Research Methodology and Fundamentals of MR

MEANING OF RESEARCH

• Refers to a search for knowledge

• A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic

• an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge for its advancement

Definition

• According to Clifford Woody : Research comprises defining and redefining problems,

formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

• D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson define research as "the manipulation of things, concepts or

symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”

• The term 'research' refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

The term 'research' refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

Research Objectives

 The main aim is to find out the truth which is not discovered yet.

Research objectives falling into a number of following broad groupings:

• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (Studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies)

• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies

with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies)

• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
 • To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies)

What motivates to do research?

• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

• to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems,

• to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

• Desire to be of service to society;

• Desire to get respectability.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

• Descriptive vs. Analytical

• Applied vs. Fundamental

• Quantitative vs. Qualitative

• Conceptual vs. Empirical

• Other

Descriptive vs. Analytical

Descriptive

• The major purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.

• Also called as Ex post facto research

• the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report

• Example: frequency of shopping, preferences of people

Analytical

• the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
Applied vs. Fundamental

Applied

• aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem

• central aim is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem

• Example: research aimed at certain conclusions facing a concrete social or business problem

Fundamental(Basic)

• fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory

• central aim is towards finding information that has a broad base of applications

• Example: Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative

• research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount

• Example: frequency of getting rewards

Qualitative

• is concerned with qualitative phenomenon

• Example: 'Motivation Research‘, sentence completion test

Conceptual vs. Empirical

Conceptual

• related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.

• generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones.

Empirical(Experimental)

• relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory
 • It is data-based research with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment

Other Types

• One-time research & Longitudinal research

• Field-setting research & Laboratory research or Simulation research

• Clinical & Diagnostic research

• Exploratory & Formalized

• Historical research

• Conclusion oriented & Decision Oriented

Research Approaches

There are two basic approaches to research,

• Quantitative approach and

• Qualitative approach.

Quantitative Approach

• involves the generation of data in quantitative form

• subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion

This approach can be further sub-classified into

• Inferential e.g. Survey research

• experimental and

• Simulation e.g. numerical model

Qualitative Approach

• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions

and behavior
 • The techniques of focus group interviews,
projective techniques and depth interviews are used in this approach

Significance of Research

• inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and promotes the development of logical habits of
thinking and organization.

• provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.

• Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry.

• Research is equally important in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various
social problems.

• To those students who are to write a master's or Ph.D. thesis

• To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;

• To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;

• To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative
work;

• To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories

Research Methods v/s Methodology

• Research Methods: Methods/ techniques used for conduction of research

Research Methods can be grouped into

• Methods concerned with collection of data

• Statistical techniques used for establishing relationship

• Methods used to evaluate the accuracy of the result obtained

Research Methodology

• It is the way to systematically solve the research problem

• Science of studying how scientifically research is done

• Which research technique/method to use

 • What they mean? Why?

• Assumptions, criteria

So research method is a part of research methodology

Research Process

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the
desired sequencing of these steps.

Steps

1. Formulating the research problem;

2. Extensive literature survey;

3. Developing the hypothesis;

4. Preparing the research design;

5. Determining sample design;

6. Collecting the data

7. Execution of the project;

8. Analysis of data;

9. Hypothesis testing;

10. Generalizations and interpretation, and

11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results

1. Formulating the research problem

Thus two steps are involved in formulating the research problem:

• understanding the problem thoroughly, and

• rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

• Find out the problem to study

 • Initially state in a broad general way and then resolve the ambiguities, if any.

• feasibility study

• then formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem

2. Extensive literature survey

Review two types of literature

• The conceptual literature i.e. theory, concept

• The empirical literature i.e. studies made earlier

Extensive literature survey

• Before writing thesis synopsis is must

• So undertake the abstracting and indexing journals, conference proceedings, government

reports, books etc.

• A good library will be a great help at this stage

3. Development of working hypothesis

• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test empirical
consequences.

• These provides focal point of research

4. Preparing the Research Design

• Providing for conceptual structure i.e. to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

• This depends on research purpose

• The preparation of the research design involves

• the means of obtaining the information;

• the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff

• explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be

organized and the reasoning leading to the selection

• the time available for research; and

• the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining sample design

• ‘Universe' or ‘Population'.

• This census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances

• Few items - a sample.

