Compartment Fires and Tactical Ventilation

Issued under the authority of the Home Office
(Fire and Emergency Planning Directorate)
Fire Service Manual

Volume 2
Fire Service Operations
Compartment Fires
and
Tactical Ventilation
HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications Section

London: The Stationery Office
© Crown Copyright 1997
Published with the permission of the Home Office
on behalf of the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office
Applications for reproduction should be made in

writing to The Copyright Unit, Her Majesty's Stationery Office,
St. Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich, NR3 1BQ
ISBNO 11 341175 8
Printed in the United Kingdom for The Stationery Office

J30027 11/97 C50 13110
Compartment Fires
and
Preface
This book replaces Part 3, Book 12 of The Manual physics involved. Much of the operational experi-
of Firemanship, and the two supplements "The ence originates in the United States, but this book
Behaviour of Fire - Compartment Fires" and "The is intended to place this experience in the appro-
Behaviour of Fire - Tactical Ventilation of priate United Kingdom firefighting context.
Buildings & Structures". It contains and updates the
information previously given in those publications. The Home Office is indebted to all those who have
helped in the preparation of this work.
If readers wish to go into more detail they should
refer to the relevant text books. A brief bibliogra- Training Video
phy is given at the back.
The Home Office produced a three-part training
Part 1 - Compartment Fires video covering the above. The video, titled
'Compartment Fires and Tactical Ventilation', is
"Compartment Fires" attempts to address what available from:
firefighters need to know about compartment fires.
It tries to summarise, without going into theory, • The College Shop, Fire Service College,
what is understood about the early stages in the Moreton-in-Marsh, Glos GL56 0RH
growth of a fire in a compartment, leading to a
flashover and possibly backdraught, and the effect • Viewpoint Presentations Ltd
of ventilation. Oddfellows Hall, London Road,
Chipping Norton, Oxford 0X7 5AR
The definition of "backdraught" and "flashover" in
this book are based on the state of knowledge in • The Stationery Office
1995, rather than British Standard 4422:1987.
"Compartment Fires" supplements Books 1 and 11

of The Manual of Firemanship.
Part 2 - Tactical Ventilation

This Part attempts to bring together all the existing
advice available on the use of ventilation. Very
often, this advice is based on firefighters' experi-
ence, and has yet to be supported by experimental
verification. Nevertheless, it is based on good fire-
fighting practice, and a sound understanding of the
Compartment Fires and Tactical Ventilation iii

Compartment Fires
and
Contents
Part1: Compartment Fires 1
Chapter 1 The Fire 3
1 Combustion 3
2 Fire Growth 4
3 The Effects of Water 4
4 The Effect of Walls and the Ceiling on the Plume 4
5 Actions by Firefighters 5
6 The Effect of Ventilation 5
Chapter 2 Backdraughts 7
1 Reducing the Oxygen Supply to a Fire 7
2 The Definition of a Backdraught 7
3 Possible Backdraught Scenarios 7
4 Signs and Symptoms of a Backdraught 9
Aide Mémoire 1 11
Illustration of build up to Backdraught 12
Chapter 3 Flashovers 13
1 Fire Spread 13
2 Definition of a Flashover 14
3 Signs and Symptoms of a Flashover 14
Aide Mémoire 2 15
Illustration of build up to Flashover 16
Chapter 4 Firefighter Awareness 17

Bibliography 17
Part 2: Tactical Ventilation 19

Chapter 1 Introduction 21
1 Ventilation 21
2 Smoke 21
3 The Value of Ventilation 22
4 When to Use Ventilation 22
5 The Effect of Wind 22
6 Tactical Ventilation Techniques 22
7 Operational Command 23
Previous page
Compartment Fires and Tactical Ventilation V
is blank
Chapter 2 Assessing the Need for Ventilation 25
1 General 25
2 Where Ventilation May Be of Benefit 27
3 Assessing The Risks 28
4 How Ventilation Is to Be Achieved 28
Chapter 3 Horizontal Ventilation 31

1 General 31
2 The Physical Principles Involved 31
3 The Principles of Horizontal Ventilation 31
4 Methods of Making Vents 32
Chapter 4 Vertical Ventilation 35

1 General 35
2 Vertical Ventilation Safety 35
3 Methods of Making Vents 36
4 Offensive and Defensive Vertical Ventilation 37
Chapter 5 Forced Ventilation 39

1 General 39
2 Positive Pressure Ventilation 40
3 Negative Pressure Ventilation 40
(a) Fans 40
(b) Hoseline Branches 41
4 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning 42
5 Powered Smoke and Heat Exhaust Ventilation Systems 42
6 Safety Considerations 42
Chapter 6 Positive Pressure Ventilation 43

1 Introduction 43
2 Basic Fan Performance 43
3 Positioning the Fan 45
4 Fighting an Opposing Wind 45
5 Size and Location of the Fire Compartment 47
6 The Effect of Opening Vents 47
7 The Use of Multiple Fans 47
Chapter 7 Tactical Options with PPV - Defensive 49

1 Post Fire Smoke Clearance and Damping Down 49
2 Smoke Clearance as Part of Firefighting 50
Chapter 8 Tactical Options with PPV - Offensive 51

1 Domestic Premises 51
2 Stairwells 51
3 Corridors 51
4 Cellars 51
5 Small Workshops and Stores 52
6 Large Volumes 52
vi Fire Service Manual

Chapter 9 Ventilation Scenarios 53
1 Single Storey Warehouse/IndustrialBuilding/Sports Hall 53
(a) Construction 53
(b) Special Hazards 53
(c) Fire against End Wall 53
(d) Fire in Centre of Building 53
(e) Unidentified Fire Location 54
2 Two-Storey Warehouse/Industrial Building/Sports Hall 54
(a) Construction 54
(b) Fire on Ground Floor 54
(c) Fire on Upper Floor 54
3 Small Commercial Units 54
(a) Construction 54
(b) Fire Confined to Shop Unit 54
4 Low Rise Apartment Buildings 55
(a) Construction 55
(b) Fires in Accommodation Units 55
5 Two-Storey Residential House 55
(a) Construction 55
(b) Fire on Upper Level 55
(c) Fire on Lower Level 55
Chapter 10 Basements, Underground Structures and Tunnels 57

1 Introduction 57
2 Basements 57
3 Tunnels 58
(a) General Considerations 58
(b) Smoke Movement in Tunnels 58
(c) Fires on Trains or Vehicles in Motion 58
(d) Tunnels under Construction 58
(e) Ventilation Options 59
Chapter 11 High Rise Buildings and Malls 61

1 Introduction 61
2 The Stack Effect 62
3 Firefighting in High-Rise Structures 63
4 Built-in Smoke Ventilation Systems 64
5 The Effects of Wind 64
6 Ventilation below the Fire 64
7 Ventilation above the Fire 65
8 Ventilation of the Fire Floor 65
Chapter 12 Summary 67
Aide Mémoire 3 68
Glossary of Terms 69
Further Reading 71
Compartment Fires and Tactical Ventilation vii

Compartment Fires
Chapter 1 - The Fire
1 Combustion in wood. Eventually, if they get hot enough, the

remaining solids, such as charcoal in the case of
When a candle burns, the wax melts. The liquid is wood, will themselves start to burn.
drawn up the wick, where it turns into a flammable
vapour. It is this vapour which burns, forming the These gases rise in a plume (Figure l.l), and mix
flame. with air. If the gas/air mixture is correct, any given
ignition source (eg a flame or spark) will trigger
In the same way, in a fire in a compartment, it is the combustion process which will rapidly become
useful to think of all the combustible materials (the self-sustaining. The reactions which occur
fuel) as being sources of flammable gases. These between the flammable gases and the oxygen in
gases, which need not necessarily ignite, are gen- the air, generate large amounts of energy. This
erated when the fuel is heated. Initially the gases energy causes a rise in the temperature of the gases
result from the boiling off and decomposition produced in the reaction (the products of combus-
(pyrolysation) of hydrocarbons, such as the resin tion) and also appears as thermal radiation (heat)
and visible radiation (flame).
The high gas temperatures cause a vigorous

upward movement driven by buoyancy; this
induces mixing with the surrounding air by a
process known as entrainment.
Low down in the plume, the centre will be rich in

flammable gases and this will be surrounded by an
envelope of flame.
In the upper part of the plume, there is no flame. It

is a rising column of smoke which consists of large
amounts of entrained air, together with non-flam-
mable products of combustion (mainly carbon
dioxide and water), unburnt flammable gases and
minute particles (soot). The flammable gases in the
upper part of the fire are at too low a concentration
to burn.
The upper part of the flame is basically unstable,

producing the well-known flickering associated
with fires. In general, though, the average flame
height depends on the heat generated by the fire.
The hot plume radiates down on to the fuel, heat-

ing it, and so permitting the generation of flamma-
Figure 1.1 The Fire Plume ble gases to continue. In general, there will be suf-
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is blank Compartment Fires 3
ficient heat generated for the fire to spread as long at 100°C. The amount of energy necessary to do
as there is fuel nearby. However, during the early this (the latent heat of vaporisation) is far higher
stages of a fire, it is not the main cause of fire than is necessary to heat water up to its boiling
spread. Nevertheless, the effect of thermal radia- point. This energy has to come from somewhere.
tion can become more significant as the fire devel- When water is turned into steam, large amounts of
ops, as it is the cause of flashover. This is dis- energy are absorbed from the hot gases and fuel in
cussed later the fire, greatly cooling them.
2 Fire Growth When water is turned from a liquid into a gas,

another very important physical effect occurs - it
Rapid fire spread occurs when the flames come expands rapidly. If this were to happen in a sealed
into contact with new sources of fuel. This fuel compartment this would cause a dangerous rise in
will then be raised to very high temperatures, will pressure, but in a typical fire compartment, it caus-
itself start to generate flammable gases very quick- es a general outward flow of gases, driving the hot
ly and eventually ignite. However, until the hot gases out of the compartment and preventing fresh
gases in the plume have been cooled by mixing air from reaching the fire. This can pose a hazard
with sufficient cool air, they will also be hot to firefighters due to the risk of burns from the hot
enough to cause fuel to start giving off flammable gases and scalds from the steam.
gases, if they come into contact with it.
These physical properties of water can be used to
Thermal radiation from the plume is the main ele- produce a wide variety of effects in a compartment
ment in fire spread wherever there is no direct fire. In some circumstances the application of
flame impingement. Surrounding objects are heat- water can have a detrimental effect on fire fighting
ed until they in turn start to give off flammable but, properly applied:
gases.
• water directly cools the fuel to reduce further
The heat from the plume also heats up the air in the generation of flammable gases;
compartment as well as the walls, ceiling, floor • water is converted into steam in the plume
and contents. As little as one third of the heat from and the hot gases at ceiling level, absorbing
a compartment fire will leave the compartment as heat, so cooling them and reducing the radia-
hot smoke. As the compartment temperature rises, tion heating the fuel;
less and less heat from the plume can be absorbed
by the compartment's walls and contents. The • once converted into steam, water limits the
plume gets hotter and this increases the efficiency amount of oxygen reaching the flames,
of the combustion process. It also further heats the smothering them;
fuel, increasing the rate at which the gases are gen- • once converted into steam, water expands
erated. Thus, increasing compartment tempera- rapidly driving the products of combustion
tures will result in increased combustion, as long out of the compartment; and
as there is an adequate supply of oxygen.
• water cools the rest of the compartment,
3 The Effects of Water increasing the amount of heat it will absorb
from the plume, so cooling it further.
Water is a most efficient fire fighting agent. Apart
from its ready availability in most parts of the 4 The Effect of Walls and the
country, and its cheapness, it has a couple of phys- Ceiling on the Plume
ical properties which work to the firefighter's
advantage. Combustion in the plume requires the presence of
oxygen and the updraught from the plume draws
When any cold substance comes into contact with air in towards it. If the fire is in the centre of the
a hot one, heat is conducted from the hotter to the compartment, air will be drawn from all directions,
cooler. The important difference with cold water is although most will come from the direction of the
that it gets changed from a liquid into a gas (steam) primary air supply into the compartment.
4 Fire Service Manual

