Chapter 6 [EE203]

AC power
[Dr.F.MOUHOUCHE]
UMBB/IGEE/2020-2021

1 Introduction
There are different types of power in AC circuits, such as instantaneous power,active
power, reactive power and apparent power.

2 Instantaneous power
Let v(t) be the voltage across a circuit and i(t) be the current through the circuit from
the positive terminal to the negative terminal

v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + θv )
i(t) = Im cos(ωt + θi )
The instantaneous power can be written as:

p(t) = i(t)v(t) = Vm Im (ωt + θv )cos(ωt + θi )

1 1
Using the trigonometric identity:cos(α)cos(β) = cos(α − β) + cos(α + β)
2 2
So:
Vm Im Vm Im
p(t) = cos(θv − θi ) + cos(2ωt + θv + θi )
2 2
Let θ be the difference of phases θv and θi ; that is,

θ = θv − θi
Vm Im Vm Im
p(t) = cos(θ) + cos(2ωt + θv + θi )
2 2
Note that cos(θ)is an even function of θ, and sin(θ) is an odd function of θ:

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3 Average and Reactive Power

Thus, the average power is given by
Z T Z T
1 1 Vm Im Vm Im
P = p(t) dt = cos(θ) + cos(2ωt + θv + θi ) dt
T 0 T 0 2 2

Z T Z T
1 Vm Im Vm Im
P = cos(θ) dt + cos(2ωt + θv + θi ) dt
T 2 0 2 0
ω
Since the second term of Equation is a periodic cosine wave with period T = , the
2π
average value is zero.
Thus, the average power is given by:

Vm Im Vm Im
P = cos(θ) = √ √ cos(θ) = Vrms Irms cos(θ)
2 2 2
If the voltage and current are in phase, the phase difference is zero [θ = 0]. Then
cos(θ) = 1, and the average power becomes

Vm Im
P = = Vrms Irms
2
• If P > 0 the element is absorbing power
• If P < 0 the element is releasing power
• If the phase difference θ (θ = θv − θi ) is between (−90◦ < θ < 90◦ , cos(θ) > 0 is
positive , and the element is absorbing power.
• If the phase differenceθ (θ = θv − θi ) is between 90◦ and 270◦ (90◦ < θ < 270◦ ),
cos(θ) is negative (cos(θ) < 0), and the element is releasing power.
• If θ = 90◦ or 270◦ ,cosθ = 0 and the average power=0

The power factor (pf) is defined as

pf = cos(θ)
In terms of power factor, the average power is given by

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Vm Im
P = cos(θ) = Vrms Irms pf
2
The instantaneous power p(t) given by

Vm Im Vm Im
p(t) = cos(θv − θi ) + cos(2ωt + 2θi + θv − θi )
2 2
Vm Im Vm Im
= cos(θ) + cos(2ωt + 2θi + θ)
2 2
Vm Im Vm Im Vm Im
= cos(θ) + cos(θ)cos(2ωt + 2θi ) − sin(θ)sin(2ωt + 2θi )
2 2 2
Let Q be :

Vm Im Im Vm
Q= sin(θ) = √ √ sin(θ) = Irms Vrms sin(θ)
2 2 2
Thus,

p(t) = P + P cos(2ωt + 2θi ) − Qsin(2ωt + θi )

= P [1 + cos(2ωt + 2θi )] − Qsin(2ωt + θi )

• The first term, P [1 + cos(2ωt + 2θi )] is nonnegative for all t.This term represents
the power absorbed. The average value of the first term is P⇒This term represents
the power on the resistive component (R) of the load.
• The second term, −Qsin(2ωt + θi ), oscillates between positive (power is absorbed)
and negative (power is released). The same amount of power is absorbed and
released back and forth. The net power absorbed (or released) is zero.⇒ This
term represents the power on the reactive components (C and L) of the load.
• The quantity Q is called the reactive power .The unit for reactive power is volt-
ampere reactive (VAR).

The time-varying part of the instantaneous power is given by

Vm Im Vm Im
ptv (t) = cos(θ)cos(2ωt + 2θi ) − sin(θ)sin(2ωt + 2θi )
2 2
= P cos(2ωt + 2θi ) − Qsin(2ωt + 2θi )
√ P P
= P 2+Q2 [ √ 2
cos(2ωt + 2θi ) − √ cos(2ωt + 2θi )]
P 2+Q P 2+Q2

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p Vm Im P
P 2 + Q2 = , p = cos(θ)
2 P 2 + Q2
Q Q Q
p = sin(θ), tan(θ) = ⇒ θ = tan−1 ( )
P 2 + Q2 P P
Thus, the time-varying part of the instantaneous power is given by

Vm Im Vm Im p
p(t) = cos(θ) + cos(2ωt + 2θi + θ) ⇒ ptv = P 2 + Q2 cos(2ωt + 2θi + θ)
2 2
If θi = 0, the phasor representation of the time-varying part vvt (t) is given by

p
P 2 + Q2 ∠θ
The time-varying part of the instantaneous power can also be written as