• Sample design : the way of selecting a sample

• a sample design is a definite plan determined for obtaining a sample from a given population.

• Samples can be either

• probability or

• non-probability samples.

• With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample

• The non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.

Probability samples are those based on

• simple random sampling,

• systematic sampling,

• stratified sampling,

• cluster/area sampling

whereas non-probability samples are those based on

• convenience sampling,

• judgment sampling and

• quota sampling techniques.

6.Collecting the data

• Data Can be

• Primary or

• Secondary data

• Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey.

In the case of a survey, data can be collected in following ways:

• By observation

• Through personal interview

• Through telephone interviews

• By mailing of questionnaires

• Through schedules

7. Execution of the project

The project execution should be

• Systematic and

• on time

• for accuracy

8. Analysis of data

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as

• Establishment of Categories,

• The application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and

• Drawing statistical inferences.

9. Hypothesis-testing

• Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.

• Various tests such as Chi square test, T-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for
hypothesis testing.
10. Generalizations and interpretation

• Generalization i.e. to build a theory.

• If no hypothesis to start with, explain findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation.

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

• Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.

• The layout of the report should be as follows:

• the preliminary pages;

• the main text.

• the end matter.

Criteria of Good Research

• Clearly defined purpose

• The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail

• Carefully planned procedural design

• Adequate analysis of data to reveal its significance

• Confined Conclusions to those justified by the data of the research

• Carefully checked validity and reliability of the data

i.e. Good research is systematic and logical

Defining Research Problem

* What is a Research Problem?

* Refers to difficulty which researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or

practical situation and wants to obtain a solution.
Important thing in formulating the research problem:

* understanding the problem thoroughly, and

* rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

This comprises

* Find out the problem to study

* Initially state in a broad general way and then resolve the ambiguities, if any.

* feasibility study

* then formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem

Components of research problem

* An individual or group having problem

* Objectives to attain problem

* Alternative means to obtain objective

* Doubt with regard to selection of alternatives

* Environment to which difficulty pertains

A research problem require to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained optimally
in the context of a given environment.

Why to define a problem?

* Clearly stated problem is a problem half solved

* Help to discriminate data from irrelevant one

* Will help to answer the questions like what data to collect, what characteristics to study, what
relations to explored, what techniques to use etc.
Techniques involved in defining the problem

* Selecting a Problem

Points to be observed while selecting the research problem:

* Don’t select overdone and controversial subject.

* Avoid narrow or too vague problem

* Subject should be familiar and feasible

* Consider the qualification of researcher, time factor and costs involved.

* The selection of problem must be preceded by a preliminary study

Points to be observed during rephrasing a research problem

* Technical terms and words or phrases should be clearly defined.

* Basic assumption should be clearly stated

* Consider the time period and sources of data

* Mention the scope and limitations

Example

* “Why is the performance of India so much higher than Indonesia”?

* “What factors were responsible for the higher financial performance of India’s IT sector during
Millennium year relative to Indonesia’s IT sector?”

* “ To what extent did the financial performance during millennium year in India exceed that of
Indonesia in respect of leading 10 IT companies? What factors were responsible for the
performance differentials between the two countries by industries?

Developing the Hypothesis

Hypothesis

• An assumption or some supposition to be proved or disproved

 • Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test empirical
consequences.

• Proposition that we want to verify

• These provides focal point of research

• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the area of research

• This indicates the type of data required and the methods to be used.

• Null hypothesis (Ho) or

• Alternative hypothesis (Ha) / (H1)

• Null hypothesis is one which one wishes to disprove and alternative to prove

How to Develop a working hypothesis?

• Discuss the problem with colleagues and experts

• Examine of the data and records if available

• Review of similar studies in area of similar problems

• Exploratory personal investigation like field interviews etc.

Research Design

Preparing Research Design

• Providing for conceptual structure to conduct the research

• This depends on research purpose

Meaning

• “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”

How to decide the research design

• What is the study all about and why?

• Where it will be carried out?

 • What kind of data is required and where to collect from? What data collection techniques to
be used?

• Period of time study will include

• What will be sample design?

• How will the data be analyzed?

• In what style will the report be prepared?

Research Design can be split into:

• Sampling Design: method of selecting items

• Observational design: conditions under which observations are made

• Statistical Design: how data gathered to be analyzed

• Operational design: how to carry out above designs

Features of Research Design

• Specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem

• Strategy which tell about the approach for gathering and analyzing the data

• Includes time and cost budget

Why Research Design?

