STEELWORK DESIGN

(To EC3)

Dr. Arizu Sulaiman

Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

1
TRUSSES

2
 INTRODUCTION

■ Trusses are frequently used to distribute wind loading

to foundation, as temporary bracing during
construction, and for torsional and lateral stability.

■ Roof trusses (as well as lattice girders) generally

transfer the loads by inducing axial tensile and
compressive forces in the individual members.

3
 Roof

Purlins

Top Cord

Gusset
Plates

Bottom Cord

Knee brace

Span Bay

TERMINOLOGY OF TRUSS

4
 Loading

■ Permanent (Dead) loads (Handbook or manufacturers’

details):
Include sheeting, decking, insulation, roof or floor slab, purlins,
ceiling, services, finishes and self-weight.
These may range from 0.3 to 1.0 kN/m2.

■ Variable (Imposed) loads (BS 6399:Part 1, section 6):

a) there is only access to the roof for maintenance and repair
= 0.75 kN/m2
b) where there is access in addition to that in (a), the load may be
taken as
= 1.5 kN/m2

5
 Loading

■ Wind loads (BS 6399:Part 2 or CP3:Ch V:Part 2):

– Depends on the location of the buildings, its
dimensions as well as roof slope.
– The wind loads that act normal to the roof surfaces
result in an uplift to the roof, which may cause load
reversal in truss members.
– Wind also induces horizontal loadings in multi-storey
buildings. Bracings are usually applied to such
building to resist the lateral loads.

6
 Analysis of Truss

■ Loads on trusses may result in two types of forces:

– Primary forces ( Axial forces in members)
– Secondary stresses (Moments)

Primary Forces:

■ Loads from the roof are transferred through the purlins

onto the nodes (i.e purlins are located on the nodes).
■ Other assumptions:
- Members are connected together at their ends only.
- Members are connected by frictionless pins.

200

7
 Analysis of Truss
■ The magnitude and senses of the axial forces in members
can be determined using:
– Method of sections
– Method of joints
– Tension coefficients
– Graphical techniques
– Numerical method (Computer software)

200

8
 Analysis of Truss

Secondary Stresses:

■ May be due to the following situations:

- Loads applied between the nodes of the truss
- Eccentricity at connections
- Rigid jointed and deflection of trusses

200

9
 DESIGN OF PURLINS

■ Purlins are flexural members placed on the top chords

(rafters), and are used to support roofing materials.

■ Design by using a Simplified Beam method

10
 DESIGN OF PURLINS

Simplified Beam Method

- At least Class 3 section

- Limiting value of Elastic Modulus,
Wel,y = MEd,y/fy

- Check the actual deflection (= 5wL4/384EI) using

unfactored imposed (variable) load against the
allowable value of L/200

11
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

Eurocode 3 states that tensile resistance

should be verified as follows:

Nt ,Ed  Nt ,Rd Tension check

Nt,Ed is the tensile design effect

Nt,Rd is the design tensile resistance
Design tensile resistance Nt,Rd

Design tensile resistance Nt,Rd is limited either

by:

• Yielding of the gross cross-section Npl,Rd

• or ultimate failure (fracture) of the net cross-

section (at holes for fasteners) Nu,Rd

whichever is the lesser.

Yielding of gross cross-section
The Eurocode 3 design expression for
yielding of the gross cross-section (plastic
resistance) given as:

Afy
Npl,Rd 
 M0

This criterion is applied to prevent excessive

deformation of the member.
Ultimate resistance of net section

And for the ultimate resistance of the net

cross-section (defined in clause 6.2.2.2), the
Eurocode 3 design expression is:

0.9A net fu
Nu,Rd 
 M2

Anet is the reduced cross-sectional area to

account for bolt holes
Partial factors M

Plastic resistance of the gross cross-section

Npl,Rd utliises M0, whilst ultimate fracture of
the net cross-section Nu,Rd utilises M2.