Vm Im Vm Im
ptv (t) = cos(θ)cos(2ωt + 2θi ) + sin(θ)cos(2ωt + 2θi + 90◦ )
2 2
= P cos(2ωt + 2θi ) + Qcos(2ωt + 2θi + 90◦ )
The phasor for the first term is P ∠0◦ , and the phasor for the second term is Q∠90◦
when θi = 0. The reactive power Q is ahead by 90◦ as shown in Figure , where S is the
vector sum of phasors P ∠0◦ and Q∠90◦

That is,

−1 Q
p p
S = P + jQ = P + Q ∠tan ( ) = P 2 + Q2 ∠θ
2 2
P
S is the phasor representation of the time-varying part of the instantaneous power.
The phasor S is called the complex power. The unit for the complex power is volt-
ampere (VA).

p p
|S| = P2 + Q2 = 2 I 2 cos2 (θ) + V 2 I 2 sin2 (θ
Vrms rms rms rms

• The magnitude |S| of the complex power is called the apparent power.
• The unit for the apparent power is volt-ampere (VA).
• In terms of the apparent power, we can rewrite the average power and the reactive
power given by:
Vm Im Vm Im
P = cos(θ) = pf = Vrms Irms pf = |S|pf
2 2
Vm Im p
Q= sin(θ) = Vrms Irms sin(θ) = |S|sin(θ) = ±|S| 1 − pf 2
2
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4 Complex power
Consider a circuit with a load as shown in Figure:

Figure 1

• The phasor representation of v(t) = Vm cos(ωt + θv ) ⇒ V = Vm ∠θv

• The phasor representation of i(t) = Im cos(ωt + θi ) ⇒ I = Im ∠θi
The complex power on the load is defined as:
1
S = V I∗
2
1 1 1
S = Vm ∠θv Im ∠ − θi = Vm ejθv Im e−θi = Vm Im ej(θv −θi )
2 2 2
1 1
= Vm Im cos(θ) + j Vm Im sin(θ) = P + jQ
2 2
where:

Vm Im
P = cos(θ) = Vrms Irms cos(θ) =| S | pf
2
Vm Im
Q= sin(θ) = Vrms Irms sin(θ) =| S | sin(θ)
2
• we can conclude that the real part of the complex power is the average power or
active power P

<(S) = P

• The imaginary part of the complex power is the reactive power Q,

=(S) = P

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Figure 2

The complex power may be expressed in terms of the load impedance Z

Since Vrms = ZIrms according to Ohms law, the complex power :

∗ ∗
S = Vrms Irms ⇒ S = ZIrms Irms = Z|Irms |2 = (R + jX)|Irms |2
S = R|Irms |2 + jX|Irms |2 = P + jQ

P = R|Irms |2 , Q = X|Irms |2
Vrms
Since Irms = , the complex power
Z
∗
Vrms ∗ Vrms Vrms |Vrms |2 Z |Vrms |2 Z |Vrms |2 (R + jX) |Vrms |2 (R + jX)
S=( ) Vrms = = = = =
Z Z∗ Z ∗Z |Z|2 |R + jX|2 R2 + X 2

|Vrms |2 R |Vrms |2 X
P = 2 ,P = 2
R + X2 R + X2

5 Power triangle
• We have discussed three different powers in AC circuits, the active power, reactive
power and apparent power.
• Now the question is what are the relationships between these three powers.
• The complex power S is a vector in the complex plane as shown in Figure 3

Figure 3

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• This diagram is called a power triangle

• we conclude that the projection of the complex power S onto the real axis is the
average power P and the projection of the complex power S onto the imaginary
axis is the reactive power Q; that is,

P = <(S) = |S|cos(θ) = |S|pf

p
Q = =(S) = |S|sin(θ) = ±|S| 1 − pf 2

• The power factor is said to be lagging if the power factor angle (θv − θi ) > 0 is
positive.
• If the power factor angle is negative, it is called leading.
• If the reactance is positive (X > 0), the reactive power is positive (Q > 0), the
load is inductive R + jωL ,θ = θv − θi > 0 and the power factor is lagging.
V V ωL
• Since I = = , θi = θv − tan−1 ( )
Z R + jωL R
• On the other hand, if the reactance is negative (X < 0), the reactive power is
1
negative (Q < 0), the load is capacitive (R − j ) θ = θv − θi < 0, and the power
ωC
factor is leading
V V 1
• Since I = = the phase of the current , θi = θv + tan−1 ( )
Z 1 ωCR
R−j
ωC

