Systems Analysis and Design 10ᵗʰ Edition

Chapter 1
Introduction to Systems Analysis
and Design
Chapter Objectives
Describe the impact of information technology
Define systems analysis and design and the role of a systems analyst
Define an information system and describe its components
Explain how to use business profiles and models
Explain Internet business strategies and relationships, including B2C
and B2B

2
Chapter Objectives (Cont.)
Identify various types of information systems and explain who uses
them
Distinguish among structured analysis, object-oriented analysis, and
agile methods
Explain the waterfall model, and how it has evolved
Discuss the role of the information technology department and the
systems analysts who work there

3
Introduction
Companies use information as a weapon in
the battle to increase productivity, deliver
quality products and services, maintain
customer loyalty, and make sound decisions
Information technology can mean the
difference between success and failure

FIGURE 1-1 These headlines show the

enormous impact of information
technology on our lives.
4
What Is Information Technology?

Information Technology (IT)

Combination of hardware and software products and services that companies
use to manage, access, communicate, and share information
Welcome to the 21ˢᵗ Century: The IT Journey
Continues
Changes in the world
Changes in technology
Changes in client demand

FIGURE 1-3 How times

have changed!

5
What Is Information Technology? (Cont.)

Systems Analysis and Design

Step-by-step process for developing high-quality
information systems
What Does a Systems Analyst Do?
Plan, develop, and maintain information systems
Also manages IT projects, including tasks, resources,
schedules, and costs
Conducts meetings, delivers presentations, and writes
memos, reports, and documentation

6
Information System Components

A system is a set of related components that

produces specific results.
Mission-critical systems are vital to a
company’s operations.
Information systems have five key
components: hardware, software, data,
processes, and people

FIGURE 1-6 An information

system needs these components.
7
Information System Components (Cont.)

Hardware
Is the physical layer of the information system
Moore’s Law
Software
System software
Application software
Horizontal system
Vertical system
Legacy systems

FIGURE 1-7 Server farms provide the

enormous power and speed that
modern IT systems need.

8
Information System Components
(Cont.)

Data
Tables store data
Linked tables work
together to supply
data
Processes
Describe the tasks and
business functions that
users, managers, and IT
staff members perform to
achieve specific results
People
Stakeholders FIGURE 1-8 In a typical payroll system, data is stored in separate tables that

Users or end users

are linked to form an overall database.

9
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century
Three major trends:
Rapidly increasing globalization
Technology integration for seamless information
access
Rapid growth of cloud-based computing and
services
All trends are Internet-centric and driven by the immense power of
the Web

10
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)

E-commerce or I-commerce
B2C (Business-to-Consumer)
B2B (Business-to-Business)
EDI
Supply chain management (SCM)
Supplier relationship management (SRM)
What’s Next?
Traditionally, IT companies were product-oriented
or service-oriented
Today’s IT companies offer a mix of products,
services, and support

11
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)

Internet-dependent firms
Primary business depends on the Internet rather
than a traditional business channel
Brick-and-mortar firms
Have physical stores where customers can see
and touch the products
Have expanded their Web-based marketing
channels to increase sales and serve customers
better
Combine convenience of online shopping and the
alternative of hands-on purchasing
Lowe’s, Costco, Target, and Wal-Mart are examples

12
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)

The Web-based business model leveled the playing field for small
firms that now can reach a global marketplace
Discount coupon business gets a new life
eBay and Groupon
Firms now using global positioning system (GPS)
coordinates to tempt buyers with nearby deals

13
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)

Business Profiles
Overview of a company’s mission, functions,
organization, products, services, customers,
suppliers, competitors, constraints, and future
direction
Business Processes
Specific set of transactions, events, and results
that can be described and documented
A business process model (BPM ) graphically
displays one or more business processes

14
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)
FIGURE 1-14 A simple business model might
consist of an event, three processes, and a result.

FIGURE 1-15 This sample uses business process

modeling notation (BPMN) to represent the same
events,
processes, and workflow shown in 15
Figure 1-14.
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)

Business Information Systems

The old way:
Administrative staff used office systems
Operational people used operational systems
Middle managers used decision support systems
Top managers used executive information systems
The “now” way
All employees use office productivity systems
Operations users require decision support systems

16
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)

A new set of system definitions

Enterprise computing systems
Transaction processing systems
Business support systems
Knowledge management systems
User productivity systems

17
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)

Enterprise Computing
Information systems that support company-wide
operations and data management requirements
Examples:
Wal-Mart’s inventory control system
Boeing’s production control system
Hilton Hotels’ reservation system
Applications called enterprise resource planning
(ERP) systems provide cost-effective support for
users and managers throughout the company

18
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)

Transaction Processing
Transaction processing (TP) systems process data generated by day-to-day
business operations Examples:
Customer order processing
Accounts receivable
Warranty claim processing
A TP system verifies
customer data, checks
customer credit, checks
stock status, posts to
accounts receivable,
adjusts inventory levels,
FIGURE 1-17 A single sales transaction
and updates the sales file consists of six separate tasks, which
the TP system processes as a group.
19
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)

Business Support
Provide job-related information support to users at all levels of a company
Can work hand-in-hand with a TP system
New development is RFID
Radio frequency
identification (RFID)
technology uses
high-frequency radio
waves to track physical
objects.

FIGURE 1-18 With an RFID tag, items

can be tracked and monitored
throughout the shipping process.
20
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)
Knowledge Management
Uses a large database called a knowledge base
Allows users to find information by entering
keywords
Uses inference rules, which are logical rules
that identify data patterns and relationships

21
Business in the 21ˢᵗ Century (Cont.)
User Productivity
Technology that improves productivity
Groupware
Systems Integration
Most large companies require systems that
combine transaction processing, business
support, knowledge management, and user
productivity features

22
What Information Do Users Need?

FIGURE 1-20 A typical organizational model identifies business

functions and organizational levels.

23
What Information Do Users Need? (Cont.)

Top Managers
Develop long-range strategic plans, which
define the company’s overall mission and goals
Need information on economic forecasts,
technology trends, competitive threats, and
governmental issue
Middle Managers and Knowledge Workers
Provide direction, necessary resources, and
performance feedback to supervisors and team
leaders
Need more detailed information than top
managers

24
What Information Do Users Need? (Cont.)

Supervisors and Team Leaders

Oversee operational employees and carry out
day-to-day functions
Need decision support information, knowledge
management systems, and user productivity
systems
Operational Employees
Rely on TP systems to enter and receive data
they need to perform their jobs
Need information to handle tasks and make
decisions previously made by supervisors

25
Systems Development Tools

Modeling
Business model
Requirements model
Data model
Object model
Network model
Process model

FIGURE 1-21 Microsoft Visio allows you to

drag and drop various symbols and connect
them to show a business process.