• For smooth research operation yielding maximal information with minimum expenditure of
effort, time and money.

The preparation of the research design involves

• the means of obtaining the information;

• the availability and skills of the researcher

• Nature of the problem and

• the time and money available for research

Important concepts related to Research Design:

• Dependent and independent Variable

• Extraneous variable
 • Control

• Cofounded relationship

• Research Hypothesis

• Experiment - procedure

• Experimental Unit

• Experimental and non experimental hypothesis-testing research

• Experimental and Control group

• Treatment

Research designs can be categorized based on types of research:

• Research design incase of exploratory research studies(flexible)

• Research design incase of descriptive and diagnostic research studies(rigid, not flexible)

• Research design incase of hypothesis testing research studies(experimental)

Research design for Exploratory research

• The survey of concerning literature

• Experience survey

• Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples

Research design incase of descriptive and diagnostic research studies

Survey design (keeping in view the objective and resources available)

Research design incase of hypothesis testing research studies

Experimental Design

Basic principles of Experimental designs

• Principle of replication

• Principle of randomization

• Principle of local control

Informal experimental designs

• Before and after without control design

• After only with control design

• Before and after with control design

Formal experimental designs

• Completely randomized design(C.R. design)

– Two group simple randomized

– Random replication design

• Randomized block design(R.B. design)

• Latin Square design(L.S. design)

• Factorial designs

– Simple factorial (Two factor)

– Complex factorial (Multi factor)

Sampling design

 A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.

 The technique or the procedure would be adopted in selecting items for the sample.

Steps in Sample Design

 Type of universe: define set of objects, finite or infinite

 Sampling unit: geographic, family unit

 Source List: Sampling frame, names of items

 Size of Sample: No. of items – optimum sample

 Parameters of Interest: eg. Proportion of persons with some characteristics, avg. concerning
population

 Budgetary constraint:

 Sampling procedure:
Cost involved in a sampling analysis

 Cost of data collection

 Cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data

Causes for incorrect inference

 Systematic Bias

 Sampling Error

Factors responsible for systematic bias:

 Inappropriate sampling frame

 Defective measuring device

 Non respondents

 Indeterminacy principle

 Natural Bias in the reporting of data

Good Sample design

 Representative sample

 With minimum sampling error

 In the context of funds available for research study

Important sample designs

 Sample designs can be either

 Probability sampling or

 non-probability sampling.

Implications of simple random sampling

 It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample and all
the choices are independent of one another

 Gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen

  Probability samples designs

 simple random sampling/chance sampling

 systematic sampling,

 stratified sampling,

 cluster/area sampling

 whereas non-probability samples are those based on

 convenience sampling,

 judgment sampling and

 quota sampling techniques.

Deliberate sampling

 Also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.

 This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe

When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample

 based on the ease access, it can be called convenience sampling.

 When the researcher's judgment is used then called as judgment sampling

Simple random sampling

 This sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every
item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample .

Systematic sampling

 This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list.
  In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then
every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.

Benefits:

 Can spread more evenly across population

 Easier and less costlier method

 Convenience in case of large population

Stratified sampling

 When population does not constitute a homogeneous group

 Division into subpopulations based on homogeneity

 In this technique, the population is stratified into a number strata and sample items are selected
from each stratum.

 Strata – based on common characteristics

 Selection of elements from each stratum – through simple random sampling

 Proportional allocation for the inclusion no. of items from the stratum

Quota Sampling

 The cost of taking random samples from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers
are simply given quota to be filled from different strata

 The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in
the population.

Cluster sampling

 Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then randomly selecting the groups or
the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample

Area sampling

 Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping
areas, generally called geographic clusters,
 Then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, to include in the sample

Multi-stage sampling

 This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.

 Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such for
an entire country selecting first states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families
within towns.

Sequential sampling

 This is somewhat a complex sample design.

 Here the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to
mathematical decision on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses.

Mixed sampling

 In practice, several of the methods of sampling described, may be used in the study in this case
it can be called as a mixed sampling

Snow Ball sampling

 This is used in majority cases where researcher start with his first sample item which lead to the
next item which gives next to next item thus constitutes the sample while conducting the
survey.

While deciding size of sample researcher must decide:

 The desired precision

 The population variance

 Parameters of the interests in research study

 Cost

Optimum Sample

 Efficient

 Representative

 Reliable

 Flexible
  In budget

 Calculation of sampling size

Depends on

 How accurate you wish to be?