If the fire is at a wall, the plume may attach itself growth. Useful side effects of this are that, if the
to it. As air entrainment will only occur on one half air-flows are properly managed, air temperatures
of the plume, that half directly opposite the wall, it will be reduced and visibility will be increased,
will take longer for the flammable gases to burn making the firefighters' job easier. However, the
and the flame height will increase. firefighter should be aware that the increased air
supply may cause the fire to intensify. This is dis-
If the fire is in a corner, air entrainment can only cussed in more detail in the next section.
occur over a quarter of the plume, so the flame will
rise higher still. If the walls consist of flammable Ventilation is defined as:
materials, and the plume contacts them, they will
quickly become involved, further increasing the "The removal of heated air, smoke, or
flame height. other airborne contaminants from a
structure and their replacement with a
When the plume reaches the ceiling, it will spread supply of fresher air".
out, moving across the ceiling until it finds a way
out. If it can't at first find a way out, the products The basic principles of ventilation are:
of combustion will build up at ceiling level form-
• whenever possible, hot gases should be
ing a smoke layer with, sometimes, a clearly
released from high in the compartment, and
defined boundary between it and clear air. This
the replacement fresh air should be allowed
boundary closely matches the division between the
to enter at low level. This takes full advantage
cool gases at low level in the compartment, and the
of the buoyancy of the hot gases, and min-
hot gases at ceiling level, which can be at a tem-
imises mixing within the compartment. The
perature of many hundreds of degrees Centigrade.
two vents should be similar in size;
This boundary will descend as the fire grows. • the high level vent should be down-wind of
Once the products of combustion have found a the low level vent, to take advantage of air
way out, and the smoke supply from the plume flows induced by the wind;
matches the rate at which the smoke can leave the
• if it can be achieved, roof ventilation will be
compartment, a degree of stability will result for a
short while. The smoke boundary will stay rough- most effective and should be carried out as
ly at the same height. This boundary could be close to the fire as safety permits;
lower than half the height of the compartment, • the high level vent should be made before the
depending on the layout of windows and doors, low level vent;
and the relative sizes of the compartment and the
fire. • if possible, the compartment should be vent-
ed from outside the building. Any back-
draught would then be directed outwards,
5 Actions by Firefighters with less risk to firefighters. The initial fire-
ball might be spectacular, so the risk of ignit-
Firefighters should keep low in fires, to stay below
ing the building's eaves and surrounding risks
this boundary. It must be remembered that the
would have to be considered, and charged
insulation in firefighters' clothing only serves to
branches made available to cover them; and
delay the time when they start to become uncom-
fortably hot and have to withdraw. If firefighters • the hot gases in the compartment can be
are to remain capable of working for any length of cooled to reduce the potential for a back-
time inside a building on fire, they must avoid con- draught, and the hot gases coming out of the
tact with hot gases whenever possible. vent can be cooled to prevent their ignition.
Sprays and fogs have been found to be more
6 The Effect of Ventilation effective than jets at this. However, water
should not be directed in through the hot gas
The purpose of ventilation during a fire is to vent, as this may prevent the gases from
release the products of combustion from the com- escaping and drive fresh air in, inducing a
partment so as to prevent them causing further fire backdraught.
Compartment Fires 5
Compartment Fires
Chapter 2 - Backdraughts
1 Reducing the Oxygen Supply This deflagration moving through the compart-
to a Fire ment and out of the opening is a backdraught.
In general, the hot gases generated in the plume 3 Possible Backdraught Scenarios
will rise extremely rapidly and will draw air in
towards the fire. If there is an adequate air supply, There are two different backdraught scenarios, any
the fire will continue to burn and grow as long as one of which could be awaiting the firefighter.
there is fuel available.
• If the fire is still burning in the compartment
If the air supply to the compartment is restricted, when the firefighter opens the door, and especially
the oxygen in the air inside may be used up more if the combustion gases are not escaping, the air
quickly than it can be replaced. The net effect will which enters through the door may mix with the
be a progressive lowering of the concentration of flammable gases, forming an explosive mixture.
oxygen in the gases in the compartment possibly
combined with an increase in the temperature in If the gases in the compartment are hot enough,
the compartment. they will then ignite on their own (auto-ignite) at
the doorway, and the flame will spread back into
As the oxygen concentration in the compartment the compartment along with the fresh air supply.
reduces, the flames will start to die down, but this This would result in rapid fire growth, but not nec-
will not immediately result in a reduction in the essarily in a backdraught.
production of flammable gases. Although the radi-
ated heat from the plume reduces, the compartment If the compartment gases are not that hot, they will
is still very hot, and nothing has happened to cool be ignited when sufficient oxygen has reached the
the fuel. There may still be flames present, or they gases surrounding the fire. Flame will then travel
may die out altogether. Depending on the relative across the compartment towards the door, resulting
sizes of the fire and the compartment at this stage, in flame shooting out of the door (Figure 2.1), dri-
sufficient flammable gases may be generated to ven by the expanding gases behind it. It is not easy
spread throughout the compartment. This requires to predict whether this will actually happen, or
only a new supply of oxygen caused for example how long it will take, once the door has been
by opening a door, for it to form an explosive mix- opened. This will depend on where the fire is in the
ture with potentially lethal consequences - a compartment, the rate at which air flows in
BACKDRAUGHT. through the door, and whether the hot gases can
escape without mixing with the incoming air.
2 The Definition of a Backdraught
• A more dangerous situation can occur when
Limited ventilation can lead to a fire in a compart- the fire in the compartment has almost died out.
ment producing fire gases containing significant When the door is opened, the air flows in and an
proportions of partial combustion products and un- explosive mixture may be generated, but nothing
burnt pyrolysis products. If these accumulate then happens because there is now no immediate source
the admission of air when an opening is made to of ignition. If the firefighters now enter the com-
the compartment can lead to a sudden deflagration. partment, their activities -for example, turning over
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is blank Compartment Fires 7
Figure 2.1
A Backdraught
may expose a source of ignition, initiating a can be ignited. Cold smoke explosions occur in
delayed backdraught but now with them inside the this way.
compartment and surrounded in flame (Figure
2.2). The situation can be further complicated if signifi-
cant amounts of the flammable gases in the com-
This can still occur even when the fire is apparent- partment have managed to escape into surrounding
ly out and the compartment has cooled down. areas. Areas other than the closed compartment
Foam rubber, in particular, can smoulder for a long could then contain explosive atmospheres, waiting
time, producing flammable gases. Whenever, for a source of ignition. Most at risk is the area
flammable gases remain in the compartment, they directly outside the compartment (Figure 2.3),
Figure 2.2 A Delayed

Backdraught

Figure 2.3 A Flammable
Gas Explosion Outside
the Compartment
exactly where the firefighters are waiting when pulsing out of the hole. Fresh air is drawn in as the
they open the door. When the door is opened, flam- fire cools slightly and the hot gases contract. This
mable gases outside the compartment may be produces a local explosive mixture which burns,
ignited by a backdraft within the compartment, by resulting in a mini-backdraught. The expansion of
embers flying through the open door, or by the hot the hot gases in turn drives some smoke out of the
gases if they are at their auto-ignition temperature. compartment.
It is even possible, though unlikely, for other areas
of the building to be involved in a backdraught, This cycle repeats itself at a frequency which
ignited without there being a backdraught in the depends on the size of the hole and the location of
original compartment. Flammable gases outside the fire relative to it.
the compartment may be ignited by embers flying
through the open door, or if the hot gases in the If there is a gap under the compartment door, there
doorway auto-ignite. may be smoke pulsing there due to the mini-back-
draught effect already described. There may be a
4 Signs and Symptoms of whistling noise if air is being drawn into the com-
a Backdraught partment through very small gaps around the door,
but this could be difficult to hear. The door may be
The first clue to the possibility of a backdraught is hot on the outside. In particular, the door handle
the history of the fire: if the fire has been burning may be hot if there is a metal rod linking it to the
for some time, has generated lots of smoke which door handle on the other side.
is now leaking out from the building, and has
apparently died down without major areas of flame If the compartment has been left long enough for it
being visible from outside, the possibility is that it to cool down, air will no longer be drawn in, and
has died down from oxygen starvation. the smoke pulsing effect will not be evident.
However, if the compartment has not been venti-
When the building is viewed from outside, it is lated and there are still flammable gases present, a
likely that the windows of the compartment con- backdraught is still possible.
cerned will be blackened with no obvious flames
within. If part of a window is broken, it is possible If the decision is taken to open the door, there may
that this will not provide sufficient oxygen to feed be an in-rush of air as soon as the door is ajar,
the fire. In this case it is likely that smoke will be showing either that there is a shortage of oxygen in
Compartment Fires 9
the compartment, or that the compartment has for things to change and for fresh air to enter whilst
been much hotter and is starting to cool. Small the firefighters are inside. It is difficult to be sure -
flames may appear where the gases from the room a window might shatter, someone might unwit-
are meeting the relatively fresh air outside, indi- tingly open another door to the compartment. The
cating that there are flammable gases in the room far safer solution is to remove the flammable gases
which are sufficiently hot to ignite given a source from the compartment - ventilation.
of fresh air, even without any other source of igni-
tion. In either case, it may still be possible to close It is important to recognise that ventilation
the door before sufficient air has entered the com- requires that fresh air should be let into the com-
partment to trigger any possible backdraught. partment. Thus, there is the possibility that a back-
draught may occur during ventilation, so appropri-
5 Actions by Firefighters ate precautions should be taken.
Once the door has been opened on to a compart- If it is decided that a compartment needs to be ven-
ment with an oxygen starved fire and fresh air has tilated and once the method of ventilation has been
been allowed in, there is little which can be done selected by the Officer-in-Charge of the incident:
to prevent a backdraught happening. It is far better
to make appropriate decisions before the door is • branches must be charged and in position
ever opened. prior to any ventilation being carried out;
When firefighters are faced with a closed door, and • firefighters must get down low, and well clear
do not know what is behind it, they should check of the likely flame path back through the vent
for any of the signs and symptoms described above opening, should a back-draught occur; and
before opening it, covering the door with a charged
branch, should they decide to open it. If there is a • it must be remembered that a backdraught
build-up of smoke outside the compartment, the could be delayed several minutes and that it
possibility of backdraught can be reduced by might have sufficient energy to break other
spraying these gases before the compartment door windows in the compartment.
is opened. The firefighters should be ready to close
the door quickly, if a backdraught appears likely. No compartment can be considered safe from a
This may not prevent the backdraught but may backdraught until it has been opened to fresh air
direct its force away from the firefighters. for some time. However, once the compartment
has been properly ventilated, fire fighters can tack-
If firefighters believe that opening a compartment le the fire knowing that there is no longer any pos-
door may lead to a backdraught, opening that door sibility of backdraught.
must be as a result of a deliberate decision. As long
as the compartment door is closed, firefighters
have time to think about their actions. Once the
door is open, they will only have time to react to
events as they occur. Whilst the decision about the
timing of opening the door can only rest with the
firefighters who form the fire fighting crew at the
scene, the consequences of that decision ultimate-
ly lie with the Officer-in-Charge of the incident.
However, the compartment will still have to be

inspected at some stage. The priority is then to
make it safe for the firefighters to enter. As already
described, a backdraught can only occur when
fresh air is permitted to enter the compartment. It
is possible for firefighters to operate in a flamma-
ble atmosphere provided there is no opportunity

Aide Mémoire
1
Compartment Fires 11
Backdraught created using the
Fire Experimental Unit Simulator
A sequence of photographs from a backdraught
simulator filmed at the Home Office's Fire
Experimental Unit Simulation laboratory at
Moreton-in-Marsh.
A methane flame has been burning in the compart-

ment for some time, heating the ceiling and con-
suming the oxygen. The flame has gone out due to
a shortage of oxygen, but the methane supply has
continued, as though fuel in the compartment were
still pyrolising. The door at the left hand end of the
compartment is opened after 6 min 0 sees, and an
ignition source is turned on at the right hand end
5 seconds later.
Fresh air has flowed into the

bottom of the compartment and
hot gases have flowed out of the
top. At the interface between the
air and the methane, a flammable
mixture has been created. This has
ignited. Turbulence is mixing the
gases further, and the products of
combustion are expanding.
The flame travels along the gas/air

interface, and searches for any-
where a flammable mixture is
available. Unburnt flammable
gases are being driven out of the
compartment door by the expan-
sion of the gases after combustion.
The flame now fills most of the

compartment, and the jet of
unburnt flammable gases is extend-
ing outside the compartment.
The flame drives out of the com-

partment and ignites the flamma-
ble methane/air mixture outside.
A massive fireball seeks out every

available space around the com-
partment door.
I2 Fire Service Manual

Compartment Fires
Chapter 3 - Flashovers
1 Fire Spread The flame height will increase until it reaches the
ceiling. The flame will now start to spread across
It has already been described in Chapter 1 Section the compartment in the hot gas layer (Figure 3.2),
4 how a smoke layer will build up when smoke with the flame appearing both at ceiling level
cannot escape from a compartment as quickly as it above the plume, where air has been entrained, and
is generated (Figure 3.1). However, if there is at the boundary between the hot gas layer and clear
unburnt fuel in the compartment, things will not air, as this is where the flammable gas in the ceil-
stay stable for long. Initially, the flame in the plume ing layer can react with the oxygen.
will not reach the ceiling and fire spread will be
limited to flammable materials close to the seat of Once flame has started to spread across the com-
the fire, ignited by radiated heat from the plume. partment at the boundary level, this will greatly
increase the thermal radiation from the hot prod-
ucts of combustion already built up there. The
other flammable materials in the compartment will
now start to rise in temperature very rapidly. Not
only are they being heated from the side by the
plume, they are also being heated from above,
where the flames and the hot products of combus-
tion could be much closer, depending on the height
of the boundary.
In large compartments with higher ceilings, flame

and the hot products of combustion may spread at
ceiling level without getting low enough to cause
nearby fuel sources to start giving off flammable
Figure 3.1 The Build-up of the Smoke Layer gases.
However, it may be that, at some distance from the

fire, either a discontinuity in the ceiling causes the
hot gases to swirl lower, or there is a high pile of
flammable material. In either of these cases, the
source of thermal radiation has been brought clos-
er to the fuel, and ignition may result. By this
mechanism, fire spread can cut firefighters off
from their means of escape.
As the hot smoke layer descends, and particularly

if there is a low ceiling, all the remaining contents
in the compartment will now be heated to the stage
when they will themselves start to give off flam-
Figure 3.2 Flame in the Smoke Layer mable gases (Figure 3.3). It is then only a matter of
from above. This will be felt by the firefighters as a
rapid increase in the temperature in the compart-
ment, and in the heat from the hot gases at ceiling
level, forcing them down low. If they can see above
them, they will be able to see tongues of flame run-
ning through the gas layer. In addition, other com-
bustible materials within the compartment will be
giving off visible smoke, and flammable gases.
4 Actions by Firefighters
As the main reason for a flashover is radiation
from the hot gases and flames above them, the log-
Figure 3.3 Rapid Heating of All Combustible Materials ical solution is to cool this area. This will have the
effect of reducing the flames and radiated heat, and
causing the smoke layer to lift. Directing a spray at
time before there is a sudden change in the size of the ceiling will have this effect. However, too
the fire, if no action is taken to prevent it. The much water will cause the generation of large
smaller the compartment, the sooner these condi- amounts of steam. Too much cooling will bring the
tions are likely to be encountered. smoke layer down, obscuring everything.
Once flammable gases are being given off by the In these circumstances, it will be most effective for
majority of the compartment contents, the transi- the firefighters to attack the hot gases with pulses
tion from a localised fire to total involvement can of spray, observing their effect, and so judging
take a matter of seconds - a FLASHOVER. when sufficient water has been applied.
2 Definition of a Flashover Once the immediate danger of a flashover has been