26
Systems Development Tools (Cont.)

Prototyping
Early working version of an information system
Speeds up the development process
significantly
Important decisions might be made too early,
before business or IT issues are thoroughly
understood
A prototype based on careful fact-finding and
modeling techniques can be an extremely
valuable tool

27
Systems Development Tools (Cont.)

Computer-Aided Systems Engineering (CASE) Tools

Provide an overall framework for systems
development and support a wide variety of
design methodologies such as:
Structured analysis
Object-oriented analysis
Can generate program code, which speeds the
implementation process

28
Systems Development Methods
Structured Analysis
Traditional method for developing systems
Organized into phases
Object-Oriented Analysis
More recent method for developing systems
Objects represent actual people, things, or
events
Agile/Adaptive Methods
Latest trend in software development
Team-based effort broken down into cycles

29
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

Structured Analysis
Time-tested and easy to understand
Uses phases called the systems development life cycle (SDLC)
Predictive approach
Uses process
models to
describe a
system
graphically

FIGURE 1-24 This Visible Analyst screen shows

a process model for a school registration
system. The REGISTER STUDENTS process
accepts input data from two sources and
transforms it into output data. 30
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

The SDLC model usually includes five steps

Systems Planning
Systems Analysis
Systems Design
Systems Implementation
Systems Security and
Support

FIGURE 1-25 Development

phases and deliverables are
shown in the waterfall model.
The circular symbols indicate
interaction among the phases.

31
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

Systems Planning
Systems request – begins the process and describes
problems or desired changes
Purpose of this phase is to perform a preliminary
investigation – a critical step
Key part of preliminary investigation is a feasibility
study

32
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

Systems Analysis
Build a logical model of the new system
Perform fact-finding techniques
Build business models, data and process models, and
object models
Deliverable is the system requirements document

33
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

Systems Design
Create a physical model that satisfies all documented
requirements
Design user interface
Identify outputs, inputs, and processes
Deliverable is the system design specification
Management and user involvement is critical

34
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

Systems Implementation
New system is constructed
Programs are written and tested
System is installed
Deliverable is a completely functioning and
documented information system
Systems Support and Security
A well-designed system must be secure, reliable,
maintainable, and scalable
Most information systems need to be updated
significantly or replaced after several years of
operation

35
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

Object-Oriented Analysis
Combines data and the processes that act on the data into things called objects
Objects are members of a
class, which is a collection
of similar objects
Built-in processes,
called methods, can
change an object’s
properties
O-O methodology
provides easy transition
to O-O programming
languages like Java
FIGURE 1-26 The PERSON class includes
INSTRUCTOR and STUDENT objects, which
have their own properties and inherited 36
properties.
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

Agile Methods
Newest development technique as systems are developed incrementally
A series of prototypes are built and adjusted to meet user requirements
As the process continues, developers revise, extend, and merge earlier
versions into the final product
Agile method emphasizes continuous feedback
Iterative development
Agile community has published the Agile Manifesto
Spiral model

37
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

Agile Methods
Agile process determines the end result
Other adaptive variations and related methods
exist
Two examples are Scrum and Extreme
Programming (XP)
Analysts should understand the pros and cons of
any approach before selecting a development
method

38
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

Other Development Methods

Teams consists of IT staff, users, and managers
joint application development (JAD)
Focuses on team-based fact-finding
Rapid application development (RAD)
A compressed version of the entire development
process

39
Systems Development Methods (Cont.)

Develop a project plan

Involve users and listen carefully to them
Use project management tools to identify tasks and milestones
Develop accurate cost and benefit information
Remain flexible

40
The Information Technology Department

FIGURE 1-29 Depending on its size, an IT department might have separate organizational
units for these functions, or they might be combined into a smaller number of teams.

41
The Information Technology Department (Cont.)

Application Development
Systems are developed by teams consisting of
users, managers, and IT staff members
Knowledge, Skills, and Education
Need technical knowledge, strong oral and written
communication skills and analytic ability, an
understanding of business operations, and critical
thinking skills
Certification
Important credential

42
The Information Technology Department (Cont.)

Application Development
Systems are developed by teams consisting of
users, managers, and IT staff members
Systems Support and Security
Provides vital protection and maintenance
services
User Support
Provides users with technical information, training,
and productivity support

43
The Information Technology Department (Cont.)

Database Administration
Involves data design, management, security, backup, and access
systems
Network Administration
Includes hardware and software maintenance, support, and security
Web Support
Web support specialists design and construct Web pages, monitor
traffic, manage hardware and software, and link Web-based
applications to the company’s information systems
Quality Assurance
Team that reviews and tests all applications and systems
changes to verify specifications and software quality standards

44
The Systems Analyst
Role Knowledge, Skills, and
Analysts build a series of Education
models, diagrams, and
decision tables and uses Technical
other descriptive tools and Knowledge
techniques Communication
An analyst’s most valuable
skill is the ability to listen
Skills
An effective analyst will Business Skills
involve users in every step Critical Thinking
of the development Skills
process
Education
Certification

45
The Systems Analyst (Cont.)
Career Opportunities
Companies will need systems analysts to apply new
information technology, and the explosion in e-commerce will
fuel IT job growth
What’s important?
Job Titles
Company Organization
Company Size
Salary, Location and Future Growth
Corporate Culture

46
Chapter Summary
IT refers to the combination of hardware and
software resources that companies use to
manage, access, communicate, and share
information
The essential components of an information
system are hardware, software, data, processes,
and people
Successful companies offer a mix of products,
technical and financial services, consulting, and
customer support

47
Chapter Summary (Cont.)
Information systems are identified as enterprise computing systems,
transaction processing systems, business support systems, knowledge
management systems, or user productivity systems
Organization structure includes top managers, middle managers and
knowledge workers, supervisors and team leaders

48
Chapter Summary (Cont.)
The IT department develops, maintains, and operates a company’s
information systems
Systems analysts need a combination of technical and business
knowledge, analytical ability, and communication skills
Systems analysts need to consider salary, location, and future growth
potential when making a career decision

49
Systems Analysis and Design
10ᵗʰ Edition
Chapter 2
Analyzing the Business Case
Chapter Objectives
EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF A BUSINESS CASE AND
HOW A BUSINESS CASE AFFECTS AN IT PROJECT
DESCRIBE THE STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS
AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT TO THE IT TEAM
EXPLAIN THE PURPOSE OF A MISSION
STATEMENT
CONDUCT A SWOT ANALYSIS AND DESCRIBE THE
FOUR FACTORS INVOLVED
EXPLAIN HOW THE SDLC SERVES AS A
FRAMEWORK FOR SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

2
Chapter Objectives (Cont.)
LIST REASONS FOR SYSTEMS PROJECTS AND
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SUCH PROJECTS
DESCRIBE SYSTEMS REQUESTS AND THE ROLE
OF THE SYSTEMS REVIEW COMMITTEE
DEFINE OPERATIONAL, TECHNICAL,
ECONOMIC, AND SCHEDULE FEASIBILITY
DESCRIBE THE STEPS AND THE END PRODUCT
OF A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION

3
Introduction

ANALYSTS MUST CONSIDER COMPANY’S

MISSION, OBJECTIVES, AND IT NEEDS
PROCESS STARTS WITH A SYSTEMS
REQUEST
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION FOLLOWS
TO EVALUATE:
Feasibility study
Fact finding techniques
Reporting to management

4
 A Framework for IT Systems Development

STRATEGIC PLANNING OVERVIEW

Starts with a mission statement
Continues with goals and objectives
Long and short-term goals identified
WHAT IS SWOT ANALYSIS
An enterprise SWOT analysis usually begins with these
questions:
What are our strengths, and how can we use them to achieve
our business goals?
What are our weaknesses, and how can we reduce or
eliminate them?
What are our opportunities, and how do we plan to take
advantage of them?
What are our threats, and how can we assess, manage, and
respond to the possible risks?
5
 A Framework for IT Systems Development
(Cont.)