 M 0  1.0 and  M 2  1.1 (UK NA)

The larger safety factor associated with

fracture reflects the undesirable nature of
the failure mode.
 Non-staggered fasteners
For a non-staggered arrangement of fasteners,
the total area to be deducted should be taken as
the sum of the sectional areas of the holes on
any line (A-A) perpendicular to the member axis
that passes through the centreline of the holes.
A

A
Non-staggered
arrangement of fasteners
s s
Non-staggered fasteners

Net area at bolts holes Anet on any line (A-

A) perpendicular to the member axis:

Anet = A - nd0t

A = gross cross-sectional area

n = number of bolt holes
d0 = diameter of bolt holes
t = material thickness
 Staggered fasteners
For a staggered arrangement of fasteners, the total area
to be deducted should be taken as the greater of:

1. the maximum sum of the sectional areas of the holes

on any line (A-A) perpendicular to the member axis

 s2 
2. t nd0   

 4p 

where

s is the staggered pitch of two consecutive holes

p is the spacing of the centres of the same two holes
measured perpendicular to the member axis
 Staggered fasteners
n is the number of holes extending in any diagonal
or zig-zag line progressively across the section

S relates to the number of diagonal paths

A

Staggered arrangement B A
of fasteners
s s
 Angles connected by a single row of bolts

Single angles in tension connected by a single

row of bolts through one leg, may be treated as
concentrically loaded, but with an effective net
section, to give the design ultimate tensile
resistance as below.
2.0 (e 2  0.5d0 )tfu
With 1 bolt : Nu,Rd 
 M2

 2 Anet fu
With 2 bolts : Nu,Rd 
 M2

 3 Anet fu
With 3 or more bolts : Nu,Rd 
 M2
 Angles connected by a single row of bolts
where 2 and 3 are reduction factors dependent upon
the bolt spacing (pitch) p1.

Anet is the net area of the angle. For an unequal angle

connected by its smaller leg, Anet should be taken as
the net section of an equivalent equal angle of leg
length equal to the smaller leg of the unequal angle.
Other symbols are defined below:
e1 p1 p1

Definitions
for e1, e2, e2 d0
p1 and d0
Angles connected by a single row
of bolts
Reduction factors 2 and 3

Pitch p1 ≤ 2.5d0 ≥ 5.0d0

2 (for 2 bolts) 0.4 0.7

3 (for 3 or more
0.5 0.7
bolts)
Note: For intermediate values of pitch p1 values of  may
be determined by linear interpolation. d0 is the bolt hole
diameter.
Angles with welded end connections

In the case of welded end connections:

For an equal angle, or an unequal angle

connected by its larger leg, the eccentricity
may be neglected, and the effective area
may be taken as equal to the gross area
(clause 4.13(2) of EN 1993-1-8).
Example: Tension member design

Design a single angle tie, using grade S355

steel, for the member AB shown below.
Consider a bolted and a welded arrangement.

B
NEd = 541 kN

Tension member AB in truss

Example: Tension member design

Cross-section resistance in tension is

covered in clause 6.2.3 of EN 1993-1-1, with
reference to clause 6.2.2 for the calculation
of cross-section properties.
Example: Tension member design

Welded connection
Try a 125×75×10 unequal angle, welded by the
longer leg.
For an unequal angle connected (welded) by its
larger leg, the effective area may be taken as equal
to the gross area (clause 4.13(2) of EN 1993-1-8)

125×75×10
unequal angle

Gusset plate

125×75×10 unequal angle welded by longer leg

Example: Tension member design

For a nominal material thickness t of 10 mm,

yield strength fy = 355 N/mm2 and ultimate
tensile strength fu = 470 N/mm2 (from EN
10025-2).

Partial factors from UK National Annex are

M0 = 1.00 and M2 = 1.10.

Gross area of cross-section, A = 1920 mm2

(from Section Tables).
Example: Tension member design

For yielding of the gross cross-section, plastic

resistance= is given as:
Afy 1920  355
Npl,Rd    682x103 N  682 kN
 M0 1.0

And for the ultimate resistance of the net

cross-section, concentrically loaded (defined
in clause 6.2.2.2), the Eurocode 3 design
expression is:
0.9 Anet fu 0.9  1920  470
Nu,Rd    738  103 N  738 kN
 M2 1.10
Example: Tension member design

The tensile resistance Nt,Rd is taken as the

lesser of these two values, and is therefore
682 kN.

682 kN > 541 kN (i.e. Nt,Rd > NEd)

Unequal angle 125×75×10 in grade S355 steel,

connected by the longer leg is therefore
acceptable. For efficiency, a smaller angle
may be checked.
Example: Tension member design

Bolted connection
Try a 150×75×10 unequal angle, bolted (with a line
of four 22 mm HSFG bolts, at 125 mm centres)
through the longer leg. Material properties and
partial factors are as for the welded case.
150×75×10
unequal angle

24 mm diameter holes
for 22 mm HSFG bolts

Gusset plate

150×75×10 unequal angle bolted by longer leg

Example: Tension member design

Gross area of cross-section, A = 2170 mm2 (from

Section Tables).

