying within the same drive, then the new file must have a different
name.

2. Copying from one Drive to another

To copy a file from one drive to another giving it the same name.
Enter:
COPY SAME1.DBF B:
New file name is not necessary on the target drive (B:) since it is the
same as that of the source drive.

3. Copying a range of Files.

To copy a range of files, we employ wildcards for example:
Copy same*.*B will copy all files on the logged drive that start with
same onto the diskette in drive b: irrespective of filename extension.
To copy the entire contents of drive A: to B, we can use the following
command:
COPY A:*.*B:
N/B: Ensure that the destination diskette is formatted before the
operation is started since this command COPY doesn’t copy formatting
information as does DISKCOPY command (4.7.4).

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xx. Renaming Files

For the sake of clarity, the user can rename an old file with a new
name. The command is RENAME or simply REN. The format of this
resident DOS command is:
At the prompt of the logged drive containing the disk with the old
filename type:
RENAME OLDNAME.TXT NEWNAME.TXT
This DOS internal command will not allow you to change a file name
to one already existing in the diskette.
Notice the single space left between the arguments themselves and
between Dos command and the argument oldname.
The use of wildcard is important here as they could help rename a
wide range of files, for instance:
RENAME SAME*.DBF SAME*.WPF
This will change all the filename extensions of all the SAME files to
Word Processing Files (WPF). To rename a file on a different drive, you
would do this:
RENAME B: SAME.DBF ZAME.DBF to rename a file in B:

xxi. Deleting Files

Two Dos commands available for deleting files are DEL and ERASE.
The format is:
DEL ZAME.DBF <ENTER>
This will delete only a file named ZAME. To delete the entire
directory of ZAME (that is plus the subdirectories), enter:
DEL *.* <ENTER>
That is if you are placed inside the directory ZAME.

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xxii. To Display the Contents of a File

To be able to simply display the contents of a file on the monitor. The
command type is provided. The format is:
TYPE Filename.EXT
Indicate the filename that is plus extension if you intend to display
the contents on the screen. NB: You can press CTRL + S to stop the
contents on the screen from passing too fast for you.

xxiii. To print the Contents of a File

If you need a hard copy of the contents of a file, then enter the
format below:
TYPE Filename.EXT>PRN

N/B: You could also use the command PRESS CTRL + P which will sent
everything on the CRT to the printer. To stop printing pre CTRL + P again.

g. DISK MANAGEMENT COMMANDS

Under Disk Management commands, we will examine the following

commands:
• Formatting a Floppy Disk
• Inserting a Floppy Disk
• Copying disks
• Adding Dos to a formatted disk

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xxiv. Formatting a Diskette

Formatting is a process of preparing new diskettes for data storage.
The system command is FOMART.
What formatting does: it organizes the disk so Dos can store data,
keep track of them and retrieve them from disk. It also ensures that there
are no defective areas on the new disk. If at all the defective areas are
found, FORMAT will mark them so Dos does not store data in them.
Formatting usually takes two ways: A disk can be formatted to
include Dos or not. Disks that include the operating system or Dos are
called system disks or boot disk or command disk and can be used to
start the computer (or load the operating system). Disks that do not have
the operating system stored in them have more room to store data than
the former.

Procedure:
a) To Format a non system or data disk
Simply enter FORMAT followed by a drive identification if the new disk is
not to be in the logged drive i.e.
FORMAT or FORMAT B:
This command will prompt Dos to load format program and display
the following message:
INSERT NEW DISKETTE FOR DRIVE A: and strike any key when
ready. In the file case or
INSERT NEW DISKETTE FOR DRIVE B: and strike any key when ready
in the second case.
Simply put the new diskette in the indicated drive and press any
key. Dos will display:
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Formatting …
After a few minutes, Dos repeats

Formatting……Format Complete
362496 bytes total disk space
362496 bytes available on disk
Format another (Y/N)

To which you will answer “Y” or “N” press Y if you want to format
another otherwise press N key from the keyboard.

b) Formatting a disk so that it includes the systems.

Simply follow the above procedures with addition of letter S for
system thus:
FORMAT /S or FORMAT/S B:

The messages displayed are the same as the ones above with addition of
the ones indicating that system transferred and how much space it
required.
A disk with the system includes some hidden files the names of which do
not appear when you look at the contents of the disk, and a file called
COOMAND.COM. These files form the resident portion of Dos.