FIGURE 2-3 Strategic planning is a dynamic process that FIGURE 2-4 A SWOT analysis
starts with a mission statement, which is shaped by the might produce similar results
firm’s purpose, vision, and values. The mission generates to those shown here
goals and objectives that produce business results.

6
A Framework for IT Systems Development
(Cont.)

FIGURE 2-5 This SWOT analysis example focuses on a specific

asset, such as a company patent.

7
 A Framework for IT Systems Development
(Cont.)
STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR IT PROJECTS
Careful planning can help assure that:
The project supports overall business strategy
and operational needs
The project scope is well-defined and clearly
stated
The project goals are realistic, achievable, and
tied to specific statements, assumptions,
constraints, factors, and other inputs

8
A Framework for IT Systems Development
(Cont.)
PLANNING TOOLS
Some analysts use traditional text-based
methods like Microsoft Word
Some analysts prefer a spreadsheet method like
Microsoft Excel
The most effective approach is to use a CASE
tool such as Visible Analyst

9
A Framework for IT Systems Development
(Cont.)

FIGURE 2-6 The Visible

Analyst CASE tool supports
strategic planning and allows
a user to enter many kinds of
planning statements. Notice
the four SWOT categories
highlighted in the list.

10
A Framework for IT Systems Development
(Cont.)
A NEW ROLE FOR THE IT DEPARTMENT
Management and IT are linked closely, and
remarkable changes have occurred in both
areas
Today, systems development is much more
team- oriented
Although team-oriented development is the
norm, some companies see the role of the IT
department being screening and evaluating
systems requests
Larger firms are more likely to use an evaluation
team or systems review committee

11
What Is a Business Case?

A BUSINESS CASE REFERS TO THE REASONS,

OR JUSTIFICATION, FOR A PROPOSAL
Should be comprehensive, yet easy to
understand
Should describe the project clearly, provide the
justification to proceed, and estimate the
project’s financial impact

12
What Is a Business Case?(Cont.)
A BUSINESS CASE SHOULD ANSWER THE
FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
Why are we doing this project?
What is the project about?
How does this solution address key business
issues?
How much will it cost?
How long will it take?
Will we suffer a productivity loss during the
transition?

13
What Is a Business Case?(Cont.)
A BUSINESS CASE SHOULD ANSWER THE
FOLLOWING QUESTIONS (CONT.):
What is the return on investment and
payback period?
What are the risks of doing the project?
What are the risks of not doing the project?
How will we measure success?
What alternatives exist?

14
Information Systems Projects

MAIN REASONS FOR SYSTEMS REQUESTS:

IMPROVED SERVICE
Improving service to customers or users within the
company
SUPPORT FOR NEW PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
New products and services often require new types or
levels of IT support
BETTER PERFORMANCE
Current system might not meet performance
requirements

15
Information Systems Projects(Cont.)
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SYSTEMS PROJECTS
INTERNAL FACTORS
Strategic Plan
Top Managers
User Requests
Information Technology Department
Existing Systems and Data
EXTERNAL FACTORS
Technology
Suppliers
Customers
Competitors
The Economy
Government

16
Information Systems Projects(Cont.)
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SYSTEMS PROJECTS

FIGURE 2-10 Internal and external

factors that affect IT projects.
17
Evaluation of Systems Requests

SYSTEMS REQUEST FORMS

Streamlines the request process
Ensures consistency
Easy to understand
Includes clear instructions
Indicates what supporting documents are
needed
Submitted electronically

18
Evaluation of Systems Requests(Cont.)

FIGURE 2-13 Example of an online

19
systems request form.
Evaluation of Systems Requests(Cont.)

SYSTEMS REVIEW COMMITTEE

With a broader viewpoint, a committee can
establish priorities more effectively than an
individual
One person’s bias is less likely to affect the
decisions
Disadvantages:
Action on requests must wait until the
committee meets
Members might favor projects requested by
their own departments
Internal political differences could delay
important decisions

20
Overview of Feasibility
IS THE PROPOSAL DESIRABLE IN AN
OPERATIONAL SENSE?
Is it a practical approach that will solve a problem or
take advantage of an opportunity to achieve company
goals?
IS THE PROPOSAL TECHNICALLY FEASIBLE?
Are the necessary technical resources and people
available for the project?
IS THE PROPOSAL ECONOMICALLY DESIRABLE?
What are the projected savings and costs?
ARE OTHER INTANGIBLE FACTORS INVOLVED,
SUCH AS CUSTOMER SATISFACTION OR COMPANY
IMAGE?
Is the problem worth solving, and will the request
result in a sound business investment?
21
CAN THE PROPOSAL BE ACCOMPLISHED WITHIN
Overview of Feasibility (Cont.)

FIGURE 2-14 A FEASIBILITY STUDY

EXAMINES OPERATIONAL, TECHNICAL,
ECONOMIC,
and schedule factors.
22
Overview of Feasibility (Cont.)
OPERATIONAL FEASIBILITY
Does management support the project?
Do users support the project?
Is the current system well liked and effectively used?
Do users see the need for change?
Will the new system result in a workforce
reduction?
If so, what will happen to affected employees?
Will the new system require training for users?
If so, is the company prepared to provide the
necessary resources for training current employees?
Will users be involved in planning the new system
right from the start?

23
Overview of Feasibility (Cont.)
OPERATIONAL FEASIBILITY (CONT.)
Will the new system place any new demands on users
or require any operating changes?
For example:
Will any information be less accessible or produced
less frequently?
Will performance decline in any way? If so, will an
overall gain to the organization outweigh
individual losses?
Will customers experience adverse effects in any way,
either temporarily or permanently?
Will any risk to the company’s image or goodwill
result?
Does the development schedule conflict with other
company priorities?
Do legal or ethical issues need to be considered?
24
Overview of Feasibility (Cont.)

TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY
Does the company have the necessary
hardware, software, and network resources?
If not, can those resources be acquired without
difficulty?
Does the company have the needed technical
expertise?
If not, can it be acquired?
Does the proposed platform have sufficient
capacity for future needs?
If not, can it be expanded?

25
Overview of Feasibility (Cont.)
TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY (CONT.)
Will a prototype be required?
Will the hardware and software environment be
reliable?
Will it integrate with other company information
systems, both now and in the future?
Will it interface properly with external systems
operated by customers and suppliers?
Will the combination of hardware and software
supply adequate performance?
Do clear expectations and performance
specifications exist?
Will the system be able to handle future
transaction volume and company growth?
26
Overview of Feasibility (Cont.)

ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
Costs for people, including IT staff and users
Costs for hardware and equipment
Cost of software, including in-house
development as well as purchases from
vendors
Cost for formal and informal training,
including peer-to-peer support
Cost of licenses and fees
Cost of consulting expenses
Facility costs
The estimated cost of not developing the
system or postponing the project
27
Overview of Feasibility (Cont.)
TANGIBLE BENEFITS INTANGIBLE BENEFITS
A new scheduling A user-friendly system
system that reduces that improves
overtime employee job
An online package satisfaction
tracking system that A sales tracking system
improves service and that supplies better
decreases the need for information for
clerical staff marketing decisions
A sophisticated A new Web site that
inventory control enhances the
system that cuts excess company’s image
inventory and
eliminates production
delays

28
Overview of Feasibility (Cont.)

SCHEDULE FEASIBILITY
Can the company or the IT team control the
factors that affect schedule feasibility?
Has management established a firm
timetable for the project?
What conditions must be satisfied during the
development of the system?
Will an accelerated schedule pose any risks?
If so, are the risks acceptable?
Will project management techniques be
available to coordinate and control the
project?
Will a project manager be appointed?
29
Evaluating Feasibility
IDENTIFY AND WEED OUT SYSTEMS REQUESTS
THAT ARE NOT FEASIBLE
EVEN IF THE REQUEST IS FEASIBLE, IT MIGHT
NOT BE NECESSARY
REQUESTS THAT ARE NOT CURRENTLY FEASIBLE
CAN BE RESUBMITTED AS NEW HARDWARE,
SOFTWARE, OR EXPERTISE BECOMES AVAILABLE

30
Setting Priorities
FACTORS THAT AFFECT PRIORITY
Will the proposed system reduce costs?
Where? When? How? How much?
Will the system increase revenue for the
company?
Where? When? How? How much?
Will the systems project result in more
information or produce better results?
How? Are the results measurable?
Will the system serve customers better?
Will the system serve the organization better?
Can the project be implemented in a reasonable
time period?
How long will the results last?
Are the necessary financial, human, and technical
resources available? 31
Setting Priorities (Cont.)
DISCRETIONARY NONDISCRETIONARY
PROJECTS PROJECTS
Projects where Projects where
management has a management has must
choice in implementing implement them
them Adding a report required
Creating a new report for by federal law
a user Most of these projects are
predictable
Annual updates to payroll
Tax percentages
Quarterly changes

32
Preliminary Investigation Overview

INTERACTION WITH MANAGERS AND USERS

Meet with key managers, users, and IT staff to
describe the project, explain responsibilities,
answer questions, and invite comments
Focus on improvements and enhancements,
not problems

33
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

FIGURE 2-15 Model of a preliminary

investigation. Notice the importance of
fact-finding in each of the four areas.

FIGURE 2-16 Six main steps in a

typical preliminary investigation. 34
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM OR

OPPORTUNITY
Develop a business profile that describes
business processes and functions
Understand how modifications will affect
business operations and other information
systems
Determine which departments, users, and
business processes are involved
Systems request may not reveal an underlying
problem
Consider using a fishbone diagram

35
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

FIGURE 2-17 A fishbone diagram displays the

causes of a problem. Typically, you must dig deeper
to identify actual causes rather than just symptoms. 36
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

STEP 2: DEFINE THE PROJECT SCOPE AND

CONSTRAINTS
Define the specific boundaries, or extent, of the
project
Define project scope by creating a list with
sections called Must Do, Should Do, Could Do,
and Won’t Do
Define project scope as clearly as possible to
avoid project creep
Identify Constraints
A constraint is a requirement or condition that the
system must satisfy or an outcome that the system
must achieve
37
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

FIGURE 2-18 Examples of various types of

constraints.
38
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

STEP 3: PERFORM FACT-FINDING

Gather data about CONDUCT INTERVIEWS
project usability, 1. Determine the people to
costs, benefits, and interview
schedules 2. Establish objectives for
Analyze organization the interview
charts 3. Develop interview
questions
Understand the
4. Prepare for the interview
functions and
5. Conduct the interview
identify people you 6. Document the interview
want to interview 7. Evaluate the interview

39
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

STEP 3: PERFORM FACT-FINDING (CONT.)

REVIEW DOCUMENTATION
Investigate the current system documentation
Check with users to confirm that you are
receiving accurate and complete
information
OBSERVE OPERATIONS
See how workers carry out
typical tasks
Sample inputs and outputs
of the system

FIGURE 2-20 Sometimes, an analyst can

get a better understanding of a system
40
by watching actual operations.
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

STEP 3: PERFORM FACT-FINDING (CONT.)

CONDUCT A USER SURVEY
A survey is not as flexible as a series of interviews,
but it is less expensive, generally takes less time,
and can involve a broad cross-section of people
ANALYZE THE DATA
Systems analyst might use a Pareto chart
Analysts may use an XY chart to identify if there is
a correlation of variables

41
 Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

FIGURE 2-21 A Pareto chart displays the causes of a

problem, in priority order, so an analyst can tackle the
most important causes first. In this example, the part
number issue would be the obvious starting point.

FIGURE 2-22 An XY chart shows correlation between variables, which

is very important in problem solving. Conversely, a lack of correlation
suggests that the variables are independent, and that you should look
elsewhere for the cause. 42
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

STEP 4: ANALYZE PROJECT USABILITY, COST,

BENEFIT, AND SCHEDULE DATA
What information must you obtain, and how will
you gather and analyze the information?
Will you conduct interviews? How many people
will you interview, and how much time will you
need to meet with the people and summarize their
responses?
Will you conduct a survey? Who will be involved?
How much time will it take people to complete it?
How much time will it take to tabulate the results?
How much will it cost to analyze the information
and prepare a report with findings and
recommendations?
43
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

STEP 5: EVALUATE FEASIBILITY

OPERATIONAL FEASIBILITY
Review of user needs, requirements, and expectations
Look for areas that might present problems for
system users and how they might be resolved
TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY
Identify the hardware, software, and network
resources needed to develop, install, and operate the
system
Develop a checklist that will highlight technical costs and
concerns
ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
Apply the financial analysis tools
The cost-benefit data will be important
SCHEDULE FEASIBILITY
Include stakeholder expectations regarding
acceptable timing and completion dates
44
Preliminary Investigation Overview (Cont.)