eliminated, the next steps depend on whether
In a compartment fire there can come a stage flashover conditions could re-develop before the
where the total thermal radiation from the fire fire can be extinguished. If this is likely, it is
plume, hot gases and hot compartment boundaries important to ventilate the fire as soon as possible.
causes the generation of flammable products of
pyrolisis from all exposed combustible surfaces If the hot gases are released faster than they are
within the compartment. Given a source of igni- generated, the smoke layer will reduce, and the
tion, this will result in the sudden and sustained risk of flashover will reduce. Built-in roof vents
transition of a growing fire to a fully developed are designed to do exactly this, either automatical-
fire. This is called flashover. ly, or when operated by the fire service. However,
it is important that the correct vents are opened.
It can be seen that, according to this definition, a The further from the fire that the vent is, the fur-
backdraught can be a special case of a flashover. If ther the hot gases have to travel, and the more the
the backdraught results in a sustained fully devel- chance of fire spread.
oped fire, a flashover has occurred. Nevertheless,
it is important to be able to draw a distinction Where there are no built-in vents, firefighters have
between the two because the implications for fire- the option of making their own. It must be remem-
fighters are very different. bered, however, that incorrect use of ventilation
can result in increased fire-spread at high level as
3 Signs and Symptoms of hot gases are channelled into areas they might oth-
a Flashover erwise have taken longer to reach.
The primary requirement for a flashover to occur is

that there should be significant thermal radiation

Aide Mémoire
2
Build up to Flashover
A sequence of photographs from an enclosed

room-fire filmed at the Home Office's Fire
Experimental Unit Still-Air laboratory at Little
Rissington.
The fire starts in a waste paper

basket.
A smoke layer is starting to build

up in the room. The plume has yet
to reach the ceiling. Temperatures
at ceiling level are rising.
The smoke layer is getting thicker

and the fire is starting to spread to
nearby furniture. The flames have
not yet reached the ceiling.
The smoke layer has descended to

one metre above the floor, and
there is flame in the smoke. All
other furniture in the room is
pyrolising.
Flashover has occurred. The flame

totally fills the compartment.

Compartment Fires
Chapter 4 - Firefighter Awareness
Officers have the important responsibility of

deciding whether to commit breathing apparatus
teams inside a building. It is essential that they are
aware of the potential for backdraughts and, where
their occurrence is more likely, the outside of the
building must be checked for indications of a pos-
sible backdraught, and appropriate warnings must
be given to the crews before they are committed.
It is essential that, from the moment firefighters

enter a building, they are constantly aware of the
possibilities of backdraught and flashover, and that
they stop, look and think before they open any
door inside a building.
Bibliography
Drysdale, D. 1985 An Introduction to Fire
Dynamics, John Wiley and Sons
Wharry, D. 1974 Fire Technology - Chemistry and

Combustion, The Institution of Fire Engineers
Chapter 1 - Introduction
1 Ventilation When tactical ventilation is used before extinction,

it can have an effect on fire spread. This can be
Ventilation is defined as: either beneficial or detrimental, depending on the
judgement and skill of the firefighters.
"The removal of heated air, smoke and
other airborne contaminants from a 2 Smoke
structure, and their replacement with a
supply of fresher air". Smoke is generally a mixture of fine solid parti-
cles, droplets of water and other liquids, and gases
In firefighting, there are a number of additional given off by the materials involved in the fire. It is
terms which are used: generally toxic. The amount of smoke generated
by a fire is dependent on the size of the fire and the
Self Ventilation occurs when the fire damages the material being burnt. Its behaviour and movement
structure so that increased ventilation occurs. depends upon its temperature. The fire will heat
the air and smoke surrounding it and, since hot air
Automatic Ventilation occurs when pre-installed is more buoyant than cold air, it will tend to rise
vents are activated automatically, usually in the very rapidly and with great force. When the hot
early stages of the fire, by the fire detection system smoke and air cools this effect will cease and the
or fusible link devices. smoke will tend to form layers. Movement of the
smoke will then be more influenced by air turbu-
Tactical Ventilation requires the intervention of lence caused by the making of openings into the
the fire service to open up the building, releasing compartment, the movement of people and the use
the products of combustion and allowing fresher of branches etc, than the temperature.
air to enter.
It is essential to remember two important features
This manual is concerned with tactical ventilation, of smoke:
although many of the effects which will be
described, will also occur during the other types of • It can burn. Some of the products of combus-
ventilation. tion may not be fully burnt because of a short-
age of oxygen or the absence of a source of
Tactical ventilation can only occur once the fire ignition. Given a new source of fresh air, and
service attends a fire, and so usually occurs later a source of ignition, it can re-ignite, some-
than automatic ventilation. It can be used at vari- times with explosive results - a backdraught.
ous stages of a fire: If the smoke is hot enough, re-ignition can
occur without a separate source of ignition.
• after arrival of the fire service but before con-
trol is achieved; • It can be hot. It may be sufficiently hot to
ignite flammable materials with which it
• after control but before fire extinction; comes into contact. It will also be radiating
heat, and this may be sufficient to ignite other
• after fire extinction. sources of fuel in a compartment.
Previous page
is blank Tactical Ventilation 21
Two of the phenomena which can be caused Often the fire's location can be determined from out-
by smoke, 'Flashover' and 'Backdraught', are side the building. On occasions, tactical ventilation
described in the Part 1: Compartment Fires. can be used to clear smoke to help locate the fire.
Tactical ventilation is one of the techniques which
can be used to prevent flashover and backdraught, In most cases, where ventilation is considered a
or to mitigate their effects. suitable tactic, it is most effective if used in the
early stages of firefighting. However, the uncon-
3 The Value of Ventilation trolled movement of hot gases inside the building
is the main cause of fire spread, so the decision to
Like any other tactical option available to the commence tactical ventilation must be as part of
firefighter, tactical ventilation can make things an overall strategy of controlling air movements
worse if it is applied incorrectly. Properly used, within the building.
it can have significant beneficial effects on fire
fighting: 5 The Effect of Wind
· it can assist escape by restricting the spread Wind strength and direction are usually the domi-
nating factors in tactical ventilation. In most cases,
of smoke, improving visibility and extending
available egress times; it will determine the direction in which the smoke
and hot gases will move within the building.
· it can aid rescue operations by reducing
It is unlikely to be possible to fight against the pre-
smoke and toxic gases, which hinder search
activities and endanger trapped occupants; vailing wind by using fans to force air into the
building. The efficiency of this tactic will depend
· it can improve the safety of firefighters by on the capacity of the fans, when compared with
the wind strength. If the wind is too strong, it will
reducing the risk of flashover and back-
draught, and making it easier to control the still dominate.
effects of backdraught;
6 Tactical Ventilation Techniques
· it can speed attack and extinguishment by
All ventilation techniques depend on planning
removing heat and smoke so that firefighters
where fresh air will be allowed to enter the build-
can enter a compartment earlier and, with
ing, where hot gases and smoke will be allowed to
improved visibility, make it easier for fire-
leave the building and, if possible, the routes they
fighters to locate and deal with the fire;
will follow within the building.
· it can reduce property damage by making it There are two basic options:
possible for the fire to be located and tackled
more quickly; · Vertical or Top Ventilation - making an
opening at high level (usually through the
it can restrict fire spread by limiting the roof) so that the buoyancy of the hot gases
movement of smoke and hot gases. and smoke enables them to escape vertically
(See Figure 1.1).
4 When to Use Ventilation
Like any other technique available to the firefight-
· Horizontal or Cross Ventilation - making
openings in the external walls (for example
er, tactical ventilation needs to be borne in mind using windows and doors) so that the wind
when assessing how to tackle a fire. assists in the removal of the hot gases and
smoke (See Figure 1.2).
In the majority of instances, tactical ventilation
should not be used until the fire has been located In both cases, it is possible to accelerate ventilation
and, in all cases, an assessment must be made of by the use of fans or blowers. In this manual, two
the likely effects of ventilation. terms are used:

Figure 1.1 Vertical
Ventilation
• Natural Ventilation describes collectively or in providing a supply of fresh air. It

the techniques of vertical and horizontal ven- includes the use of both fans and water sprays
tilation when they are not assisted by when used to drive the flow of fire gases or of
mechanical means. This includes the use of fresh air.
pre-installed vents, windows, doors etc.
7 Operational Command
• Forced Ventilation describes collectively the
techniques of vertical and horizontal ventila- Ventilation can only be one element of the overall
tion when mechanical means are used to firefighting strategy. It must be co-ordinated with
assist in removing the hot gases and smoke, other activities to ensure that differing require-
Figure 1.2 Horizontal

Ventilation
Tactical Ventilation 23
ments do not come into conflict. The decision to
use forced ventilation will have further implica-
tions both for safety and for resources.
Sound tactical decisions, taken by officers respon-

sible for the management of an incident, and effec-
tive fireground communications, are essential for
the safe use of ventilation.
Any firefighters inside the building need to be able

to inform the Officer-in-Charge of the conditions
within the building, and are likely to be in the best
position to advise on whether tactical ventilation is
likely to be effective. In particular, they may be
best placed to assess whether there are compart-
ments where there is a risk of a backdraught.
If the Officer-in-Charge decides that ventilation

will be initiated, the firefighters inside must first
be informed. The Officer-in-Charge may decide to
evacuate the building whilst ventilation takes place
and until conditions have stabilised. Particular care
should be taken of the safety of firefighters on
storeys above the fire when ventilation is initiated.
If it is decided that the firefighters shall remain

within the building, they will need to be able to
inform the Officer-in-Charge when they are ready
for ventilation to commence, and to report on the
progress of the ventilation. These firefighters need
a hoseline to protect themselves.
Firefighters outside the building also need to have

their activities co-ordinated. The firefighters mak-
ing the outlet vent are likely to be out of sight of
the inlet vent, but it is important that ventilation
activities occur in the correct sequence.
Whilst the fire is being fought, vents should only

be opened as part of the ventilation plan. Care
should also be taken to ensure that key doors are
not accidentally opened or closed during firefight-
ing operations. Once the fire has been extin-
guished, ventilation can be increased.

Chapter 2 - Assessing the need

for ventilation
1 General and voids, thus increasing the likelihood of fire
spread. Again, these systems can be used as part of
When the Officer-in-Charge is deciding on the tactical ventilation but only to provide a supply of
overall strategy at a fire, ventilation is one of the fresh air, acting as an inlet vent. They should not
factors which should be born in mind from the out- be used to provide an outlet vent unless the
set. Some situations cannot justify its use, particu- Officer-in-Charge is certain that this will not lead
larly where the hot gases and smoke are not a seri- to fire spread.
ous problem, although it may still be necessary to If it is decided that tactical ventilation is required,
ventilate after the fire has been extinguished, in the objective of its use should be identified before
order to remove residual smoke from the structure. commencing operations. The technique to be
adopted will vary, depending on what is expected
One critical factor may be the presence of built-in of it. In particular, the approach can be:
ventilation systems. These may be specifically
designed for fire ventilation, but even then it is • Offensive - ventilating close to the fire to
important that they are used correctly. They may have a direct effect on the fire itself, to limit
already have activated automatically, in which fire spread, and to make conditions safer for
case any decision to reverse this by manual inter- the firefighters (See Figure 2.1); or
vention with the system, is as critical as a decision
to start ventilation. • Defensive - ventilating away from the fire, or
after the fire is out, to have an effect on the
Built-in air conditioning systems can be equally hot gases and smoke, particularly to improve
important. If they are still operating, they may be access and escape routes and to control
supplying fresh air to the fire, and may be drawing smoke movement to areas of the building not
the hot products of combustion into hidden ducts involved in the fire (See Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.1 Offensive

Ventilation
Figure 2.2 Defensive
Ventilation
Figure 2.3 Mitigating

a Backdraught

These two objectives can be met at the same time, lation could release the gases externally, directing
for example to maintain a safe egress whilst offen- any flame or explosion away from firefighters and
sive operations take place. other fire risks (See Figure 2.3).
2 Where Ventilation May Be of If there is a lot of hot gas and smoke in a compart-
Benefit ment, with flame travelling horizontally at ceiling
level, there is a significant risk of rapid fire spread
Ventilation can be useful whenever the removal of and possibly flashover. These gases need to be
hot gases and smoke will make firefighting opera- ventilated as close to the fire as safety permits, and
tions easier and safer. preferably at high level. If the only possible vent is
some distance from the fire, it must be expected
If there is the risk of a backdraught, the compart- that fire will spread along the route to that vent
ment concerned has to be cleared of flammable once ventilation commences.
gases in a controlled manner. If the compartment
door is opened, that is the most likely route for the If the escape route from the building contains
backdraught, endangering the firefighters in the smoke, and there are still persons in the building,
vicinity of the open door. Properly applied, venti- ventilation can clear that route (See Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4 Clearing an