For yielding of the gross cross-section, plastic

resistance is given as:

Afy 2170  355

Npl,Rd    770  103 N  770kN
 M0 1.0

The net cross-sectional area Anet:

Anet = A – allowance for bolt holes = 2170 –
(24×10) = 1930 mm2
Example: Tension member design

From Table, 3 = 0.7 (since the pitch p1 > 5d0).

 3 Anet fu 0.7  1930  470

Nu,Rd    577  103 N  577 kN
 M2 1.10

The tensile resistance Nt,Rd is taken as the lesser of

these two values, and is therefore 577 kN.

577 kN > 541 kN (i.e. Nt,Rd > NEd)

Unequal angle 150×75×10 in grade S355 steel,

connected by the longer leg (using four 22 mm
diameter HSFG bolts) is therefore acceptable.
 Tension member design exercise
A flat bar 200 mm wide × 25 mm thick is to be used as
a tie (tension member). Erection conditions require
that the bar be constructed from two lengths
connected together with a lap splice using six M20
bolts as shown below. Assume 22 mm diameter bolt
holes. Calculate the tensile strength of the bar
assuming grade S275 steel.
A
50 mm
T T
100 mm
50 mm
A
T T
25 mm thick plates

100 mm 100 mm
Tension member design exercise

Cross-section resistance in tension is covered in

clause 6.2.3 of EN 1993-1-1, with reference to clause
6.2.2 for the calculation of cross-section properties.

For a nominal material thickness t of 25 mm, yield

strength fy = 265 N/mm2 and ultimate tensile strength
fu = 410 N/mm2 (from EN 10025-2).

Partial factors from UK National Annex are M0 = 1.00

and M2 = 1.10.

Gross area of cross-section, A = 25 × 200 = 5000 mm2.

Tension member design exercise

Net area at bolts holes Anet on any line (A-A)

perpendicular to the member axis:

Anet = A - nd0t

= 5000 – (2 × 22 × 25) = 3900 mm2

Design plastic resistance Npl,Rd of the gross

section:
Afy 5000x265
Npl,Rd    1325 kN
 M0 1.0
Tension member design exercise

Design ultimate resistance Nu,Rd of the net

section:

0.9Anet fu 0.9x3900x 410

Nu,Rd    1308 kN
 M2 1.10

The tensile resistance, Nt,Rd is taken as the

smaller of Npl,Rd (1325 kN) and Nu,Rd (1308 kN).

 Nt,Rd = 1308 kN
 DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Since categorised under Compression

Members, design checks are similar to the
checks for Axially Loaded Column.

Eurocode 3 states, as with BS 5950, that both

cross-sectional and member resistance must
be verified:

NEd  Nc ,Rd Cross-section check

NEd  Nb,Rd Member buckling check

Cross-section resistance

Cross-section resistance in compression Nc,Rd

depends on cross-section classification:

Afy
Nc ,Rd  for Class 1, 2 or 3 sections
 M0

A eff fy
Nc ,Rd  for Class 4 sections
 M0

M0 is specified as 1.0 in EN 1993

This value will also be adopted in the UK
Buckling resistance

Compression buckling resistance Nb,Rd:

 A fy
Nb,Rd  for Class 1, 2 and 3
 M1
Reduction
factor

 A eff fy
Nb,Rd  for (symmetric) Class 4
 M1
 Member buckling
b/t
 Non-dimensional slenderness  p 
28,4 k 
A fy
 for Class 1, 2 and 3
Ncr

A eff fy
 for Class 4
Ncr

where Ncr is the elastic critical buckling load:

 2EI
Ncr 
L2
Member buckling
 Reduction factor, 

1
  1
  (   )
2 2 0,5

  0,5 (1  (  0.2)   )2

Imperfection Plateau length

factor 
Imperfection factor 

Imperfection factors  for 5 buckling curves:

Buckling curve a0 a b c d

Imperfection
0.13 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76
factor 
Buckling curve selection
Buckling
curve
Buckling
Cross-section Limits about S235
axis S275
S460
S355
S420
b y–y a a0
tf ≤ 40 mm
z z-z b a0
h/b > 1.2
tw
40 mm < tf y–y b a
≤ 100 mm z-z c a
Rolled I-
h y y
sections
y–y b a
tf ≤ 100 mm
z-z c a
r tf h/b ≤ 1.2
y–y d c
z tf > 100 mm
z-z d c
z
z
y–y b b
Welded tf ≤ 40 mm
z-z c c
y y
I- y y

sections tf tf y–y c c
tf > 40 mm
z z z-z d d
Buckling curve selection
hot finished any a a0
Hollow
sections
cold formed any c c

z generally (except as
tf
below)
any b b
Welded box h y y

sections tw
thick welds: a > 0.5tf
z
b b/tf < 30 any c c
h/tw < 30

U-, T- and
solid any c c
sections

L-sections any b b
Effective (buckling) lengths Lcr
End restraint (in the plane under consideration) Buckling length Lcr