STEP 6: PRESENT RESULTS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS TO MANAGEMENT
Typical Report Includes:
Introduction
Systems Request Summary
Findings
Case for Action
Project Roles
Time and Costs Estimates
Expected Benefits
Appendix

45
Chapter Summary
Systems planning is the first phase of the systems
development life cycle
A business case should describe the project
clearly, provide the justification to proceed, and
estimate the project’s financial impact
Various internal and external factors affect
systems projects, such as user requests, top
management directives, existing systems, the IT
department, software and hardware vendors,
technology, customers, competitors, the
economy, and government

46
Chapter Summary (Cont.)
ANALYSTS EVALUATE THE SYSTEMS REQUEST
AND DETERMINE WHETHER THE PROJECT IS
FEASIBLE FROM AN OPERATIONAL, TECHNICAL,
ECONOMIC, AND SCHEDULE STANDPOINT
STEPS IN THE PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
ARE:
Understand the problem or opportunity
Define the project scope and constraints
Perform fact-finding
Analyze project usability, cost, benefit, and schedule
data
Evaluate feasibility
Present results and recommendations to
management
47
Systems Analysis and Design
10ᵗʰ Edition
Chapter 3
Managing Systems Projects
Chapter Objectives
Explain project planning, scheduling, monitoring,
and reporting
Draw a project triangle that shows the relationship
among project cost, scope, and time
Describe work breakdown structures, task
patterns, and critical path analysis
Explain techniques for estimating task completion
times and costs

2
Chapter Objectives (Cont.)

Describe various scheduling tools, including Gantt

charts and PERT/CPM charts
Analyze task dependencies, durations, start dates,
and end dates
Describe project management software and how it
can assist you
Discuss the importance of managing project risks
Understand why projects sometimes fail

3
 Overview of Project Management

What Shapes a Project?

Successful projects must be completed on time, within budget,
meet requirements, and satisfy users
What Is a Project Triangle
Cost, scope, time
Usually one of these is fixed
A budget cast in stone
An inflexible scope
A schedule fixed by factors beyond the firm’s control

4
 Overview of Project Management(Cont.)

What Does a Project Manager Do?

Good leadership is essential
Project planning
Identify all project tasks and
estimate the completion time and
cost of each
Project scheduling
Create a specific timetable that
shows tasks, task dependencies,
FIGURE 3-3 A successful project must
balance cost, scope, and time against and critical tasks that might delay
a set of constraints. In this example, the project
the project appears to be a success

5
 Overview of Project Management(Cont.)

What Does a Project Manager

Do? (Cont.)
Project monitoring
Guiding, supervising, and
coordinating the project team’s
workload
Project reporting
Create regular progress reports
to management, users, and the
FIGURE 3-5 A typical project triangle includes project team itself
cost, scope, and time

6
 Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown Structure

What Is a Gantt Chart?

Developed by mechanical engineer and management
consultant Henry L. Gantt almost 100 years ago
Shows planned and actual progress on a project
Time usually displayed on horizontal axis
Tasks shown on vertical axis

7
Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)

FIGURE 3-6 In this Gantt chart, notice the yellow bars that show the
percentage of task completion

8
 Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)
What Is a PERT/CPM Chart?
Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT)
Developed by the U.S. Navy to manage complex projects
Critical Path Method (CPM)
Similar to PERT, developed by private industry
Most analysts call both a PERT Chart

9
 Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)
Which is better: Gantt vs. PERT
Gantt offers a valuable snapshot view of the project
PERT is more useful for scheduling, monitoring,
and controlling the actual work
PERT displays complex task patterns and relationships
PERT chart boxes can provide more detailed information

10
 Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)

FIGURE 3-7 The top screen shows a

Gantt chart with six tasks. The PERT
chart in the bottom screen displays an
easy-to-follow task pattern for the
same project. When the user mouses
over the summary box for Task 5, the
details become visible

11
 Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)
Identifying Tasks in a Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS)
WBS must clearly identify each task and include an
estimated duration
A task, or activity, is any work that has a beginning and
an end and requires the use of company resources such
as people, time, or money
Tasks are basic units of work that the project manager plans,
schedules, and monitors — so they should be relatively small
and manageable

12
 Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)

FIGURE 3-8 Using a questionnaire requires a series of tasks and events to

track the progress. The illustration shows the relationship between the tasks and
the events, or milestones, that mark the beginning and end of each task

13
 Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)
Listing the Tasks
List all tasks
Put tasks in order
Add a description
Decide how
long each
task takes
Decide
which tasks
must go
first
FIGURE 3-10 In this table, columns have been added for task
number, description, duration, and predecessor tasks, which
must be completed before another task can start
14
 Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)
Estimating Task Duration
Tasks can be hours, days, or weeks
If tasks uses days, the units of measurement are called
person-days
A person-day represents the work that one person can
complete in one day

15
 Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)
Factors Affecting Duration
Project Size
Must identify all project tasks, from initial fact-finding to
system implementation
How much time will be needed to perform each task?
Allow time for meetings, project reviews, training, and any
other factors that could affect the productivity of the
development team
Human Resources
Assemble and guide a development team that has the skill
and experience to handle the project
Turnover, job vacancies, and escalating salaries in the
technology sector

16
 Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)
Displaying the Work Breakdown Structure
Experience with Similar Projects
Develop time and cost estimates based on the resources
used for similar, previously developed information systems
Use experience from projects that were developed in a
different environment
Constraints
Constraints are conditions, restrictions, or requirement
that the system must satisfy
Define system requirements that can be achieved
realistically within the required constraints

17
Step 1: Create a Work Breakdown
Structure (Cont.)
FIGURE 3-11 Task durations have
been added, and the WBS is
complete except for
predecessor task information.
The predecessor tasks will
determine task patterns and
sequence of performance

FIGURE 3-12 This Microsoft Project screen displays the same

WBS, including task number, task name, 18
duration, and predecessor tasks
Step 2: Identify Task Patterns

What Are Task Patterns

Tasks depend on each other and must be performed in a
sequence
Involve dependent tasks, multiple successor tasks, and
multiple predecessor tasks
How Do I Use Task Boxes to Create a Model?
Each section of the task box contains important
information about the task, including the task name, task
ID, task duration, start day/date, and finish day/date

19
Step 2: Identify Task Patterns(Cont.)

Task Name
Should be brief and descriptive
Task ID
Can be a number or code that FIGURE 3-13 Each section of the task
provides unique identification box contains important information about
Task Duration the task, including the Task Name, Task
ID, Task Duration, Start Day/Date, and
Amount of time it will take to complete a task
Finish Day/Date
Start Day / Date
The start day/date is the time that a task is scheduled to begin
Finish Day / Date
The finish day/date is the time that a task is scheduled to be completed

20
Step 2: Identify Task Patterns(Cont.)

What Are the Main Types of Task Patterns?

Dependent Tasks
When tasks must be
completed one after
another
Called dependent
tasks because one
depends on the other FIGURE 3-15 This example of a dependent task
shows that the finish time of Task 1, Day 5, controls
Similar to a relay race the start date of Task 2, which is Day 6

21
Step 2: Identify Task Patterns(Cont.)

What Are the Main Types of Task Patterns? (cont.)

Multiple Successor
Tasks
When several tasks can
start at the same time
Each is called a
concurrent task
Often, two or more
concurrent tasks
depend on a single prior
task, which is called a
predecessor task FIGURE 3-16 This example of multiple successor
tasks shows that the finish time for Task 1
determines the start time for both Tasks 2 and 3

22
Step 2: Identify Task Patterns(Cont.)

What Are the Main Types of Task Patterns? (cont.)