 How much confident you are in the result ?

 Available budget

Calculating Sampling Size

Formula: s = (z /e)2

 S = the sample size

 Z = no. relating to degree of confidence

= 2.58 at 99% confidence

= 1.96 at 95% confidence

= 1.64 at 90% confidence

e= the error you are prepared to accept

For a proportion

S=(z^2(p(1-p)))/e^2

 S = the sample size

 P= an estimate of proportion of people falling into the group in which you are interested in
population

 Z = no. relating to degree of confidence

= 2.58 at 99% confidence

= 1.96 at 95% confidence

= 1.64 at 90% confidence

 e= the error you are prepared to accept

Sampling Fundamentals

• Universe / Population

• Sampling Frame

• Sampling design

• Statistic and Parameters

Statistic – Characteristic of a sample eg. Mean, mode, median

Parameter - Characteristic of a population eg. Population mean

Sampling error: inaccuracy in the information collected

Sampling error = Frame error + chance error + response error

• Magnitude of sampling error depends on nature of universe

• more homogeneous - smaller sampling error

• Error inversely related to size

• A measure of the random sampling error is called as the “precision of sampling plan”

• Precision: is the range within which the population mean will lie as per the specified confidence
level

• Confidence level (1-α): the expected % of time that the actual value will fall within specified
precision limit

• Significance level (α): likelihood that the value will fall outside the precision limit (Value for
rejecting the Null hypothesis)

Example

Suppose the local newspaper conducts an election survey and reports that the independent candidate
will receive 30% of the vote. The newspaper states that the survey had a 5% margin of error and a
confidence level of 95%. These findings result in the following confidence interval: We are 95%
confident that the independent candidate will receive between 25% and 35% of the vote.

• Estimate: value of sample statistic that is used to find a corresponding population parameter

• Degree of freedom(n-1): specified no. of values that we can choose freely.

• Two types
 • Point estimate and

• Interval

• Sample statistic used to estimate is estimator

Criteria for Good Estimator

• Unbiasedness

• Consistency

• Efficiency

• Sufficiency

Sampling distribution:

values of particular statistic with their relative frequencies constitute the sampling distribution of that
statistic e.g. Sampling distribution of mean, proportion etc.

Variability of a Sampling Distribution

The variability of a sampling distribution is measured by its variance or its standard deviation. The
variability of a sampling distribution depends on three factors:

N: The number of observations in the population.

n: The number of observations in the sample.

The way that the random sample is chosen.

 Significance of sampling Distribution

Follows that the mean of a sampling distribution is same as the mean of the universe.

Sampling Distribution

• Normal distribution

• Student’s ‘t’ distribution

• F distribution

• Chi square distribution

Normal Distribution

• A random variable can take any value within given range

• Also known as Gaussian distribution

Sampling Distribution of Mean Difference Scores

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2 Normal Curve
1.5
1
0.5
0
Characteristics

• Bell shaped curve with same shape on either side of vertical line

• Has a single peak

• Mean located at the centre of distribution

• Distribution is symmetrical

• Two tails of distribution extend indefinitely but never touches horizontal axis

• Lower and upper quartiles are equidistant from median

• Mean = median = mode

Normal distribution

In case of large samples , assume that the distribution tends to be the normal distribution

Unit is Z, Gives ‘z’ values

Z = (x - µ)/σ
t distribution

• When Sample size < 30 the sampling distribution is t distribution

• Similar to normal distribution but somewhat flatter

• Different t distributions for each sample size

• As size increases, flatness reduces

• Degree of freedom(n-1)

• To use table have degree of freedom(n-1) and (1-α)

F distribution

• Named after Sir Ronald Fisher

 • Used in case of two independent samples

• Continuous distribution like normal, F, t

• Takes only + ve values

• Shape of this depends upon degrees of freedom(2) i.e. n1-1 and n2-1

• To use F table, have degrees of freedom for numerator, denominator and area in the right tail of
F distribution curve

Chi-Square distribution

• Chi-Square distribution is used when we deal with collections of values that involve adding up
squares.(Variances)

• Shape depends on number of degrees of freedom(n-1)

• Assumes only positive values or zero

• Shape of curve is skewed for small degrees and change for larger degrees; not symmetrical