Effectively restrained in direction at

0.7 L
both ends
Partially restrained in direction at
Effectively held 0.85 L
both ends
in position at
both ends Restrained in direction at one end 0.85 L

Not restrained in direction at either

1.0 L
end

One end Other end

Effectively restrained in
1.2 L
Effectively held direction
in position and Not held Partially restrained in
1.5 L
restrained in in position direction
direction
Not restrained in
2.0 L
direction
Member buckling design procedure

1. Determine design axial load NEd

2. Select section and determine geometry

3. Classify cross-section (if Class 1-3, no

account need be made for local buckling)

4. Determine effective (buckling) length Lcr

5. Calculate Ncr and Afy

Member buckling design procedure

A fy
6. Non-dimensional slenderness  
Ncr
7. Determine imperfection factor 

8. Calculate buckling reduction factor 

9. Design buckling resistance N  A fy

b ,Rd 
 M1
10. Check NEd
 1.0
Nb,Rd
Example: Compression member
design
Design a compound strut comprising of
double angles, using grade S275 steel, for the
member CD shown below.
NEd = 300 kN

C D

Compression member CD in truss

Example: Compression member
design

Cross-section resistance and buckling

resistance of member in compression are
covered in clause 6.2.4 and in clause 6.3.1 of EN
1993-1-1 respectively.

NEd  Nc ,R d Cross-section check

NEd  Nb,R d Buckling check

 Example: Compression member
design
Try 2/150×90×12 doble angles, double bolted to both
side of a 12 mm gusset plate.
For angles connected through one leg, effective
slenderness ratios may be obtained as mentioned
in Annex BB 1.2 of EN 1993-1-8.

Gusset plate

150×90×12
unequal angle

125×75×10 unequal angle welded by longer leg

 Example: Compression member
design
2/150x90x12 double angles
A = 55.2 cm2 , izz = 3.7cm, iyy = 4.78cm
150x90x12 single angle
A = 27.6 cm2 , izz = 2.5cm, iyy = 4.78cm, ivv = 1.95cm

Classification:
t of 12 mm, fy = 275 N/mm2 and fu = 430 N/mm2

h/t = 150/12 = 12.5 < 15 (0.92)

(b+h)/2t = (90+150)/2(12) = 10 < 11.5(0.92)

Section is Class 3
 Example: Compression member
design
Partial factors from UK National Annex are
M0 = 1.00 and M2 = 1.10.

For cross-section check, the resistance is

given as:

Afy 5520 275

Nc ,R d    1518 kN  300 kN
γM0 1.0

Cross section resistance OK.

 Example: Compression member
design

For member buckling check, the resistance is

given as:
χAf y
N b, Rd 
γ M1
Af y  L cr  1
λ  
N cr  i  λ1
λ 1  93.9ε

But for Class 4 cross - sections, A  A eff

54
 Example: Compression member
design

eff ,v = 0,35 + 0,7v for buckling about v-v axis

(not required for double angles)

eff ,y = 0,50 + 0,7λ y for buckling about y-y axis

λeff ,z = 0,50 + 0,7λz for buckling about z-z axis

Assuming the angles are inter connected at

450 mm centres along the length.

55
 Example: Compression member
design
For the double angle: Lcr = 4000 mm
For the single angle: Lcr = 475 mm

Since not Class 4 and ε  0.92 ,

 4000  1 
λy      0.969
 47.8  93.9(0.92) 
 4000  1 
λz      1.251
 37.0  93.9(0.92) 
 475  1 
λv      0.282
 19.5  93.9(0.92) 
 Clearly, buckling will occur about z axis
λ ef f ,z  0.5  0.7(1.251)  1.376
Example: Compression member
design
From Table 6.1 and 6.2 of EN 1993-1-1,  = 0.34
for buckling curve b.
Φ  0.5[1  0.34(1.376  0.2)  1.376 2 ]  1.65
1
χ   0.39
1.65  1.65  1.376
2 2

0.39  5520  275

 N b, Rd   592  10 3 N  592 kN
1.0
592 kN > 300 kN Buckling resistance is OK.

The chosen cross-section, 2/150x90x12 double

angles, in grade S 275 steel is acceptable.