Escape Route and
Improving Firefighters'
Access
If firefighters are hampered in reaching the fire can result in severe damage to property. The cor-
because the route they have to follow is smoke- rect use of ventilation can reduce this risk, whilst
logged, ventilation will help to improve visibility, its incorrect use can make it far worse.
speeding access. It may also be of benefit where
sprinklers have operated and cooled the smoke, The Officer-in-Charge should consider the possi-
causing smoke-logging. bility of withdrawing the firefighters from part or
all of the building whilst fresh air is being let into
If there has been a build up of hot gases within the the compartment, particularly if the fresh air route
building so that conditions for the firefighers are is likely to become the path for any backdraught.
very arduous, ventilation can produce a much
more tolerable environment, increasing a firefight- Where it is felt that defensive ventilation is more
er's working duration. appropriate, the risks and benefits are proportion-
ately less. It is, however, necessary to select an
3 Assessing the Risks appropriate route for the air flow from the inlet
vent to the outlet vent, to minimise the chances of
The main risk in using offensive ventilation tech- this fresh air affecting the fire compartment.
niques is that the introduction of fresh air may
result in fire growth and, perhaps, even back- Defensive ventilation does not have to form part of
draught. However, if a backdraught occurs, it is a major attack on a fire. It can be part of the build
probable that the conditions necessary were up to this attack, clearing escape and attack routes,
already in being, and it would have occurred with- or part of continuing operations once the fire is
out the commencement of tactical ventilation. under control.
Provided that sufficient fuel is present, fire growth 4 How Ventilation is to Be Achieved
may occur in the area surrounding the fire, and/or
along the route to the outlet vent. Hot smoke and This will always depend on the circumstances at
gases may also ignite as they are vented and meet the fire, but there are a number of guidelines to be
fresh air. For this reason, it is preferable to vent the followed. The principal decision is whether to use
compartment directly to the outside. Horizontal Ventilation or Vertical Ventilation, and
secondly whether to adopt an offensive or a defen-
The correct use of offensive ventilation can reduce sive approach.
the risk of fire spread by removing the hot gases
whilst allowing fresh air in. However, offensive In both cases, the major factors to be considered are
ventilation should never commence until appropri- the design of the building, the location, size and
ately protected firefighters are on hand with severity of the fire, and the wind speed and direction.
charged hoselines. This does not mean that the fire
must necessarily be surrounded before ventilation Horizontal Ventilation may be appropriate where:
commences. The initiation of offensive ventilation
constitutes one of the elements in a major attack on • vertical ventilation is not possible due to the
the fire, but it cannot be treated as an attack in its character of the building;
own right.
• it is not safe to commit firefighters to open a
The decision to ventilate offensively involves a vent in the roof;
balance between the risk of fire spread, and the
improved conditions around the fire. The time and • the fire is not large enough to necessitate
resources necessary to set up ventilation will also opening of the roof;
be factors which need to be considered.
• there are windows and doors close to the seat
Smoke-logging can occur in parts of the building of the fire;
not involved in the fire. This can cause hazards
both to occupants trying to escape, and to fire- · the fire and the products of combustion are
fighters involved in tasks away from the fire, and not being carried into other floors;

• the fire has not entered structural voids or
concealed spaces.
Vertical ventilation may be appropriate where:
• the fire is in, or has spread to, the roof space;
• horizontal ventilation would be difficult, for

example, in windowless buildings with few
external doors;
• there are tall vertical shafts, such as light

wells or elevators;
• the fire has entered structural voids or con-

cealed spaces.
In general, the used of forced ventilation (e.g. fans

etc.) will speed up whatever ventilation process is
selected.
Horizontal Ventilation is most effective where the

outlet vent can be placed high on the downwind
side of the building, and the inlet vent is low on the
upwind side. If the only suitable windows and
doors are all on the same side of the building, the
use of natural ventilation may not be very effec-
tive, as the pressure of the wind will act equally on
the inlet and outlet vents.
In these circumstances, the cool air will enter at

low level, and the hot gases will come out at high
level. Forced ventilation may offer some improve-
ment where it does not result in flame being driven
at the firefighters.
Chapter 3 - Horizontal Ventilation
1 General Away from the fire, the wind effects are likely to
be dominant.
Horizontal ventilation is the most frequently used
form of ventilation because, in the majority of sit- 3 The Principles of Horizontal
uations, it is the most appropriate method with Ventilation
which to ventilate the building, and is often the
easiest. Also, firefighters entering a building for Ventilation requires the controlled release of
search and rescue or fire attack start a form of hor- smoke and hot, possibly flammable, gases from a
izontal ventilation by opening doors or windows to building, and their replacement by fresher air.
make entry.
The operative word in this description is 'con-
Many fires in buildings do little damage by direct trolled'. Opening doors and windows at random
burning, yet produce fairly large volumes of smoke. can make matters worse, causing fire spread and
These situations may only require that the windows increased smoke damage, and increasing the possi-
and doors of the affected compartments be opened bility of a backdraught.
to allow the residual smoke to be ventilated.
The firefighter should first seek to release the
In other situations, such as dealing with a severe products of combustion on the downwind side of
fire below the top floor of a building, horizontal the building, from as high in the compartment as
ventilation may also be beneficial. possible.
This section describes the technique of horizontal Then, once the outlet vent has been opened, an
ventilation, and the ways in which it can be inlet vent should be created on the upwind side of
achieved. the building, and as low in the compartment as
possible, to take advantage of the buoyancy of the
2 The Physical Principles Involved smoke and hot gases.
Smoke movement is caused by two factors: the For Defensive ventilation, the location of the vents
wind, and the temperature (and hence the buoyan- is determined by the route between them. The
cy) of the gases. overall objective is to let fresh air into as much of
the building as possible. The building layout will
The relative significance of these will depend on determine the route the air takes, once the vents are
their magnitudes. Close to a fire, the buoyancy opened. Their locations need to be chosen to avoid
effects are likely to be dominant. directing fresh air towards the site of the fire.
When the smoke and gases from a fire are hot, For Offensive ventilation, the outlet vent should
their buoyancy will increase and they will rise. If be as close to the fire as practicable. It is desirable
they are very hot, they will rise very rapidly. In to use the firefighters' route to the fire as the inlet
some circumstances, large volumes of air can then vent, as this reduces smoke and heat along their
be entrained, greatly increasing the air and smoke route, making their job safer and more tolerable.
flows involved.
In this case, the gases coming out of the vent are above the fire - especially where their access
likely to be very hot, and possibly flammable. and/or escape routes run through part of the fresh
Flames are likely to appear outside the vent if the air inlet path (e.g. where the fresh air inlet path
smoke and gases are above their auto-ignition tem- occupies part of a stairwell).
perature. There is a risk of fire spread.
4 Methods of Making Vents
Therefore, before the outlet vent is opened, its
position must be covered by an appropriately pro- If inside, the simplest method of making a vent,
tected firefighter with a charged branch. This doing the least damage, is to open a window or door.
branch can be used to cool the smoke and gases as If possible, the top of a window should be opened to
they come out, but under no circumstances should make an outlet vent, and the bottom of a window
the water be directed in through the vent, as long opened to make an inlet vent. (See Figure 3.1)
as ventilation is in progress. This will interfere
with the ventilation process and could place fire-
fighters inside the building at risk.
If the compartment containing the fire has become

oxygen starved, there is the risk of a backdraught.
Creating an outlet vent to this compartment may
trigger a backdraught, but the risk of this is min-
imised if the vent is high in the compartment, and
on the downwind side, allowing the release of hot
gases without mixing them in the room with fresh
air.
If all other exits from the compartment are closed,

the force of any backdraught will be directed out
of the vent. The firefighters making the vent
should take appropriate precautions, such as keep-
ing well clear of the path of any possible back-
draught, wearing breathing apparatus, staying low
and having a charged branch available for use.
The introduction of fresher air is the most likely

trigger for a backdraught. Ventilation of an oxygen
Figure 3.1 Clearing a room of smoke by opening window
starved compartment is an inherently dangerous one third at the bottom and two thirds at the top
activity for those inside the building. Once the out-
let vent has been made, the hot smoke and gases
will be released, and the temperature in the com- It is preferable to open windows, rather than to
partment should reduce. However, the compart- break them, because they can then be closed again
ment can only have become oxygen starved if necessary.
because there is an inadequate supply of fresh air
into it, so an inlet route for fresher air has to be This should be done from outside whenever possi-
established as soon as practicable, or the potential ble. In some circumstances, windows may have to
for a backdraught could remain. be smashed (See Figure 3.2), but care has to be
taken from three points of view:
The Officer-in-Charge should consider withdraw-
ing the firefighters from part or all of the building • the hot smoke coming out of the newly-made
whilst fresh air is being let into the compartment, vent will rise, and may hug the surface of a
if the fresh air route is likely to become the path for wall or steeply-sloping roof above the vent.
any backdraught. Particular consideration should Firefighters opening a vent should never
be given to the safety of any firefighters on storeys position themselves above the vent being cut.

• letting fresh air into a compartment may result In some light-weight buildings, it may be possible
in a backdraught, so firefighters should not be to make a hole through the wall. Again, the fire-
directly in front of the window. They should fighters should avoid being in line with the hole, in
be as far to the side of the window as is prac- case of a backdraught.
tical, reaching sideways, using an appropriate
tool such as an axe or ceiling hook. If working Whilst the fire is being fought, vents should only
from a ladder or aerial appliance, particular be opened as part of the ventilation plan. Care
care needs to be taken to ensure that the head should also be taken that key doors are not acci-
of the ladder is similary sited. dentally closed during firefighting operations.
Once the fire has been extinguished, ventilation
• the glass from a window can travel a long can be increased.
way outwards, particularly from higher
storeys. This can kill or seriously injure fire-
fighters or bystanders.
Figure 3.2 Making an

Outlet Vent
Chapter 4 - Vertical Ventilation
1 General • it can minimise fire spread, because the

smoke and hot gases travel the shortest possi-
Vertical ventilation makes maximum use of the ble distance before leaving the building;
buoyancy of the hot smoke and gases, allowing
them to escape harmlessly into the atmosphere by • it can provide extremely rapid smoke clear-
the most direct route possible. It is especially use- ance, because of the high velocity of the
ful in potential backdraught situations. smoke and hot gases leaving through the roof
vent. Large amounts of fresh air are drawn in
The distinction between vertical and horizontal ven- to replace these.
tilation is in the location of the outlet vent. In hori-
zontal ventilation, the outlet vent is placed as high The obvious disadvantage of vertical ventilation is
in the compartment wall as possible. In vertical ven- that firefighting operations are required on the roof
tilation, the outlet vent is placed in the compartment above the fire, and these can be extremely hazardous.
roof, as close to the fire as is safely possible.
Nevertheless, it is possible to adopt working pro-
Vertical ventilation is most effective as an offen- cedures which significantly reduce this risk, and
sive ventilation tactic, used to affect the fire direct- these will be discussed later.
ly. In defensive ventilation operations, its efficien-
cy depends on its proximity to the fire, and hence 2 Vertical Ventilation Safety
the buoyancy of the smoke and hot gases.
The location of the fire has to be determined
Thus, vertical ventilation is most applicable to before vertical ventilation can be considered.
buildings where the fire is directly below the roof.
Where there is a ceiling or roof space which is not As standard practice, when vertical offensive venti-
involved in the fire, vertical ventilation will result lation is under way, the outlet vent must be covered
in fire spread into that space. by a charged hoseline. even whilst it is being made.
However, where the fire is already in the ceiling or If safely practicable, any roof vent should be made
roof space, there may be little alternative but to with the firefighter working from a ladder (See
adopt vertical ventilation if it is safely practicable, Figure 4.1) or from an aerial appliance, rather than
although tiled roofs may leak enough for extra from the roof itself. Even then, it must be remem-
ventilation to be unnecessary. bered that, once the fire compartment has been
penetrated, hot smoke and gases and possibly
The advantages of vertical ventilation are that: flames will come out of the vent, perhaps with
some force. Breathing apparatus must always be
• it can minimise the risk of a backdraught. worn in such circumstances.
Initially the pressure in the compartment will
drive the hot gases out. An inlet vent is then If the Officer-in-Charge decides that a vent is
necessary or fresh air will start coming in required in the roof, and the location cannot be
through the outlet vent, mixing with the reached from a ladder or aerial appliance, serious
smoke to increase the likelihood of smoke- consideration must be given to firefighters' safety,
logging the compartment; before committing them to a roof above a fire.
Previous page
Figure 4.1 Making
a Roof Vent
3 Methods of Making Vents Without a knowledge of the method of construc-

tion, it is not advisable to attempt to make holes in
Some buildings have built-in mechanical ventila- any type of roof.
tion systems operated from ground level. It may be
possible to make use of these. The safest method of doing this is to work from a
roof ladder or an aerial appliance.
The next easiest way of making a roof vent is to
take advantage of building features such as roof Firefighters making a vent should avoid working
lights or dormer windows. from a location higher than the vent. For example,
on a sloping roof, the firefighters should not be
Where these do not exist, it may be possible to lift higher up the slope.
tiles and slates and to cut through whatever lies
underneath.