Multiple Predecessor
Tasks
When a task requires two or
more prior tasks to be
completed before it can start

FIGURE 3-17 This example of multiple predecessor tasks shows

that the start time for a successor task must be the latest
(largest) finish time for any of its preceding tasks. In the
example shown, Task 1 ends on Day 15, while Task 2 ends on
Day 5, so Task 1 controls the start time for Task 3

23
 Step 2: Identify Task Patterns(Cont.)

How Do I Identify Task Patterns?

Words like then, when, or and are action words that
signal a sequence of events
Do Task 1, then do Task 2
Describes dependent tasks that must be completed one after
the other
When Task 2 is finished, start two tasks
Task 3 and Task 4 describes multiple successor tasks that can
both start as soon as Task 2 is finished
When Tasks 5 and 6 are done, start Task 7
Indicates that Task 7 is a multiple predecessor task because it
can’t start until two or more previous tasks all are completed

24
 Step 2: Identify Task Patterns(Cont.)

How Do I Work With Complex Task Patterns?

Study the facts very carefully to understand the
logic and sequence
Schedule will be wrong if task patterns are
incorrect FIGURE 3-19
Dependent tasks
and multiple
successor tasks

FIGURE 3-18
Dependent tasks

FIGURE 3-20 Dependent tasks, multiple successor 25

tasks, and multiple predecessor tasks
Step 3: Calculate the Critical Path

What is a Critical Path?

A series of tasks which, if delayed, would affect the
completion date of the overall project
If any task on the critical path falls behind schedule,
the entire project will be delayed

26
Step 3: Calculate the Critical Path (Cont.)

How Do I Calculate the Critical Path?

Review patterns, determine start and finish
dates, which will determine the critical path

FIGURE 3-21 Example of a PERT/CPM chart with five tasks.

Task 2 is a dependent task that has multiple successor
tasks. Task 5 has multiple predecessor tasks. In this
figure, the analyst has arranged the tasks and entered
task names, IDs, and durations 27
Step 3: Calculate the Critical Path (Cont.)

FIGURE 3-22 Now the analyst has entered the start and finish times, using the rules
explained in this section. Notice that the overall project has a duration of 95 days

28
Project Monitoring and Control

Monitoring and Control Techniques

Structured walkthrough
Maintaining a Schedule
Most projects tune into some problems or delays
Anticipate problems
Avoid them
Minimize their impact
Identify potential solutions
Select the best way to solve the problem

29
Reporting
Project Status Meetings
Schedule regular meetings to update the team and discuss project
status, issues, problems, and opportunities
Project Status Reports
Reports can be verbal but are usually written
Gantt charts are often included to show project status graphically
Handling potential problems can be difficult
An overly cautious project manager who alerts management to
every potential snag and slight delay will lose credibility over a
period of time, and management might ignore potentially
serious situations
A project manager who tries to handle all situations single-
handedly and does not alert management until a problem is
serious leaves little time to react or devise a solution
30
Project Management Examples

PERT/CPM Example
STEP 1: DISPLAY THE TASKS AND TASK PATTERNS
Identify the tasks, determine task dependencies, and
enter the task name, ID, and duration.
STEP 2: ENTER STAR T AND FINISH TIMES
Enter the start and finish times

31
Project Management Examples (Cont.)

FIGURE 3-26 To transform a task list into a PERT/CPM chart, you first
enter the task name, ID, duration, and predecessors for each task.
Notice that this example includes dependent tasks, tasks with multiple
successors, and tasks with multiple predecessors

32
Project Management Examples (Cont.)

FIGURE 3-27 To complete the PERT/CPM chart, you apply the guidelines
explained in this section. For example, Task 1 has a one-day duration, so you
enter the start and finish for Task 1 as Day 1. Then you enter Day 2 as the start
for successor Tasks 2 and 3

33
Project Management Software

Microsoft Project is a full-featured program that

holds the dominant share of the market
Gantt chart
As you enter the tasks, the program automatically performs the
calculations, detects the task patterns, and creates a Gantt chart
Network diagram
View is similar to a PERT Chart
Calendar view
View is similar to a PERT chart as an overlay on a calendar
GanttProject is a free, open source program

34
 Project Management Software (Cont.)

FIGURE 3-30 Notice how each view displays the project and highlights the critical path. If you
were the project manager on September 25, what would be your primary concern?

35
Project Management Software (Cont.)

FIGURE 3-30 Notice how each view displays the

project and highlights the critical path. If you were
the project manager on September 25, what would 36
be your primary concern?
 Project Management Software (Cont.)

FIGURE 3-30 Notice how each view displays the project and highlights the critical path. If you
were the project manager on September 25, what would be your primary concern?

37
Risk Management

Steps in Risk Management

Develop a risk management plan
Review of the project’s scope, stakeholders, budget,
schedule, and any other internal or external factors that
might affect the project
Define project roles and responsibilities, risk
management methods and procedures, categories of
risks, and contingency plans

38
Risk Management (Cont.)
Steps in Risk Management (Cont.)
Identify the risks
List each risk and assesses the likelihood that it could affect the
project
Analyze the risks
This typically is a two-step process
Qualitative risk analysis evaluates each risk by estimating the
probability that it will occur and the degree of impact
Quantitative risk analysis is to understand the actual impact in
terms of dollars, time, project scope, or quality

39
Risk Management (Cont.)

FIGURE 3-33 You can use a Microsoft Excel XY chart type to

display a risk matrix that shows risk probability and potential
impact. 40
Risk Management (Cont.)
Risk Management Software
Assigns specific dates as constraints
Aligns task dependencies
Notes external factors that might affect a task
Tracks progress
Displays tasks that are behind schedule
Links risks with specific tasks and projects
Specifies probability and impact
Assigns ownership
Tracks progress to manage projects more efficiently

41
Managing for Success
Business Issues
Every system is to provide a solution to a business problem
or opportunity
If a system does not do this, it is a failure
Budget Issues
Unrealistic estimates that are too optimistic or based on
incomplete information
Failure to develop an accurate forecast that considers all
costs over the life of the project
Poor monitoring of progress and slow response to early
warning signs of problems
Schedule delays due to factors that were not foreseen
Human resource issues, including turnover, inadequate
training, and motivation
42
Managing for Success (Cont.)