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xxv. Adding Dos to a Formatted Diskette

Adding Dos to a formatted diskette is a two-step process:
• With the target diskette in B: and a system disk in the logged driver,
copy the hidden files to the diskette with the SYS command:
SYS B:
SYS is a non-resident program (or transmit) i.e. it is not kept in RAM.
It generates the following messages:
SYETEM TRANSFERRED
• After the above process, copy COMMAND.COM from your system
disk t the disk you are modifying by entering
COPY COMMAND.COM B:
NB: you can add Dos to any diskette as long as there is enough space
to store the three files. If a disk already has hidden files and you try to
use SYS command to place them on the disk anyway, you will get an error
message indicting that there is no room on the disk for the system. The
only way to replace the hidden files once installed is only by formatting
the disk again.

xxvi. Labeling a Disk

A volume name is used to identify disks just as you identify them
by writing identification information on a label placed on the disk
envelope. The volume name however, is recorded on the disk itself and
can be checked by the operating system to ensure that the correct disk
has been installed in the disk drive.
Volume label (11 characters; ENTER for None)? MYDISKETTE
362496 bytes total disk space
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362496 bytes used by the system

321536 bytes available on disk
Format another (Y/N)
A>
NB: Always have some formatted disks with you because some
application programs will not give the leeway to format a disk while
working on it.

xxvii. Copying Disks

There is a utility called Diskcopy that is often provided for in most
versions of Ms-Dos and Pc-Dos. What this utility does is that it copies the
entire contents of the source disk to the destination disk. It also transfers
the operating system and formats the destination document as well.
What this utility does not do is to check for errors in the destination
disk and mark them so that data is not stored in by the Dos. While using
the diskcopy command, care must always be taken to clearly identify
which disk contains data (i.e. the source disk) and which disk is empty
(i.e. the destination disk). If this is not done, then it is possible to wipe
out everything on the source disk because you inadvertently copied the
contents of a blank disk to the data disk you intended to reproduce.

Procedure:
The format for DISKCOPY includes two parameters:
•Source Drive and
• Destination Drive.
To be able to execute the command, enter the following:
DISKCOPY A:B:
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This command will copy the contents of the entire drive A: to the one in
drive B:.
NB: Everything on the disk in B:, the destination drive, will be destroyed
by the operation. After the command, Dos will prompt you to insert the
disks.
You can as well specify DISKCOPY B:A: if you intend to copy from drive B:
to drive A:.
This method is often effective for disks that are full, otherwise we would
use the command:
COPY A:*.*B:
To copy all the files in drive A: with any extension to a disk in drive B. this
command as opposed to diskcopy, will always check for faulty areas on
the destination drive and mark them so that no data is kept in them.

h. SUMMARY

• An Operating System is a set of program “housed” within the system

software that standardizes the way the computer’s resources are
made available for the user to applications software.

• The functions of an operating system are the following: Memory

management, Input/Output management, Resource allocation, Error
handling, Provision for user interface, Interrupt handling, File
management and Job control.

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• Operating Systems could be single user of multi user. Ms-Dos

commands can be divided into File Management Commands and Disk
Management Commands. Some Dos commands are internal (or
resident) and some are external (non-resident or transient) which
means they have to be logged first before they can be used.

• Examples of file management commands are: Deleting, copying and

renaming files, viewing, changing and creating directories. Examples
of Disk Management commands are: Copying disks, labeling disks and
formatting disks.

• Resident Dos commands include: DIR, COPY and DISKCOPY, RENAME.

• Non-resident Dos commands include: FORMAT, SYS.

i. QUESTIONS

• Define the term Operating System.

• State and discuss functions of an Operating System.

• What are the two types of Operating Systems? Explain.

• List commands under the following headings:

o File management;
o Disk management;

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• What is the syntax of a Dos command?

• List some of the internal and external Dos commands that you know.

• What will the following Dos commands do?

o COPY DATA1 DATA2
o COPY DATA1 B:
o MD DATA3
o RENAME OLDNAME.TXT NEWNAME.TXT

• What is a Wildcard? Differentiate between Wildcard and Asterisk(*)

and (?).

• Explain what the following Dos Commands will do:

o COPY DATA *.*A:
o DISKCOPY A:B:
o DEL DATA*.DBF
o ERASE ?ATA*.*
o TYPE DATA*.*
o TYPE DATA*.DBF>PRN
• (i) What is formatting? Why is it important

(ii) How would you format a Diskette? How can you include an
Operating System to a formatted diskette?

• What are the two ways of Adding Dos to a formatted disk?

• Write down the command for Adding Volume Label to Disk.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Using Microcomputers - by Richard W. Brightman and Jeffrey M.

Dimsdale.

Computer Science - by C. S. French DP Publications ISBN 1 87398196 1

Computer Hardware and Organization - by M. E. Sloan 2nd Edition.

Computer Science for Beginners - by Rakesh Auplish.

Database Processing: Funtamentals, Design, Implementation - 2nd

Edition by David M. Kroenke.

Data Processing a First Course - by David Harrison

Computing - by Heathcate

IMIS IT 1 Manual

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