4 Offensive and Defensive Vertical compartment contents by means of the heat radiat-
Ventilation ing from the hot smoke layer.
Defensive vertical ventilation is possible but its The hot smoke and gases will spread inside the
efficiency will depend on its proximity to the fire. compartment until they can find a way out.
Removing the roof covering in the form of a strip,
If smoke clearance is the sole objective, this is ahead of the smoke spread, can limit this spread,
likely to be taking place some distance from the effectively producing a fire break. This is known
fire, where the smoke and hot gases will have as trench or strip ventilation. (See figure 4.2)
mixed with cooler air. They are unlikely to be hot
enough to cause a rapid flow through the vent, and Trench ventilation is accomplished by making an
the whole process will be very slow. opening in the roof, at a safe distance from the fire,
large enough for all the hot smoke and gases to
It may be possible to speed this up if the inlet vent vent through it, so that none go past the vent. This
is on the upwind side of the building, but forced will cause fire spread in the direction of the vent,
ventilation may be necessary. but stop its movement past it. It will also cause any
smoke layer within the compartment to lift.
Offensive vertical ventilation requires roof vents
close to the fire. It is most effective if the vent can In terrace-type properties, it may be necessary to
be placed directly above the fire. make a trench cut to prevent fire spread to adjoin-
ing roof spaces.
Offensive ventilation can also be used to limit fire
spread in large compartments, or linked roof spaces. It is safer to do this on the adjoining property.
In these circumstances, fire spread is caused princi- On a sloping roof, it is preferable to start cutting
pally by the hot smoke and gases spreading at ceil- the trench at the highest point that can be safely
ing level (Mushrooming) and either igniting struc- reached, working downwards from that point, so
tural members in the roof, or igniting more of the minimising exposure to the hot smoke and gases.
Figure 4.2 Trench

Ventilation
Chapter 5 - Forced Ventilation
1 General • it requires the use of a mechanical device, a

power source and additional firefighters;
Ventilation efforts should be in concert with exist-
ing atmospheric conditions, taking advantage of • it can increase the intensity of a fire and lead
natural ventilation whenever possible. However, in to unwanted fire and smoke spread if incor-
some situations, natural ventilation may be inade- rectly applied;
quate and may have to be supplemented or
replaced by forced ventilation to provide a tenable • to clear large compartments, it requires a very
atmosphere and to facilitate rescue operations. large fan, or a number of smaller fans;
Forced ventilation refers to the use of fans, blow- • it can take time to set up;
ers, water sprays or other mechanical devices to
create or redirect the flow of air inside the building • in defensive ventilation operations, the limit-
so that the fire gases are forced out of the building. ed airflow available means that systematic
room-by-room clearance is necessary.
If forced ventilation is used to accelerate the
effects of natural ventilation, it must be remem- The main techniques of forced ventilation are:
bered that all the effects, both good and bad, may
be accelerated. For this reason, it is essential that • Positive Pressure Ventilation (PPV). PPV can
the firefighters concerned have a good understand- be achieved by forcing air into a building
ing of the principles of ventilation, and the behav- using a fan. The effect of this will be to
iour of fire, before the use of forced ventilation is increase the pressure inside, relative to
considered. atmospheric pressure. PPV simply refers to
blowing air in through the inlet vent.
The main advantages of forced ventilation are:
• Negative Pressure Ventilation (NPV). NPV
• the ventilation objectives, i.e. smoke refers to extracting the smoke and hot gases
removal, restoration of a tenable atmosphere from the outlet vent. This will have the effect
etc., are achieved more rapidly; of reducing the pressure inside the building,
relative to the atmospheric pressure. It can he
• it makes horizontal ventilation more effec- achieved by fans or water sprays.
tive, so reducing the need for vertical ventila-
tion; • Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning
Systems (HVAC). Building HVAC systems
· it is less susceptible to erratic wind condi- can be designed so that, in the event of fire,
they can be used as a smoke control system.
tions, although it cannot overcome strong
winds;
• Powered Smoke and Heat Exhaust Systems.
• it is a more controllable form of ventilation. Dedicated fans and other devices which, usu-
ally triggered automatically, provide a smoke
Its disadvantages are: control system.
Previous page
2 Positive Pressure Ventilation
The most appropriate tactic for using a PPV fan
will depend on whether the inlet vent is also to be
used for firefighters" access to the building and
whether there is smoke coming out of that vent.
If the vent is an entrance, the fan may cause an
obstruction unless it can be placed a little way
back, to allow access. However, this will reduce
the efficiency of the fan
In some cases, it is important to prevent air from

flowing out of the inlet. This would reduce the
efficiency of the ventilation and, if there is smoke
immediately inside the inlet vent, could result in
turbulence in the smoke, increasing obscuration a
short way inside the building.
This can be prevented in two ways:
• The fan can be placed in the doorway and the

rest of the doorway blocked off. Clearly this
will prevent the doorway being used for fire-
fighters' access (See Figure 5.1).
• The fan can be moved back from the doorway

until the cone of air it produces covers the
whole of the doorway. This reduces the
amount of air which is entering the building,
but makes most efficient use of the air which
does go in. It produces a moving wall of air
which sweeps all the smoke and hot gases
before it in the direction of the outlet vent
(See Figure 5.2).
The efficiency of the smoke clearance is governed Figure 5.1 Using a Fan Where the Entrance Can Be
by the wind, the size and design of the fan, the pro- Blocked
portion of the fan's air production which enters the
building, the relative sizes of the inlet and outlet The fans can be powered by electric motors, driven
vents, the size of the compartment to be cleared and from appliance power supplies, or hydraulic
the temperature of the gases in the compartment. motors, driven from the appliance pump. Diesel or
petrol driven fans are inappropriate for use when
3 Negative Pressure Ventilation surrounded by fire gases because they are unlikely
to have a fresh air supply, necessary for their
(a) Fans engines to work.
The most common method of achieving NPV is by The main problem with the use of fans for NPV is
the use of portable fans. These can vary widely in that the fan components are unlikely to be
the amount of air which they can move, measured designed to withstand high temperatures. If the
in cubic metres per minute. The more powerful the smoke and gases being extracted are hot, the fans
fan, the more air it can move. will soon cease to function.

Figure 5.2 Using a Fan
Without Blocking the
Entrance
The use of fans for NPV is better in the clearance

of smoke-logged buildings once the fire is out, or
where there is no prospect of hot or flammable
gases reaching the fan.
(b) Hoseline Branches
It is possible to use the air entrainment effect of

branches used on a conical spray setting, to draw
air out of an outlet vent.
The conical spray should be directed out through

the outlet vent from within the building. To protect
the firefighter who would otherwise have to
remain in a hot environment, the branch should be
lashed in position or mounted on a branch holder,
rather than hand held (See Figure 5.3).
The spray should be set at a cone angle of about 60

degrees and located so that it covers 85-90 percent
of the outlet vent surface area, to achieve the max- Figure 5.3 The Use of a Spray to Extract Air Using the
imum air flow Venturi Principle (Hydraulic Ventilation)
This same effect can be used at the inlet vent, but 6 Safety Considerations
water damage inside the building will be
increased, and the firefighter holding the branch The same safety considerations apply to the use of
would have to be aware of the risk of backdraught forced ventilation as apply to natural ventilation.
in offensive ventilation operations. The one difference is that everything will happen
more quickly. Things can go wrong more quickly,
This technique can be very effective in clearing just as ventilation can be achieved more quickly.
smoke from a small compartment fire to enable Thus effective communication between all
early investigation of the scene and to reduce fur- involved in firefighting operations is even more
ther damage. critical. The Officer-in-Charge must ensure that
close supervision and monitoring is maintained
4 Heating Ventilation and Air throughout.
Conditioning Systems
There is always the danger of driving smoke
Mechanical fire ventilation systems are described and/or flames into unstopped cavities, especially
in the Manual of Firemanship, Book 9 Part 3. They in traditional buildings. Flats and maisonettes, for
usually work automatically, but there may be a example, frequently have inadequately stopped
manual over-ride. Where firefighters require the builders' ducts for pipes and cables. They should-
special operation of these systems, they should if n't, but they do. Old, historic buildings are partic-
possible consult the engineer responsible, as incor- ularly notorious for hidden flow-paths for smoky
rect use could result in spreading the fire. gases. It follows that the use of PPV in particular
should be monitored for smoke appearing in
This also applies when firefighters have to face the neighbouring compartments via unexpected
fire hazards presented by the sort of ventilation routes. Where it occurs, there may be a case for
system described in the Manual of Firemanship, using NPV.
Book 9, Chapter 20, 'Ventilation and Air
Conditioning Systems', and on underground rail- The noise of the fans can itself pose a problem,
ways, where ventilation is effected by fans. affecting both those inside the building who may
not be able to hear an emergency evacuation sig-
In some cases, air conditioning systems have been nal, and the Safety Officers who may not be able
designed to act as fire ventilation systems in the to hear a Distress Signal Unit if it is actuated.
event of fire. Where firefighters require the special Briefing of firefighters may have to take place
operation of these systems, they should if possible away from an operating fan.
consult the engineer responsible, as there may be
limitations on the temperatures they can withstand,
and their incorrect use could result in spreading the
fire.
5 Powered Smoke and Heat

Exhaust Ventilation Systems
Such systems are generally automatically triggered
and are likely to be operating before firefighters
arrive. These systems can be over-ridden manual-
ly, but this will need careful consideration by the
Officer-in-Charge, as part of the firefighting and
ventilation strategy.

Chapter 6 - Positive Pressure

Ventilation (PPV)
1 Introduction relative sizes of the inlet and outlet vents, the size
of the compartment to be cleared, and the temper-
Positive Pressure Ventilation (PPV) is achieved by ature of the gases in the compartment.
forcing air into a building using a fan. The effect of
this will be to increase the pressure inside, relative 2 Basic Fan Performance
to atmospheric pressure. PPV simply refers to
blowing air in through the inlet vent. The most It must be remembered that fans can differ widely in
appropriate tactic for using a PPV fan will depend performance. To be considered portable, the fan
on whether the inlet vent is also to be used for fire- should conform to the guidelines set out in the
fighters' access to the building and whether there is Manual Handling Regulations. The table below gives
smoke coming out of that vent. an indication of the power and weight of various fan
designs, not all of which would be suitable for PPV.
It is essential to recognise that the use of PPV is
simply an extension of the use of natural ventila- The amount of air which a fan can move is a func-
tion. The same fundamental principles apply to tion of the power available and the design of the
both. If PPV is used to accelerate the effects of nat- fan blade. The shape of the cone of air which is
ural ventilation, it must be remembered that all the produced is a function of the design of the fan
effects, both good and bad, may be accelerated. blade and of the ducting fitted around the fan.
For this reason, it is essential that firefighters have Figures 6.1 and 6.2 illustrate this.
a good understanding of the behaviour of fire and
the principles of ventilation, before the use of PPV When a fan is first used to pressurise a compart-
is considered. ment, the time taken to do this is governed by the
size of the compartment. A small compartment
The efficiency of PPV as a tactic is governed by will be pressurised in seconds. The bigger the
the wind, the size of the fan, the proportion of the compartment, the more air which has to be driven
fan's air production which enters the building, the into it to achieve the same level of pressurisation.
Table 1 - Power, Weight

and Flow of 24" diameter
PPV Fans with different
power sources.
Figure 6.1 A Fan with a
Narrow Cone Angle
Figure 6.2 A Fan with a

Wide Cone Angle
If a typical PPV fan is placed in a doorway being • If the outlet vent is very large, compared with
used as an inlet vent, and no air is allowed to the inlet vent, the maximum flow rate which
escape back out of that doorway, the flow rate of can be generated by the fan might be typical-
the fan will slowly reduce as the pressure in the ly 6 cubic metres per second (210 cubic feet
compartment rises. The flow rate which can be per second). The pressure rise inside the com-
achieved once things start to stabilise will depend partment would be very small.
on the size of the outlet vent.

• If the outlet vent is the same size as the inlet • A secondary consideration will be whether
vent, the maximum flow rate reduces to typi- the fan is to blow directly into the fire com-
cally 4 cubic metres per second (140 cubic partment. If this is the case, and turbulent
feet per second), but the internal pressure may mixing of the hot gases and smoke is unde-
rise to typically 15 Pascals (0.15 millibar). sirable, it may be better to set the fan back
from the doorway. This will direct air in
• If the outlet vent is half the size of the inlet through the whole doorway, rather than part
vent, the maximum flow rate is typically 3 of it, and provide a more uniform flow in the
cubic metres per second (100 cubic feet per compartment.
second), but the internal pressure rises to typ-
ically 30 Pascals (0.3 millibar). • Equally, if there is smoke but no fire in the
compartment directly inside the doorway, it
Thus the relative sizes of the inlet and outlet vents may be preferable to drive all the smoke into
can be used to trade off air flow against internal the building. Setting the fan back from the
pressure. (See Figure 6.3) doorway will direct air in through the whole
doorway, rather than part of it, and provide a
more uniform flow in the compartment.
If the fan is moved back from the doorway, there

will come a stage where the cone of air it produces
covers the whole of the doorway. (See Figure 5.2)
This reduces the amount of air which is entering
the building, but makes most efficient use of the
air which does go in. It aims to produce a moving
wall of air to sweep all the smoke and hot gases
before it in the direction of the outlet vent.
If there is no need to maintain access through the

inlet vent the most efficient use of the fan is to
place it in the doorway and to block off the rest of
the doorway. (See Figure 5.1)
Figure 6.3 Effect of Inlet/Outlet Area Ratio on Air Flow
and Compartment Pressure
4 Fighting an Opposing Wind
If the inlet vent is also to be used as an entrance, Wind strength and direction are usually the domi-
the fan may cause an obstruction unless it can be nating factors in tactical ventilation. In most cases,
placed a little way back, to allow access. However, it will determine the direction in which the smoke
this will reduce the proportion of the fan's air pro- and hot gases will move within the building.
duction which enters the building. If the fan is set Whenever possible, ventilation efforts should be in
2 metres away from the door, typically the air flow concert with existing atmospheric conditions, tak-
through that door will reduce by 20%, and the ing advantage of natural ventilation. However, in
internal pressure will reduce by 10%. some situations, natural ventilation may be inade-
quate and may have to be supplemented or
3 Positioning the Fan replaced by forced ventilation to provide a tenable
atmosphere and to facilitate rescue operations.
Once the inlet vent has been selected, several fac-
tors will determine the location of the fan: The fact that a wind appears to be blowing in a par-
ticular direction out in the open, is no guarantee
• The over-riding consideration will be that of that it will be blowing in the same direction near
access: if firefighters or escaping occupants buildings. They introduce unpredictable eddies,
need to use the door, the fan has to be set back and local wind directions may reverse, and
to avoid obstructing the route. increase or decrease in magnitude significantly.
Before PPV is initiated, it is important to check metres per second, for a window with a cross-
that the wind at the proposed inlet and outlet vents section area of 1 square metre. A 3 metre per
is as expected. second (7 mph) wind would be classified as a
gentle breeze. Force 2 on the Beaufort Scale.
If wind is blowing in through the proposed outlet
vent, the PPV fan must be capable of producing • If the outlet is a small window, with a cross-
an outlet velocity greater than the wind's inlet section area of 0.5 square metres, the outlet
velocity, or the wind will win, the outlet vent will velocity would be 6 metres per second (13
become an inlet vent and the inlet vent will mph). A wind of this speed would be classi-
become an outlet vent - an extra hazard to the fire- fied as a moderate breeze, Force 4 on the
fighters there. Beaufort Scale.
Since the outlet vent velocity which the fan can In many cases, advice to firefighters on the use of
achieve increases as the outlet vent is reduced in PPV is based on the principle 'if it doesn't work,
size, a small outlet vent is preferable when there is you can always turn it off. In this case however,
an opposing wind. once an outlet vent has been made on the upwind
side of a building, it may not be possible to close it
• If the fan is blowing in through a doorway, if things go wrong.
and out through a window, the inlet to outlet
ratio would be typically 2:1 and the outlet For this reason, the decision to try to use PPV to
flow rate would be 3 cubic metres per second, oppose a wind can have more far-reaching conse-
corresponding to an outlet velocity of 3 quences, and should not be taken lightly.
Table 2 The Beaufort Scale
46 Fire Serv ice Manual