To find out table value of Chi-Square distribution required is

 • degree of freedom and

• area in the right tail of curve

Sampling Theory

Study of relationship between a population and sample drawn

Objective

• Statistical estimation:

• estimation of parameter from statistic

• can be point or interval estimate

• Testing of hypothesis: to decide whether to accept or reject hypothesis

• Statistical Inferences : generalization about population from sample study

Theory of sampling studied under

• Sampling of attributes

• Sampling of variables

The standard error

• Important measure in significance test or in examining hypothesis

• Standard deviation of sampling distribution of statistics

• Helps to test whether the difference between observed and expected frequencies could arise
due to chance

• If difference is less than 3 times the S.E.then matter of chance but if equal to or more than 3
times the S.E then significant difference

Data Collection

Types of Data

 Primary – afresh and first time

 Secondary data – already been collected

 Data should be collected considering

 The nature of investigation

 Objective and scope of inquiry

 Financial resources

 Available time and

 Degree of accuracy

Primary data collection methods

i. Observation

 Structured or unstructured observation

 Participant or Non-participant observation

 Controlled or uncontrolled observation

ii. Interview Method:

Personal interview

 Structured or unstructured interview

 Focused interview

 Clinical interview

 Non directive interviews

Merits

 More information in greater depth

 Greater flexibility and can overcome resistance

 NR remains low, personal information also can be obtained

 Advantages over questionnaire

 Can gather supplementary information for further information

Weaknesses

 Costly, time consuming

  Bias of interviewer as well as respondent

 Training of interviewer

Telephone interview

Merits

 Flexible than mailing

 Faster and cheaper than personal interview

 Higher response than mailing

 No need of field staff

Weaknesses

 Little time

 Restricted only those who have telephone facility

 Cost constraint

 Probes in terms of short and sweet questions

Guidelines for successful interviewing

 Plan in advance and should be known to the problem under consideration

 Friendly and informal approach

 Try to establish the rapport with interviewee

 Free – flowing interview, well phrased questions to have full cooperation

iii. Questionnaire

Merits

 Low cost

 easily approachable
  Free from bias

 Get adequate time

 Large sample so more adequate and reliable results

Weaknesses

 Low rate of return

 Cannot control once sent, inflexibility

 Ambiguous replies, omissions, misinterpretation

 Slowest method

Main Aspects of questionnaire

 General Form

 Structured

 Unstructured

 Question Sequence

 Question Formulation and wording

 Types of questions

 Question Content

 Question Wording

Essentials of Good Questionnaire

 Short and simple

 Logical sequence

 Avoid technical terms and vague expressions

 Have control questions

 Give directions regarding filling the questionnaire

 Avoid personal questions

  Pilot Study to test questionnaire

iv. Through schedules

 Data by enumerators

Guidelines for constructing Questionnaire or Schedules

 Focus on problem to be studied

 Be aware of questionnaire form , sequence

 first prepare rough draft then re-examine and revise

 Pilot study must be undertaken for pre-testing

Key Steps in Using a Questionnaire

 Step 1: Plan how to carry out the study.

 Step 2: Define and identify the target group for the study.

 Step 3: Develop the questionnaire(s) and guides.

 Step 4: Select interviewers and other field team personnel.

 Step 5: Train field personnel and pilot test the questionnaire.

 Step 6: Prepare and conduct the field work.

 Step 7: Analyze and interpret the data.

V. Other methods

• Warranty card

• Distributor or store audit

• Use of mechanical devices

• Pantry Audit
 • Consumer Panel

 Projective Technique

 Word association test

 Sentence completion test

 Story completion test

 Verbal projection techniques

 Pictorial techniques

 Play techniques

 Quizzes, tests and examination

 Depth interviews

 Content analysis

Survey

 Descriptive research

 Larger sample since responses happens to be low

 Cannot manipulate the variable or arrange for events to happen

 Will be appropriate in social and behavioral sciences

 concerned with hypothesis formulation and testing and analyzing relationship

Collection of Secondary data

Sources

 Publication of central or state government

 Technical/ trade journals

 Books, magazines, newspaper

 Reports, publications
  Public record, historical documents

Characteristics

 Reliability

 Suitability

 Adequacy

Selection of method

 Nature, scope and objective

 Availability of fund

 Time

 Precision required

Case study method

 Qualitative analysis in depth

 Essential investigation of unit under Consideration

 Assumption

 Phases involved