Schedule Issues
Problems with timetables and project milestones can
indicate a failure to recognize task dependencies,
confusion between effort and progress, poor monitoring
and control methods, personality conflicts among team
members, or turnover of project personnel
The failure of an IT project also can be caused by poor
project management techniques

43
The Bottom Line

Project managers must be alert, technically

competent, and highly resourceful. They also
must be good communicators with strong human
resource skills
When problems occur, the project manager’s
ability to handle the situation becomes the
critical factor

44
Chapter Summary
Project management is the process of planning,
scheduling, monitoring, and reporting on the development
of an information system
A successful project must be completed on time, within
budget, and deliver a quality product that satisfies users
and meets requirements
A project triangle shows three legs: project cost, scope,
and time. A project manager must find the best balance
among these elements because a change in any leg of the
triangle will affect the other two legs

45
Chapter Summary (Cont.)

Planning, scheduling, monitoring, and reporting all

take place within a larger project development
framework, which includes three key steps: creating
a work breakdown structure, identifying task
patterns, and calculating the critical path
Task patterns establish the sequence of work in a
project
A critical path is a series of tasks that, if delayed,
would affect the completion date of the overall
project

46
Chapter Summary (Cont.)

A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart that represents

the project schedule with time on the horizontal axis
and tasks arranged vertically
A PERT/CPM chart shows the project as a network
diagram with tasks connected by arrows
Most project managers use powerful software such as
Microsoft Project to plan, schedule, and monitor
projects

47
Systems Analysis and Design
10ᵗʰ Edition
Chapter 4
Requirements Modeling
Chapter Objectives

Describe systems analysis phase

activities
Explain joint application development
(JAD), rapid application development
(RAD), and agile methods
Use a functional decomposition diagram
(FDD) to model business functions and
processes
Describe the Unified Modeling Language
(UML) and examples of UML diagrams

2
Chapter Objectives (Cont.)

List and describe system requirements, including

outputs, inputs, processes, performance, and
controls
Explain the concept of scalability
Use fact-finding techniques, including interviews,
documentation review, observation, questionnaires,
sampling, and research
Define total cost of ownership (TCO)
Conduct a successful interview
Develop effective documentation methods to use
during systems development

3
 Systems Analysis Phase Overview

Systems Analysis Phase Overview

Understand the proposed project
Ensure that it supports business requirements
Build a solid foundation for system development
Systems Analysis Activities
Requirements Modeling
Data and Process Modeling
Object Modeling
Development Strategies

4
 Systems Analysis Phase Overview (Cont.)
Requirements Modeling
Fact-finding to describe the
current system
Requirements for new system
Data and Process
Modeling
Graphically represent system
data and processes
Object Modeling
FIGURE 4-2 The systems analysis phase consists of
requirements modeling, data and process modeling, Create objects to represent
object modeling, and consideration of development
strategies. Notice that the systems analysis tasks
things, transactions and events
are interactive, even though the waterfall model
generally depicts sequential development Development Strategies
Software trends, development
alternatives, outsourcing, etc.
5
Systems Analysis Phase Overview (Cont.)
Systems Analysis Skills
Strong analytical skills
Interpersonal skills
Team-Based Techniques: JAD, RAD, and
Agile Methods
Object is to deliver the best possible system at the
lowest possible cost in the shortest possible time
Joint application development brings users into the
design process
Rapid application development uses a condensed
version of the system development life cycle
Agile methods stress intense interaction between
developers and users

6
 Joint Application Development

Brings users into the development process as active

participants
User Involvement (formally or informally) created
a successful system
JAD Participants and Roles
Project leader and one or more members
Participants insulated from distractions of day-to-day
operations

7
Joint Application Development (Cont.)

FIGURE 4-3 Typical JAD participants and roles

8
Joint Application Development (Cont.)

FIGURE 4-4 Typical agenda for a JAD session

9
Joint Application Development (Cont.)

JAD Disadvantages
JAD is more expensive than traditional methods
Can be cumbersome if group is too large
JAD Advantages
JAD allows key users to participate effectively
Users more likely to feel a sense of ownership
Produces a more accurate statement of system
requirements

10
 Rapid Application Development

Uses a group approach like JAD

JAD produces a requirements model, RAD
produces a new system
Complete methodology
Four-phase life cycle that parallels the traditional SDLC
Reduces cost and development time
Increases the probability of success
Relies on prototyping and user involvement
Prototypes modified based on user input

11
Rapid Application Development (Cont.)

RAD
Phases
and
Activities

FIGURE 4-5 The four phases of the RAD

model are requirements planning, user
design, construction, and cutover. Notice
the continuous interaction between the
user design and construction phases

12
Rapid Application Development (Cont.)

Requirements Planning
Team agrees on business needs, project scope,
constraints, and system requirements
Management authorization to continue is obtained
User Design
Users interact with analysts to develop models and
prototypes
A combination of JAD and CASE tools are used
Users understand, modify, and approve a working
model

13
Rapid Application Development (Cont.)

Construction
Program and application development
Users can suggest changes as screens or reports are
developed
Cutover
Includes data conversion, testing, changeover to the
new system, and user training

14
Rapid Application Development (Cont.)

RAD Objectives
Cut development time and expenses by involving users in
every phase of systems development
Allow the development team to make necessary
modifications quickly, as the design evolves
RAD Advantages
Systems developed more quickly with significant cost
savings
RAD Disadvantages
Does not emphasize strategic business needs (system
might work well in short term but miss long-term objectives)
Less time to develop quality, consistency, and design
standards

15
 Agile Methods

Agile methods attempt to develop a system

incrementally, by building a series of prototypes
and constantly adjusting them to user
requirements
Developers revise, extend, and merge earlier
versions into the final product
Emphasizes continuous feedback, and each
incremental step is affected by what was learned
in the prior steps

16
Agile Methods (Cont.)

FIGURE 4-6 Agilian supports various modeling tools, such

as the Unified Modeling Language, use cases, and
17
business process modeling, among others
 Agile Methods (Cont.)

Scrum
A rugby term
Pigs include the
product owner,
the facilitator, and
the development
team
Chickens include
users, other
stakeholders, and FIGURE 4-7 In a rugby scrum, team members prepare to
lunge at each other to achieve their objectives
managers
Scrum sessions have specific guidelines that
emphasize time blocks, interaction, and team-
based activities that result in deliverable software

18
 Agile Methods (Cont.)

Agile Method Advantages and

Disadvantages
Very flexible and efficient in dealing with change
Frequent deliverables constantly validate the project
and reduce risk
Team members need a high level of technical and
interpersonal skills
May be subject to significant change in scope

19
 Modeling Tools and Techniques

Involves graphical methods and nontechnical

language that represent the system at various
stages of development
Can use various tools
Functional Decomposition Diagrams
Functional decomposition diagram (FDD)
Model business functions and show how they are organized
into lower-level processes

20
Modeling Tools and Techniques (Cont.)

Functional Decomposition
Diagrams
Top-down
representation
of a function
or process
Similar to an
organization
chart
FIGURE 4-8 This Visible Analyst FDD shows a library system
with five top-level functions. The Library Operations
function includes two additional levels of processes and sub
processes

21
Modeling Tools and Techniques (Cont.)

Business Process
Modeling
Business process
model (BPM)
Business process
modeling notation
(BPMN)
Pool
FIGURE 4-9 Using the Visible Analyst CASE tool, an
Swim lanes analyst can create a business process diagram. The
overall diagram is called a pool, and the two
separate customer areas are called swim lanes

22
Modeling Tools and Techniques (Cont.)

Data Flow
Diagrams
Data flow diagram
(DFD)
show how the
system stores,
processes, and
transforms data
Additional levels of
information and
detail are depicted
in other, related
DFDs
FIGURE 4-10 This Visible Analyst DFD shows how books
are added and removed in a library system
23
Modeling Tools and Techniques (Cont.)