5 Size and Location of the Fire It is not yet possible to be specific about the air
Compartment velocity which is effective at clearing smoke. It is
clear, however, that single fans will not have any
In a small building, it is generally possible to get significant effect in large areas such as supermar-
access to the outside of the fire compartment. kets and warehouses, although they may have
This means that, unless the wind is opposing, it is some effect locally in doorways and corridors.
generally possible to make an outlet vent in the
fire compartment. This keeps fire spread to the The most effective use of portable PPV fans is
minimum when PPV is started. likely to be in clearing small compartments and
corridors. Thus they may be particularly effective
In larger buildings, it may be difficult or impossi- in domestic and small commercial premises, or in
ble to identify the fire compartment immediately pressurising staircase enclosures.
and PPV operations have to be delayed until this is
done. Even then, it may not be possible to create In larger premises, a systematic room-by-room
an outlet vent very close to the fire. In very large approach to smoke clearance will make best use of
compartments, it may be difficult to locate the fire the limited air flow available.
within the compartment.
6 The Effect of Opening Vents
If portable PPV fans are used, they can only have
a very limited capacity, and their effect will reduce Before it is opened up, the fire compartment will
drastically as the size of the fire compartment contain hot gases and smoke at ceiling level and, if
increases. these are very hot, they may have caused a pres-
sure build-up inside the compartment. This pres-
A typical flow-rate from a 24 inch blade diameter sure can be as high as 100 Pascals (1 millibar)
portable fan is 6 cubic metres per second (210 compared to the pressure of at most 30 Pascals
cubic feet per second). If set back from the door, which the fan can generate. For a short period
perhaps only 5 cubic metres per minute will flow therefore, if the inlet vent is opened too soon after
through the doorway. the outlet vent is opened, hot gases and smoke may
flow out through the inlet vent, until the pressure
• If air is flowing in through a doorway at a rate inside has been reduced.
of 5 cubic metres per second, the air velocity
through that doorway (cross-section of 2 Even then, it may not be possible to completely
square metres) will be about 2.5 metres per seal a doorway with the cone of air from a fan.
second. Inevitably, the main flow from a fan is along its
axis and. although it may feel as though the top of
• In a typical office corridor (cross-section 4 the door is covered, the flow there will be much
square metres), this will be reduced to 1.2 less, and the hot gases and smoke from the fire
metres per second. may be able to overcome it occasionally.
• In a typical workshop, hospital ward or small 7 The Use of Multiple Fans

storage area (cross-section 30 square metres),
the air velocity due to this one fan in the If the inlet vent is too large to be covered effec-
doorway will reduce to about 0.17metres per tively by a single fan, or if a higher air flow rate is
second (17 centimetres per second). This may required, it is possible to use more than one fan in
be too slow to be an acceptable rate of venti- parallel (side by side). (See Figure 6.4)
lation.
If a higher airflow is required through a doorway,
• In a typical supermarket (cross-section 60 two fans can be used in series (or stacked), with
metres wide by 5 metres high, giving an one placed in the doorway, and the second placed
area of 300 square metres) the air velocity behind it to provide the seal around the door. (See
due to this one fan will reduce by a further Figure 6.5) This, however, will restrict access
factor of 10. through the doorway.
Figure 6.4 Using Fans in
Parallel (Side by Side)
Figure 6.5 Stacking Fans

(One Behind the Other)
Where the building layout permits, more than one

entry vent can be used but, in this case, extra care
must be taken to ensure that one of the inlet vents
does not become an outlet vent because of adverse
wind conditions, or because the fans were not
started up simultaneously.

Chapter 7 - Tactical Options

with PPV: Defensive
1 Post Fire Smoke Clearance and The following sequence of operation should be
Damping Down followed :
During smoke clearance and damping down oper- • Isolate unaffected areas where possible.
ations in a building it is usually the case that there
will be considerable residual heat, hot spots or • Position the fan.
bullseyes with steam and smoke still being pro-
duced. Such an environment can make conditions • Instruct crew members to open the exhaust
uncomfortable and/or oppressive for firefighters. vent.
The judicial use of positive pressure ventilation in • Start the fan.

these circumstances can help to relieve the above
mentioned problems considerably. • Check that the smoke/steam is taking the
desired route to the exhaust vent and does not
The use of PPV in such circumstances does not spread to other areas.
necessarily mean that BA can be dispensed with,
as smoke and gases may still be present in concen- • Continue to monitor the situation until PPV is
trations injurious to health. discontinued.
The advantages of using PPV during smoke clear- In multi-compartmented buildings where smoke
ance and damping down operations are: has spread to rooms other than the fire room, it
may be desirable to ventilate sequentially. In this
• Rapid removal of smoke, steam and residual case the doors to all compartments, except the one
heat, improving visibility. to be ventilated initially, should be closed and the
process begun. When that room is cleared of
• Cooler and easier working conditions when smoke, the door to the next room to be ventilated
turning over debris. should be opened and an exhaust vent provided.
The exhaust vent from the first room and the door
• Hot spots or bullseyes may become apparent to that room should then be closed. The process is
due to the increased flow of fresh air. repeated until the building is cleared of smoke. It
(Always have a hose reel or hose line avail- is advisable to commence operations in the com-
able to deal with these) partment which was involved in the fire.
The route the smoke/steam will take through the In multi-storey buildings, smoke clearance should
structure should be decided on before ventilation commence at ground floor level, with the first
takes place. Any areas not affected should be iso- floor being cleared next, and so on until the build-
lated by closing relevant doors. The fan should be ing is cleared.
placed in position and started up only after other
crew members have opened the exhaust vent. It is
important that good communication is maintained
between the fire ground commander, the fan oper-
ator and the crew at the exhaust vent.
2 Smoke Clearance as Part of
Firefighting
It is possible to apply the tactics described above
even before the fire is extinguished, provided that
it is possible to ensure that the fire is totally isolat-
ed from the area where ventilation is to take place.
This may be appropriate where pressurisation of

part of the building will prevent smoke from
spreading into it, or where smoke has already
spread into part of the building not involved in the
fire, providing that it is possible to identify the
route the smoke took, and it is possible to close
this off.
This may be desirable if people are still present in

the smoke-logged part of the building. Clearing
the smoke will protect them from the effects of
inhalation and will provide them with a clear
escape route.
Such tactics may also prevent or mitigate the

effects of smoke damage.

Chapter 8 - Tactical Options

with PPV: Offensive
1 Domestic Premises fresh air up the stairwell. It is important to avoid
driving the hot gases and smoke out through some
The air flows produced by portable PPV fans are other route, so care must be taken not to pressurise
eminently suitable for use in typical domestic the stairwell. This can be done by having as many
premises if the wind is in the right direction. If the outlet vents as possible above the fire floor.
fire is on the ground floor and it is possible to cre-
ate an outlet vent in the fire compartment, it is pos- If a new outlet vent can be made for the hot gases
sible to use PPV to confine the fire to the fire com- and smoke closer to, or in, the fire compartment, it
partment, whilst significantly improving condi- may be preferable to use the PPV fan to pressurise
tions on the route from the inlet vent to the fire the stairwell, and to drive the hot smoke and gases
compartment. If smoke has spread through the rest back and out through the new vent. This is
of the premises, there may be sufficient spare achieved by minimising outlet vents in the stair-
capacity to apply systematic smoke clearance well. This will not remove smoke from the stair-
through the rest of the building. well above the fire floor, but there may be suffi-
cient spare capacity from the fan to apply system-
If the fire is on the highest floor, it may take longer atic smoke clearance.
to create an outlet vent in the fire compartment. It
may be necessary to use a ladder. It may be possi- 3 Corridors
ble to use PPV to clear smoke on the ground floor
at the same time as the upstairs fire is being fought. PPV fans can be used where it is possible to select
the direction of airflow in a corridor. The wind
If the fire is in the roof space, the only option with may be a determining factor in this but, where it is
PPV may be vertical ventilation. It would then be not, the foreground commander has the opportuni-
necessary to remove tiles to create an outlet vent, ty to make the choice.
before starting the fan. In terraced or semi-
detached buildings, the partition walls in the roof If corridors link stairwells, it is possible to make
space may not provide a good seal, so it may be one stairwell the outlet vent and to keep the other
necessary to remove sufficient tiles to create a stairwell smoke-free.
trench before starting the fan, to prevent fire
spread. The use of PPV will cool the roof space 4 Cellars
significantly.
PPV fans are extremely effective at improving
2 Stairwells firefighting conditions in cellars, provided that it is
possible to create an outlet vent. If there are
Not all stairwells in multi-occupancy dwellings are removable pavement lights or stall boards, even on
pressurised. the up-wind side of the building, it may be possi-
ble to drive fresh air down the cellar steps. This
Where the stairwell has an open vent or window will have the effect of reducing or even eliminat-
and is serving as the chimney for the hot gases and ing the hot layer on the steps, making the firefight-
smoke, it is possible to use a PPV fan to dilute the er's job much easier.
gases in the stairwell by forcing a large amount of
Figure 8.1 The Use
of Ducting in a
Compartment with
Only One Vent
It is unlikely that PPV alone will clear the smoke The limiting factor with this tactic is the relative
from a cellar. Ducting will probably be necessary sizes of the fan and the area to be cleared. With
once the fire is out. It can be used to direct the air larger compartments it may prove necessary to
in through the outlet vent to the far side of the increase the airflow beyond what can be achieved
compartment. This effectively creates an inlet vent with one fan. If more than one fan is available, it
at the far side of the compartment, and ventilation may be useful either to use two inlet vents or to
can then proceed as normal (See Figure 8.1). have one fan at the inlet vent, and to advance the
second one to the entrance to the fire compartment.
Care must be taken to ensure that any of the fan's
air which is not being directed into the ducting, 6 Large Volumes
does not interfere with the flow out of the com-
partment. Care should also be taken to avoid recy- It is unlikely that portable PPV fans will have
cling smoke through the fan feeding the duct, much effect in large compartments, although they
which should not be placed too near to the com- may provide a slightly improved environment
partment door. close to the inlet vent
5 Small Workshops and Stores

As with any ventilation tactic, PPV should not be
applied until it is certain that the location of the fire
is known and that there is an outlet vent. Again the
wind will be a significant factor. Where the fire
compartment is not fully involved, and smoke log-
ging is impeding firefighting, the use of PPV may
make access easier and may help clear smoke in
the compartment so that the fire can be found and
fought.
The effectiveness of the tactic will be greatly influ-

enced by the location of the outlet vent. Ideally, the
outlet vent should be as close to the fire as possi-
ble. Otherwise, there will be fire spread along the
route from the fire to the outlet vent. However, this
may be preferable to fire spread behind the fire-
fighters.

Chapter 9 - Ventilation Scenarios
1 Single-Storey Warehouse/ to rapid fire spread throughout the building.

Industrial Building/Sports Hall
Roof collapse, particularly in the case of light-
(a) Construction weight truss roof constructions, can occur in a
short period of time. In timber roof structures, this
The most common forms of construction are: usually occurs where the bottom chord of the web-
bing has burnt through, or the nail plates have lost
• steel frame - a substructure of steel, support- their grip. This can lead to progressive collapse of
ing a corrugated steel or aluminium panelled large areas of roof. Total failure of metal roof
roof, with walls part brick or block and part structures can occur at around 600°C, by when the
steel or aluminium wall panels; steel has lost up to two thirds of its structural
strength.
• brick or block walls with a wooden or metal
trussed roof covered with plywood and bitu- (c) Fire Against End Wall
men.
Vertical ventilation is likely to be most effective. It
Whatever type of construction is used, the roof may be possible to access the roof from outside the
may take on one of several forms, the most com- end wall, and to remove a section of roof very
mon of which are: close to the fire. An initial hole two metres by one
metre would be required, and this should be
• traditional pitched roof, of varying angles;
increased if the smoke is venting under pressure.
The objective would be to have a large enough
• 'north light' or its modern equivalent;
hole for the smoke to vent 'lazily'.
• flat roof, self supporting, or internally sup-
ported. The inlet vents can be the doorways used for
access by the firefighters, if the wind direction per-
In many cases, a major influence on the choice of mits, or other doorways at ground level.
ventilation technique is the lack of windows or
doors for horizontal ventilation. If vertical ventila- If it is impossible to produce a hole in the roof, it
tion is considered necessary, a wood-trussed struc- may be possible to create a high level hole in the
ture may not be sufficiently robust for firefighters wall.
to be deployed on the roof to conduct defensive
trench ventilation. (d) Fire in Centre of Building
A single portable PPV fan is unlikely to have much Even if it is not possible to gain access to the roof
effect in larger buildings of this type, unless the near to the fire, it may still be possible to vertical-
building has a number of internal compartments. ly ventilate, making a vent downwind, near to a
wall, but fire-spread will occur in that direction.
(b) Special Hazards
Horizontal ventilation may be possible using a
Most industrial/storage occupancies are large open down-wind door or window as an outlet vent, but
areas with minimal sub-division and this can lead again fire spread will occur.
If it is possible to deploy firefighters safely on, or This may be complicated where a floor does not
above, the roof, trenching downwind of the fire cover the full area of the building, The construc-
may reduce fire spread. The vent should be about tion of the floor may allow smoke and hot gases to
one metre by two metres to begin with, and spread from a ground floor fire into the upper
enlarged if the smoke and hot gases are venting floor, whilst delaying vertical fire spread. This can
under pressure. A long, one metre wide vent is be of great importance where mezzanine floors
most effective at preventing fire spread past it. could provide a complex arrangement of smaller
compartments.
(e) Unidentified Fire Location
This can be further complicated by the presence of
It is generally wiser not to ventilate vertically until a suspended ceiling, whether suspended beneath the
the location of the fire is known, although this roof, or on the ground floor, which may create addi-
should not preclude the use of horizontal ventila- tional voids not readily noticeable from outside.
tion, providing it is used correctly.
(b) Fire on Ground Floor
In both cases, there is always the risk of driving
fire or smoke into areas which were previously It is important to establish whether the ground
clear, or even where people may be present. floor is an independent compartment. If it is, hori-
zontal ventilation is the only practical option
2 Two-Storey Warehouse/Industrial unless there are protected vertical shafts.
Building/Sports Hall
If the ground floor cannot be treated as an inde-
(a) Construction pendent compartment, the entire building can be
treated in the same way as a large single storey
The most common forms of construction are simi- warehouse/industrial building.
lar to those used in single storey warehouses.
(c) Fire on Upper Floor
• steel frame - a substructure of steel, support-
ing a corrugated steel or aluminium panelled This can be treated in the same way as a fire in a
roof, with walls part brick or block and part single storey warehouse/industrial building, except
steel or aluminium wall panels; that there may be additional problems with access.
• brick or block walls with a wooden or metal 3 Small Commercial Units

trussed roof, covered with plywood and bitu-
men. (a) Construction
Once again, there are three basic types of con-

