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orproperty
of,which
thepersons
I amarguing
with, to be between
suppose
twobodies?
Clarkecannotconsistently defendthe thesisthat space is an at-
tributeand also affirmtheexistenceof vacua in nature,foras Leib-
niz pointsout (L. V. 38.): " if space is a property, whatthingwill
an emptylimitedspace (such as thatwhichmy adversary imagines
in an exhaustedreceiver)be theproperty of?"
This referenceto vacua in naturebringsus to a problemwhich
was sharplydebatedby Leibnizand Clarkein the correspondence.
The Newtoniantheories in generaldealtwithsolidmaterialparticles
in
moving absolutespace and time. Hence,betweensuchparticles
theremustbe vacua. In denyingthe existenceof vacua in nature,
Leibniz had difficulty in explainingaway the empiricalevidence
whichClarkehad citedin supportof the Newtoniantheoryof solid
particlesmovingin absolutespaceand time. Guericke's experiments
withthe air pumpand Torricelli's development of the mercury ba-
rometerseemedto offeralmostconclusiveproofof the existenceof
vacua. Andfromthefactthatdifferent liquidshavedifferent specific
gravitiesand offerdifferent degreesof resistanceto movingbodies
passingthroughthem,Clarkeconcludedthat certainliquidsmust
have morematterper unitvolumethanothers,and that therefore,
sincetheultimateparticles ofmatterareuniform, theremustbe some
emptyspacebetweenthem.
AgainsttheNewton-Clarke postulation of vacua,whichpurports
to be foundedon physicalevidence,Leibnizoffers threearguments,
all dependentuponmetaphysical considerations. First,he holdsthat
"the morematterthereis, themoreGod has occasionto exercisehis
wisdomandpower" (L. II. 2.). Therefore, thereis no vacuumat all,
sinceGod will have filledthe wholeuniversewithmatter. Leibniz
statesthissameargument in moredetailin his fourthletter(L. IV.
PS.):
I layit downas a principle,
thateveryperfection,
whichGodcouldimpart
tothings withoutderogatingfromtheirotherperfections, hasactually
been
imparted to them.Nowletus fancya spacewhollyempty.God could
haveplacedsomematter in it,withoutderogating
in anyrespect from all
otherthings:thereforehe has actuallyplacedsomematter in thatspace:
therefore,
thereis nospacewholly empty: therefore
all is full.
This argument assumesthatmatter,as such,is moreperfectthana
vacuum,and Leibniz,in fact,makesthisassumptionexplicitwhen
he says (L. IV. PS.):
becausematteris moreperfect
thana vacuum. .. thereshouldbe as much
morematter thanvacuum, as theformer deserves
to havethepreference
beforethelatter.Butthentheremustbenovacuumat all; fortheperfec-
tionofmatteris tothatofa vacuum,as something
tonothing.
In fact,howareanytworegionsofabsolutespacetobe distinguished?
If thereare no discernible differences,two equallyshapedpartsof
a vacuummustbe identical. But thisis absurd. Therefore, theas-
sumption ofvacua in naturemustbe abandoned, becauseit is incom-
patiblewiththeprinciple oftheidentity ofindiscernibles.
In theattemptto explainawaythescientific evidenceforthe ex-
istenceof vacua,Leibniz'spositionseemsto lose someof its initial
plausibility.In his fourthletter,Clarkecites the evidenceof an
"exhaustedreceiver " in which,thoughtheremaybe lightraysand
perhapsan exceedingly smallquantityofothermatter, " yetthewant
of resistanceplainlyshows,that the greatestpart of that space is
void of matter"15 (C. IV. 7.). Leibnizattemptedto answerthis
argumentby holding,with the Aristotelians and Cartesians,that
" thereis no vacuumat all in the tube or receiver;sinceglasshas
smallpores,whichthebeamsof light,the effluvia of the load-stone,
and otherverythinfluidsmaygo through " (L. V. 34.). Leibnizis
certainly correctin holdingthatan electro-magnetic or gravitational
fieldmay be presentin an apparentvacuum,but his reference to
" otherverythinfluids" is neverclarified or developed. He merely
assumesthatthereis a fluid(something like the 19th-century con-
ception of the aether) which has thesame " quantity"as othermat-
ter but not the same " grossness " (i.e., it is more "subtile" and
offerslittleor no resistance).Andthismatter," voidofheaviness,"
replacestheairwhichis removed froma receiver in thecreationofan
apparentvacuum. But Leibnizhad arguedat somelengthagainst
Descartesthatmatterwas to be definednotby extension but by its
inertialproperties, so thatmatterwithoutinertia,as is clearlyim-
pliedhere,seemsto be a self-contradictory or elsemeaningless notion
forLeibniz.
AgainstClarke'sotherargument forvacua, Leibnizis somewhat
moresuccessful.In his fourthletter(C. IV. 7.) Clarkehad main-
tainedthatthedifferent resistances
ofmercury and watercan be ac-
countedforonlyon the basis of theirdifferent densities,and con-
sequentlythatthereis of necessity morevacuumwherethereis less
resistance. To this Leibniz repliesthat "it is not so much the
quantityof matter,as its difficultyof givingplace [viscosity],that
makesresistance"(L. V. 34.). Leibnizis perfectly correctin hold-
Torricelli(1608-47)ofFlorence,
15 a pupilofGalileoandinventorofthebarom-
eter,had producedan apparentvacuumin the top of the tube of his mercury
barometer.Guericke(1602-86)of Magdeburg, whoinvented theair pump,is said
to have performed forEmperorFerdinandIII an experiment in whichtwohollow
copperhemispheres, fromwhichtheair had beenexhausted, couldnotbe separated
by thirtyhorses,fifteenpullingon each hemisphere.Leibniz,who corresponded
withGuericke abouttheairpumpin 1671-2,was wellawareofthedifficulties which
theseexperiments createdforhis theoryof space and theplenum.