Figure 4

Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the power triangle, we obtain

|S|2 =pP 2 + Q2
|S| =p P 2 + Q2
P = |S|2 − Q2

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p
Q= |S|2 − Q2
P
pf = cos(θ) =
|S|
Q
sin(θ) =
|S| s
|Q| |Q|2
|S| = p ⇒ pf = 1 −
1 − pf 2 |S|2
p Pp
Q = |S| 1 − pf 2 ⇒ 1 − pf 2
pf
Q × pf Q
P =p =r , pf 6= 1
1 − pf 2 1
−1
pf

6 Total power
• When calculating the total power in a complicated series parallel circuit, determine
the active power P and reactive power Q in each branch first, and the sum of all
the active powers is the total active power PT .
• The difference between QLT and QCT the total reactive power QT .
• QLT is the sum of all reactive powers for the inductors and QCT is the sum of all
reactive powers for the capacitors.
• The total apparent power S can be determined by using QT and PT using the
Pythagora’s theorem, i.e.

p
ST = PT2 + Q2T

The total power factor can be determined by using the total active and reactive
power, i.e.

PT
P FT = cos(θT ) =
ST

7 Maximum Power transfer

Let the Thvenin equivalent impedance seen from the load toward the source be:

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Zth = Rth + jXth

Vth
I=
Zth + ZL
The average power on the load is given by:

RL
1 2 |Vth |2
P = |I| RL = 2
2 (Rth + RL ) + (Xth + XL )2
2

The voltage and current are peak values (not rms).

To find the load reactance XL that maximizes the average power, we take the partial
differential of P with respect to XL and set that equal to zero:

∂P −|Vth |2 RL (Xth + XL )
= =0
∂XL [(Rth + RL )2 + (Xth + XL )2 ]2
From this, we conclude that

XL = −Xth
∂P |Vth |2 [(Rth + RL )2 + (Xth + XL )2 − 2RL (Rth + RL )]
= =0
∂RL 2[(Rth + RL )2 + (Xth + XL )2 ]
(Rth + RL )2 + (Xth − XL )2 − 2RL (Rth + RL )2 = (Rth + RL )2 − 2RL (Rth + RL ) = 0
(Rth + RL )(Rth + RL − 2RL ) = 0
(Rth + RL )(Rth − RL ) = 0
Thus, we have

RL = −Rth or RL = Rth
SinceRth > 0 ⇒ Rth = RL ,
Therefore, the load impedance that maximizes the average power of the load is given
by the complex conjugate of the Thvenin impedance; that is,

∗
ZL = RL + jXL = Rth − jXth = Zth
the maximum average power of the load becomes:

RL
1 2 |Vth |2
Pmax = |I| RL = 2
2 ((Rth + RL )2 ((Xth + XL )2
RL
|Vth |2 |Vth |2
= 2 =
((Rth + Rth )2 ((Xth − Xth )2 8Rth
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Vth
The voltage Vth is a peak value. For rms value, since Vth,rms = √ , we have:
2
|Vth,rms |2
Pmax =
4Rth

Maximum Power Transfer for norton equivalent Circuit

A derivation similar to the one given above for the maximum power transfer for a
Thvenin equivalent circuit shows that, for the maximum power transfer, the load impedance
is selected to be :

ZL = ZN∗
The maximum power of the load is given by
|IN |2
Pmax =
8
where IN is a peak value. If the rms value is used,

|IN,rms |2
Pmax =
8

8 Power Factor Correction (PFC)

• The power factor is an important factor in circuit analysis. The circuit source will
produce active power P to the load, and the amount of the active power P can
be determined by the power factor cos(θ). This is indicated in the equation of
P = Scos(θ) .
• If the power factor cos(θ) of the load is the maximum value of 1, the active power
produced by the source is the maximum capacity of the source, and all the energy
supplied by the source will be consumed by the load(P = S with(cos(θ) = 1)
• If the power factor cos f decreases, the active power P produced by the source will
also decrease accordingly (P ↓= Scos(θ) ↓).
• So increasing the power factor can increase the real power in a circuit. But how
to increase the power factor of a circuit?
• A method called power-factor correction can be used. This method can increase
the power factor and does not affect the load voltage and current.

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• Since most of the loads of the electrical systems are inductive loads (such as the
loads that are driven by a motor), an inductive load in parallel with a capacitor
(Figure) can increase the power factor of the load.

Figure 5

• The power triangle in Figure (c) indicates that when a capacitor C is in parallel
0
with the inductive load, the reactive power Q in the circuit will be reduced to Q
0
Q = Q − QC
0
• Therefore, the impedance angle will reduce from θ to θ and the power factor cos
0
f will increase to cos(θ )

Figure 6

• Since θ ↓⇒ cos(θ) ↑ , for instance cos30◦ = 0.866 > cos60◦ = 0.5, the total current
P
I will also decrease, since I ↓= (P = Scosθ = V Icosθ).This can reduce
(V cosθ) ↑
the source current and line power loss (I 2 R. This is why increasing the power
factor has a significant meaning.

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