Whatever type of construction is used, the roof
struction:
may take on one of several forms, the most com-
mon of which are:
• monolithic concrete;
• traditional pitched roof, of varying angles; • traditional (possibly converted) buildings;
• 'north light' or its modern equivalent; • lightweight.
• flat roof, self supporting, or internally sup- (b) Fire Confined to Shop Unit
ported.
Where monolithic concrete construction has been
In some cases, internal floors may offer little or no resis- used, horizontal ventilation, using existing doors
tance to the passage of smoke or flame - for example, and windows, is the only option unless roof lights
gantries or open mesh steel floors. Where this is the are installed. There is unlikely to be fire spread
case, the whole building is a single compartment. between compartments.

With the more traditional buildings, it is important vents not being available, firefighting teams will
to consider the entire building, as separation then need to work progressively up the stairwell
between units is unlikely to be complete. Where opening vents floor by floor, and closing them
there is residential accommodation above the com- again when it is clear up to that level
mercial premises, means of escape from the upper
storey may be the prime consideration. Within a dwelling, horizontal ventilation is the
only viable option, possibly by breaking windows
Either horizontal or vertical ventilation may be from outside.
practicable, depending on the design of the build-
ing. Although the traditional roof design of 5 Two-Storey Residential House
slates/tiles and timber lends itself to vertical venti-
lation, the location of the fire and the presence of (a) Construction
ceilings may restrict the options for this technique.
The size and construction of such buildings, and
4 Low Rise Apartment Buildings their proximity to their neighbours can vary so
widely that it is impossible to generalise.
(a) Construction
Modern building standards, however, are leading
The construction of these buildings will vary wide- to better insulation levels. This can result in a
ly, depending on date of construction and geograph- reduced air supply to any fire and the consequen-
ical location, from the 1930's stone tenement build- tial risk of oxygen depletion. At the same time, the
ing, typical of Scottish inner cities, to the 1960's fire load is increasing with the greater use of syn-
flat-roofed curtain-walled flats or maisonettes typi- thetic materials and fitted carpets.
cal of re-housing schemes of that period.
These two factors combine to provide an increas-
Access to individual dwellings would typically be ing risk of backdraught in residential properties.
via an internal stairwell, perhaps linked by open-
deck or balcony access. (b) Fire on Upper Level
Where the building has been well maintained, a degree Roof and ceiling construction will determine
of separation between dwellings can be assumed, whether vertical ventilation is a realistic option. If
although this may not extend to the roof void. the fire has not reached the roof void, it should not
be encouraged to do so! In terraced houses, this
(b) Fires in Accommodation Units can be a major source of fire spread to adjoining
properties.
Means of escape for the residents has to be given
the highest priority, and the pressurisation of stair- Horizontal ventilation may be most effectively
wells using PPV may simplify the evacuation of achieved by opening or breaking windows, provid-
large buildings ed this can be done safely.
Also, where fire has spread to more than one Alternatively, suitable outlet vents can be created
dwelling, ventilation can materially assist fire- as appropriate, and the stairwell pressurised from
fighting operations by improving access. below.
There are cases where the use of ventilation can be (c) Fire on Lower Level
considered even before the location of the fire is
known. Natural horizontal ventilation can be very effec-
tive, and pressurisation may be of value where
Where the stairwell is smoke-logged, positive inlet and outlet vents have to be on the same side
pressure ventilation can be set up, driving air in of the building, or to prevent smoke and hot gases
through the doorway. In the event of built-in outlet rising to the upper storey.
Chapter 10 - Basements, Underground

Structures and Tunnels
1 Introduction 2 Basements
The main difficulty in fighting underground fires is In basements where pavement lights or stall board
in creating a route out for the smoke and hot gases lights exist, these can sometimes be used as the
which is separate from the access route. Where this outlet vent in conjunction with Positive Pressure
can be achieved, forced ventilation can be Ventilation (See Figure 10.1).
extremely successful.
Firefighting can be made much safer if this tech-
When fighting fires in tunnels, however, this may nique can be used before firefighting teams are
not be possible, notably in 'dead-end' or 'blind- committed, as it will reduce the total heat in the
heading' tunnels. In such situations, safe and suc- compartment. It can sometimes eliminate the 'heat
cessful operations depend on particularly well barrier' in the stairway entirely, reducing heat
planned breathing apparatus procedures and fire- stress on the firefighter and reducing the risk of
fighting tactics, with reliable communications and, scalding when water is applied.
in some cases, hand-held environmental monitor-
ing equipment. For greater detail in relation to Note, however, that, in built up areas, it can be dif-
breathing apparatus procedures in deep penetration ficult to be certain of wind directions, and adverse
situations, reference should be made to specific conditions could worsen conditions in the base-
Home Office guidance, notably Technical Bulletin ment and approach stairs.
1/1993 - Operational Incidents in Tunnels and
Underground Structures.
Figure 10.1 Taking

Advantage of Pavement
Lights
Previous page
3 Tunnels once it has cooled down sufficiently for the force of
the ventilation air to overcome the buoyant forces
(a) General Considerations remaining in the cooled gases.
Fires in tunnels are rare occurrences, but people Down-stream, the hot gases and smoke will travel
planning and operating tunnels need to prepare for long distances at roof level, with the layer drop-
all eventualities. ping as it cools. If it cools to the ambient tempera-
ture, the gases and smoke will drop to floor level
Smoke movement from a fire is often considered causing a smoke plug (See Figure 10.2).
as part of the initial tunnel design. In some cases,
there will be shafts to the surface at intervals along If the air supply to the fire is coming from the same
the tunnel length, allowing smoke to escape. Often end as the one from which the hot gases and smoke
fixed ventilation systems will be provided to sup- are escaping, this smoke plug will be drawn back
ply fresh air for people and vehicles, and these too into the tunnel along with the fresh air supply,
can take smoke out of the tunnel. Tunnels may eventually smoke-logging the tunnel if the produc-
have "transverse" systems where fresh air enters tion of smoke is maintained.
the tunnel and stale air is extracted along the whole
length, eventually flowing out of either end. and in (c) Fires on Trains or Vehicles in Motion
others air may simply be blown from one end of
the tunnel to the other in a 'longitudinal' system. Where fires occur on trains or vehicles in motion,
a progressive release of smoke into the tunnel air-
(b) Smoke Movement in Tunnels flow may become mixed in the turbulence created
by the movement itself and cause a general 'fog-
For a typical small compartment fire, the hot gases ging' rather than the stratification created by a sta-
and smoke will rise to the ceiling and spread over tionary fire. In such circumstances, the degree of
the roof, gradually filling the compartment. In a mixing of the smoke in the volume of air in the
tunnel, the ceiling space is, at least initially, far too tunnel may be considerable and, assuming that the
large to be filled by the smoke. train or vehicle has stopped, light smoke may exist
at a great distance from the incident, with the
Left to itself, the smoke and hot gases will spread smoke plug becoming progressively denser nearer
along the tunnel roof in both directions. Longitudinal to the fire.
ventilation can control the flow of smoke, pushing it
all in one direction. If the ventilation air flow is too (d) Tunnels under Construction
slow, the hot smoke and gases can push upstream
against the main air flow, a phenomenon known as Tunnels under construction have yielded a signifi-
'back-layering'. This upstream hot layer will stop cant number of serious fires and present particular
Figure 10.2 A Smoke

Plug in a Tunnel

difficulties. Where 'dead-end' or 'blind-heading' may be installed, and protected access routes may
conditions exist in long tunnels, fresh air is nor- be available.
mally carried to the cutting face and construction
area or boring machine in lightweight extendible If pre-installed systems are not available, it is
ducting. Such ducting will be likely to be suspend- unlikely that portable systems would be powerful
ed from a high point in the tunnel roof to be clear enough to have a significant effect in any tunnel
of moving machinery and vehicles. larger than a typical corridor. Natural ventilation
will be the only option.
Providing this ducting remains intact, air reaching
the dead end of the tunnel will push a smoke plug The same principles will then apply. An inlet and
back along the tunnel towards fresh air. However, an outlet vent will have to be selected, together
the air flow may be such that movement is slow, with a route between them. Effective ventilation
given that the air arriving through a lm diameter will cause an improvement in the firefighting con-
duct, for example, may have to push back a smoke ditions near the fire, whilst misuse could result
plug in a tunnel of say 6m diameter. Although insignificant fire growth.
movement is slow, the pressurisation of the zone
beyond the plug with fresh air can produce a
"smoke wall' effect in which the receding smoke
plug retains a broadly vertical profile with virtual-
ly no mixing at the interface with the clean air.
In situations where ducting has been damaged by

the fire, a judgement will need to be made about
whether ventilation should be left on or turned off.
Where no persons are reported, the decision should
be based upon the materials involved in the fire, if
known. If, for example, the fire is known to
involve a vehicle, a quantity of materials, or some
specific piece of plant used in the tunnel construc-
tion, it is probably preferable to leave ventilation
running, even where its supply ducting has been
damaged, in order to retain some air movement
and therefore smoke movement away from the
incident.
Once the fire has been extinguished, or burned

itself out before extinguishing media could be
applied, it may be possible to replace or temporar-
ily repair a damaged section of ducting in order to
restore the airflow to the dead end, and begin push-
ing the smoke plug out of the tunnel.
Where pressurised workings are involved, special

considerations are necessary and full consultation
must take place with the contractors.
(e) Ventilation Options
Firefighters will need to be fully aware of the

built-in safety features of the tunnel, and to make
full use of them. Automatic ventilation systems
Chapter 11 - High Rise Buildings

and Malls
1 Introduction This same trend has led to an increase in the num-
ber of underground structures, particularly to meet
With the high prices demanded for land in inner requirements for car parking.
cities, the trend has been to build up rather than
out. In the 1960's this principle was applied to res- Hot gases will rise via lift shafts, staircases, and
idential premises but, more recently, the trend has any other path which may be available carrying
been towards high-rise commercial premises. with them smoke, flame and burning materials. If
they cannot escape by way of a vent, they will
mushroom out under the ceilings and roofs that
confine them (see Fig 11.1). In this way the fire
may spread to other, hitherto unaffected areas;
mushrooming is in fact one of the most common
causes of fire spread through roof spaces or from
floor to floor.
For this reason United Kingdom fire legislation

has placed many constraints on the designs of such
buildings, in some cases requiring, amongst other
features, smoke extraction systems designed to
prevent escape routes from becoming smoke-
logged, and to limit smoke travel between storeys.
In high-rise commercial structures, architects have

tended to design imposing ground floor areas, with
atria often rising many storeys inside the building,
and sometimes through the whole height of the
structure.
In large atria, which can develop climates of their

own, even resulting in rain clouds forming, air
conditioning systems are essential, becoming in
effect climate control systems.
Stairwells will sometimes extend for the full

height of the building, especially in older property,
and be provided only with single fire resisting
doors leading from them. In the majority of high
rise buildings however, there will be lobbies, fire
resisting doors and/or pressurisation used to keep
the stairwell clear of smoke in case of fire.
Figure 11.1 Hot Gases - The Mushroom Effect
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is blank
2 The Stack Effect When a fire occurs, very hot smoke and gases can
rise very rapidly. As these gases rise, they mix with
One of the problems associated with having an cooler air and will, provided the air reservoir is
undivided stairwell in a high rise building is that it large enough, cool to the same temperature as the
can act as a chimney stack (See Figure 11.2) and surrounding air. When this happens, the smoke and
allow the products of combustion to rise through- gases cease to rise and may build up a smoke layer
out its height and so risk spread of fire to other at high level (See Figure 11.3). The smoke may
floor levels. It is therefore important that any fire then sink and cause smoke logging to become
resisting doors fulfil the function for which they more dense. Any smoke extraction system would
were intended. need to be designed to counteract this effect.
Figure 11.2 The Stack

Effect

Figure 11.3 A Smoke
Layer in an Atrium
Where there is not a large reservoir of cool air at The stack effect can be unpredictable, as it
high level in the building, the smoke and gases depends on so many factors. The Officer-in-
may retain their heat and continue to rise. Charge will need to base the fire fighting tactics on
Ultimately, there will be an airflow out through the the situation as it develops.
highest natural vent, as long as the air temperature
outside the building is lower than the temperature 3 Firefighting in High-Rise
of the smoke and gases. If there is an inlet at low Structures
level and a suitable outlet at high level, quite high
vertical velocities can result. These will depend on It is not intended in this Manual to deal with all
the height of the stack and the temperature of the aspects of firefighting operations, but there are cer-
smoke and gases. tain factors relating to tactical ventilation opera-
tions which are relevant.
This effect can be used to draw air, smoke and hot
gases up through a stairwell, and is useful as a When firefighting operations are being initiated
means of vertical ventilation. It should not be used from the floor below the fire, it must be remem-
in stairwells likely to be required as escape routes bered that, in gaining access to the fire, firefighters
from higher storeys. Care must be taken that the are opening a route which may serve as an inlet or
products of combustion are not allowed to spread outlet vent. Such routes must be controlled as acci-
from the stairwell to other parts of the building. dental venting may result in worsening conditions.
Breaking windows on high rise buildings can If the outlet is on the top of the building, the effect
endanger firefighters and the general public below. of the wind passing across it may again be to
Broken glass may travel considerable distances increase the stack effect.
sideways when falling from a height, especially in
a strong wind. Appropriate safety precautions must Strong winds outside a building at high level can
be taken before windows are deliberately broken. have a dominant effect in ventilation. Opening
vents to provide horizontal ventilation may result
4 Built-in Smoke Ventilation in a near gale blowing through the building. In
Systems some circumstances, and if not properly con-
trolled, this could result in serious fire growth and
Such systems are described in the Manual of spread.
Firemanship Book 9.
In the fire compartment, the integrity of the win-
In using such a system as part of planned tactical dows may be seriously reduced by the heat.
ventilation during firefighting operations, it must Opening the compartment door may then cause the
be remembered that the system is likely to be auto- windows affected to break. If the wind is blowing
matic in operation and will probably have begun to into the window and there is a suitable outlet vent
function before the arrival of the fire brigade. beyond the open door, a backdraught could occur
or, alternatively, there could be a blowtorch effect
It must not be assumed that such systems are at the door (See Figure 11.4), or even at more
installed primarily for the use of firefighters. Their remote points on the access route. Either event
primary use may be in the day-to-day operation of would be extremely dangerous to firefighters at, or
the building. For example, in industrial premises, a outside, the door. Wind produces a positive air
ventilation system may be designed to assist in pressure on the upwind face of a building, and a
providing acceptable working conditions for the negative pressure on the downwind face of the
employees. The provision of a high level exit route building. This can be used to advantage in plan-
for smoke and hot gases, helping to prevent the ning tactical ventilation.
spread of fire, might be only a secondary consider-
ation in its design. Before the fire floor is ventilated, it is essential to
be sure that the resulting air movements will be
5 The Effects of Wind appropriate for effective, safe ventilation. If the
compartment is on the windward side, the removal
In high-rise buildings, the effect of winds can be or opening of windows will result in the smoke
far higher than in low-rise buildings. The wind and hot gases being driven into the building. If the
speed generally increases with height. Thus a 5 compartment is to leeward, the smoke and hot
metre per second wind at ground level might cor- gases will be drawn out.
respond to a 10 metre per second 10 storeys up,
and a 13 metre per second wind 20 storeys up. 6 Ventilation below the Fire
A wind creates high pressure on the upwind side of This may be necessary where cool smoke has
a building and low pressure on the downwind side. spread downwards or where no other form of ven-
tilation is viable. It should be borne in mind that
This can have a significant effect on the stack tactical ventilation between floors will compro-
effect, depending on the location of the outlet vent. mise passive fire safety measures simply because
If the outlet is on the side of the building facing any doors between floor levels must be held open
into the wind, it may prove impossible for the hot in order to complete a route to open air for the
smoke and gases to escape, as the high pressure smoke.
due to the wind may prove stronger than the buoy-
ancy effect of the hot gases. Alternatively, if the It is important to ensure, whenever possible, that
outlet faces down wind, the stack effect may be the inlet vent is at the lower level, and the outlet
increased by the presence of the negative pressure. vent at the upper level, to prevent hot gases being

Figure 11.4 The Effect
of a Broken Window
forced to the floor below and causing fire spread or priority. Even if these gases are not already at their
a backdraught. The problems associated with the auto-ignition temperature, the risk of backdraught
movement of the products of combustion should will still be present if fresh air and a source of igni-
be fully appreciated before this type of ventilation tion are introduced.
is begun.
Where gases are at their auto-ignition temperature,
7 Ventilation above the Fire the introduction of a fresh air supply may be suffi-
cient to cause a backdraught. It is important there-
This tactic may be required where there has been fore, to identify where hot smoke and gases are
significant spread of hot smoke and gases above accumulating. The most likely places are the floor
the fire floor. The primary objective of ventilation level immediately above the fire if stopping
would be to ensure the safe escape of any persons between floors is breached or inadequate, or at the
remaining in the premises, but an equally impor- top of unventilated vertical shafts such as stair-
tant objective would be to minimise the possibility wells or lift shafts.
of a backdraught if there has been a build-up of
flammable gases anywhere. 8 Ventilation of the Fire Floor
In order to reduce the inherent risks of back- As always, knowledge of the building layout is
draught and fire spread, it is important to ventilate essential. Depending on the layout, either horizon-
any spaces containing hot flammable gases as a tal or vertical ventilation may be possible.
Provided the stack effect can be induced, it may be
possible to ventilate vertically by using a stairwell
or other vertical shaft. However, where the vertical
space is too high or large, when compared with the
size of the fire, this may result in smoke logging at
levels below the vent to open air.
In some circumstances, it may be possible to use

one stairwell as the inlet vent, pass air through the
fire compartment and out through another stairwell
to open air. In such cases, it would be advanta-
geous to maintain a positive pressure in the inlet
stairwell, either by use of internal systems or by
using portable fans. The pressure in the outlet
stairwell would need to be reduced if possible, and
any internal pressurisation system switched off. An
operation of this kind needs to be very carefully
controlled as it compromises both staircases.
The most likely option would be the use of hori-

zontal ventilation, opening selected windows
and/or doors to produce a controlled airflow
through the area to be ventilated. As stated previ-
ously, care would have to be taken not to have too
strong an airflow in order that the fire situation is
not made worse. This may involve having a small
inlet vent on the upwind side of the building and a
larger vent on the downwind, reduced pressure,
side of the building.
Negative Pressure Ventilation (NPV) using fans or

water sprays at a downwind opening may help to
augment or accelerate the horizontal ventilation.

Chapter 12 - Summary
Summary 2 Ensure that there is effective communication

between firefighters performing other activi-
The objective of ventilation at a fire is to remove ties inside the building, the Officer-in-Charge
heated air, smoke and other airborne contaminants and those firefighters inside and outside the
from a building, and to replace them with fresher air. building who will be conducting the various
ventilation activities.
Ventilation can be used as a tactical option during
firefighting. 3 Identify the wind direction.
Properly used, it can have significant beneficial 4 Decide whether to adopt vertical or horizon-
effects on firefighting: tal ventilation.
• it can assist escape by restricting the spread 5 If the wind will not provide sufficient venti-
of smoke on escape routes, improving visibil- lation on its own, once the vents have been
ity and extending available egress times; made, consider whether forced ventilation
may help.
• it can aid rescue operations by reducing the
smoke and toxic gases which hinder search 6 Select the locations of the inlet and outlet
activities and endanger trapped occupants; vents, and decide how they are to be made.
• it can improve the safety of firefighters by
7 Arrange for the outlet vent or vents to be cov-
reducing the risk of flashover, and making it
ered by manned charged hoselines.
easier to control the effects of a backdraught;
• it can speed attack and extinguishment by 8 Consider whether firefighters inside the
removing heat so that firefighters can enter a building need to be withdrawn whilst ventila-
building early and, by removing smoke and tion takes place. If so, withdraw them.
improving visibility, make its easier for fire-
9 Notify all concerned of the intention to start
fighters to locate and deal with the fire;
ventilation.
• it can reduce property damage where the fire
can be located and tackled more quickly and, 10 Make the outlet vent first. This may result in
by limiting the movement of smoke and hot an initial fireball.
gases, restrict fire spread.
11 If the inlet vent is also the firefighter's point
Incorrectly applied, it can initiate backdraughts, of access, no further action may be necessary.
cause fire spread and place firefighters at risk. Otherwise, once any initial effects have
occurred, make the inlet vent.
The basic principles in commencing ventilation
can be summarised in a simple checklist: 12 If being used, start up the PPV/NPV fan.
1 Identify the purpose of the ventilation. This The effects of the ventilation must be closely
will determine whether the approach is to be supervised, and the progress inside the building
offensive or defensive. must be reported to the Officer-in-Charge.
Aide Mémoire
3

Glossary of terms
Ventilation
the removal of heated air, smoke and other airborne contaminants from a structure, and their
replacement with a supply of fresher air.
Self Ventilation
occurs when the fire damages the structure so that increased ventilation occurs.
Automatic Ventilation
occurs when pre-installed vents are activated automatically, usually in the early stages of the fire,
by the fire detection system or fusible link devices.
requires the intervention by the fire service to open up the building, releasing the products of com-
bustion and allowing fresher air to enter.
Vertical (or Top) Ventilation

making an opening at high level, (usually through the roof) such that the buoyancy of the hot gases
and smoke enables them to escape vertically.
Horizontal (or Cross) Ventilation

making openings in the external walls (for example using windows and doors) so that the wind
assists in the removal of the hot gases and smoke.
Natural Ventilation
describes collectively the techniques of vertical and horizontal ventilation when they are not assist-
ed by mechanical means. This includes the use of pre-installed vents, windows, doors etc.
Forced Ventilation
describes collectively the techniques of vertical and horizontal ventilation when mechanical means
are used to assist in removing the hot gases and smoke, or in providing a supply of fresh air.
Offensive Ventilation
ventilating close to the fire to have a direct effect on the fire itself, to limit fire spread, and to make
conditions safer for the firefighters.
Defensive Ventilation
ventilating away from the fire, or after the fire is out. to have an effect on the hot gases and smoke,
particularly to improve access and escape routes and to control smoke movement to areas of the
building not involved in the fire.
Positive Pressure Ventilation (PPV)

PPV can be achieved by forcing air into a building using a fan. The effect of this will be to
increase the pressure inside, relative to atmospheric pressure. PPVsimply refers to blowing air in
through the inlet vent.
Negative Pressure Ventilation (NPV)

NPV refers to extracting the smoke and hot gases from the outlet vent. This will have the effect of
reducing the pressure inside the building, relative to the atmospheric pressure. It can be achieved
by fans or water sprays.
Further Reading
Dear Chief Officer Letter 14/1985 (Dear

Firemaster Letter 9/1985). The Use of Smoke
Extracting Equipment in Fire Brigade Operations -
Research Report 26.
Technical Bulletin 1/1993. Operational Incidents

in Tunnels and Underground Structures. HMSO.
International Fire Service Training Association -

Fire Ventilation Practices - Seventh Edition. Fire
Protection Publications, Oklahoma State
University.
H P Morgan and J P Gardner - Design Principles

for Smoke Ventilation in Enclosed Shopping
Centres. BRE Report BR186 1990.
British Standard BS 5588: Fire Precautions in the

Design, Construction and Use of Buildings.
Dear Chief Officer Letter 9/1997 which provides

details of Training Videos produced to comple-
ment this publication.
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Issued under the authority of the Home Office

(Fire and Emergency Planning Directorate)

Fire Service Manual

HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications Section

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Printed in the United Kingdom for The Stationery Office

"Compartment Fires" supplements Books 1 and 11

Part 2 - Tactical Ventilation

Compartment Fires and Tactical Ventilation iii

Chapter 4 Firefighter Awareness 17

Part 2: Tactical Ventilation 19

Chapter 3 Horizontal Ventilation 31

Chapter 4 Vertical Ventilation 35

Chapter 5 Forced Ventilation 39

Chapter 6 Positive Pressure Ventilation 43

Chapter 7 Tactical Options with PPV - Defensive 49

Chapter 8 Tactical Options with PPV - Offensive 51

vi Fire Service Manual

Chapter 10 Basements, Underground Structures and Tunnels 57

Chapter 11 High Rise Buildings and Malls 61

Compartment Fires and Tactical Ventilation vii

Chapter 1 - The Fire

1 Combustion in wood. Eventually, if they get hot enough, the

The high gas temperatures cause a vigorous

Low down in the plume, the centre will be rich in

In the upper part of the plume, there is no flame. It

The upper part of the flame is basically unstable,

The hot plume radiates down on to the fuel, heat-

2 Fire Growth When water is turned from a liquid into a gas,

4 Fire Service Manual

Figure 2.2 A Delayed

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However, the compartment will still have to be

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A methane flame has been burning in the compart-

Fresh air has flowed into the

The flame travels along the gas/air

The flame now fills most of the

The flame drives out of the com-

A massive fireball seeks out every

I2 Fire Service Manual

In large compartments with higher ceilings, flame

However, it may be that, at some distance from the

As the hot smoke layer descends, and particularly

2 Definition of a Flashover Once the immediate danger of a flashover has been

The primary requirement for a flashover to occur is

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A sequence of photographs from an enclosed

The fire starts in a waste paper

A smoke layer is starting to build

The smoke layer is getting thicker

The smoke layer has descended to

Flashover has occurred. The flame

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Chapter 4 - Firefighter Awareness

Officers have the important responsibility of

It is essential that, from the moment firefighters

Wharry, D. 1974 Fire Technology - Chemistry and

1 Ventilation When tactical ventilation is used before extinction,

22 Fire Service Manual