Use Case
Diagrams
Interaction between
users and the
system

FIGURE 4-12 This table documents the credit card

validation use case shown in Figure 4-11

FIGURE 4-11 This Visible Analyst use case diagram

shows a sales system, where the actor is a customer
and the use case is a credit card validation 24
Modeling Tools and Techniques (Cont.)

Sequence
Diagrams
Shows the timing
of interactions
between objects
as they occur

FIGURE 4-14 This Visible Analyst sequence diagram

shows a credit card validation process
25
System Requirements Checklist

Output Examples
The Web site must report online volume statistics every
four hours, and hourly during peak periods
The inventory system must produce a daily report
showing the part number, description, quantity on
hand, quantity allocated, quantity available, and unit
cost of all sorted by part number
The contact management system must generate a daily
reminder list for all sales reps
The purchasing system must provide suppliers with up-
to-date specifications

26
System Requirements Checklist (Cont.)

Input Examples
Manufacturing employees must swipe their ID cards into online
data collection terminals that record labor costs and calculate
production efficiency
The department head must enter overtime hours on a separate
screen
Student grades must be entered on machine-scannable forms
prepared by the instructor
Each input form must include date, time, product code, customer
number, and quantity
Data entry screens must be uniform, except for background color,
which can be changed by the user
A data entry person at the medical group must input patient
services into the billing system

27
System Requirements Checklist (Cont.)

Process Examples
The student records system must calculate the GPA at the end
of each semester
As the final step in year-end processing, the payroll system
must update employee salaries, bonuses, and benefits and
produce tax data required by the IRS
The warehouse distribution system must analyze daily orders
and create a routing pattern for delivery trucks that maximizes
efficiency and reduces unnecessary mileage
The human resources system must interface properly with the
existing payroll system
The equipment rental system must not execute new rental
transactions for customers who have overdue accounts
The prescription system must automatically generate an
insurance claim form

28
System Requirements Checklist (Cont.)

Performance Examples
The system must support 25 users online simultaneously
Response time must not exceed four seconds
The system must be operational seven days a week, 365
days a year
The accounts receivable system must prepare customer
statements by the third business day of the following
month
The student records system must produce class lists within
five hours after the end of registration
The online inventory control system must flag all low-stock
items within one hour after the quantity falls below a
predetermined minimum

29
System Requirements Checklist (Cont.)
Control Examples
The system must provide logon security at the
operating system level and at the application level
An employee record must be added, changed, or
deleted only by a member of the human resources
department
The system must maintain separate levels of security
for users and the system administrator
All transactions must have audit trails
The manager of the sales department must approve
orders that exceed a customer’s credit limit
The system must create an error log file that includes
the error type, description, and time

30
Future Growth, Costs, and Benefits

Scalability
A system’s ability to handle increased business volume
and transactions in the future
A scalable system offers a better return on the initial
investment
To evaluate scalability, you need information about
projected future volume for all outputs, inputs, and
processes

31
Future Growth, Costs, and Benefits (Cont.)

Total Cost of Ownership

Total cost of ownership
(TCO) is especially
important if the
development team is
evaluating several
alternatives
One problem is that cost
estimates tend to
understate indirect costs FIGURE 4-15 HP urges viewers to Take
Rapid Economic Justification the TCO Challenge. Interested viewers
can download a step-by-step TCO
(REJ) analysis that HP created

32
Fact Finding

Fact-Finding Overview
First, you must identify the information you need
Develop a fact-finding plan
Who, What, Where, When, How, and Why?
Difference between asking what is being done and
what could or should be done

33
Fact Finding (Cont.)

Typical questions to ask

What business functions are supported by the current
system?
What strategic objectives and business requirements
must be supported by the new system?
What are the benefits and TCO of the proposed system?
What transactions will the system process?
What information do users and managers need from the
system?
Must the new system interface with legacy systems?

34
Fact Finding (Cont.)

Typical questions to ask

What procedures could be eliminated by business
process reengineering?
What security issues exist?
What risks are acceptable?
What budget and timetable constraints will affect system
development?

35
Fact Finding (Cont.)

Who, What, Where, When, How, and Why?

Who performs each of the procedures within the system? Why? Are
the correct people performing the activity? Could other people
perform the tasks more effectively?
What is being done? What procedures are being followed? Why is that
process necessary? Often, procedures are followed for many years
and no one knows why. You should question why a procedure is being
followed at all
Where are operations being performed? Why? Where could they be
performed? Could they be performed more efficiently elsewhere?
When is a procedure performed? Why is it being performed at this
time? Is this the best time?
How is a procedure performed? Why is it performed in that manner?
Could it be performed better, more efficiently, or less expensively in
some other manner?

36
Fact Finding (Cont.)

FIGURE 4-17 Sample questions during requirements modeling as the

focus shifts from the current system to the proposed system

37
 Fact Finding (Cont.)
The Zachman
Framework
Zachman Framework
for Enterprise
Architecture
Helps managers and
users understand the
model and assures
that overall business
goals translate into
successful IT projects
FIGURE 4-18 Visible Analyst uses the Zachman Framework
for Enterprise Architecture. The Zachman concept
presents traditional fact-finding questions in a systems
development context

38
Interviews

Step 1. Determine the people to interview

Step 2. Establish objectives for the
interview
Step 3. Develop interview questions
Step 4. Prepare for the interview
Step 5. Conduct the interview
Step 6. Document the interview
Step 7. Evaluate the interview

39
Interviews (Cont.)

Step 1: Determine the people to interview

Select the right people and ask the right questions
Don’t rely on just an organization chart
Decide on group and/or individual interviews
Step 2. Establish objectives for the interview
Determine the areas to be discussed
List the facts you need to gather
Upper management provides the big picture
Users can give you specific details

40
Interviews (Cont.)

Step 3. Develop interview questions

Decide what to ask and how to phrase the question
The same question to different people - for comparison
Open ended questions encourage spontaneous and unstructured
responses
What are users saying about the new system?
How is this task performed?
Close ended questions limit the response - used to verify facts
How many personal computers do you have in this department?
Do you review the reports before they are sent out?
Range of response questions limit the response – uses a scale
On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 the lowest and 10 the highest, how
effective was your training?
How would you rate the severity of the problem: low, medium, or
high?

41
Interviews (Cont.)

Step 4. Prepare for the interview

Careful preparation is essential because an interview is
an important meeting and not just a casual chat
Limit the interview to no more than one hour
Verify time, place, length, and topics via e-mail
Ask the interviewee to have samples available

42
Interviews (Cont.)

FIGURE 4-20 Sample message to a department

head about interviews 43
Interviews (Cont.)

FIGURE 4-21 Sample message to confirm an

44
interview
Interviews (Cont.)

Step 5. Conduct the interview

Develop a specific plan for the meeting
Begin by introducing yourself, describing the project,
and explaining your interview objectives
Engaged listening
Allow the person enough time to think about the
question
After an interview, you should summarize the session
and seek a confirmation

45
Interviews (Cont.)

Step 6. Document the interview

Note taking should be kept to a minimum
After conducting the interview, you must record the
information quickly
After the interview, send memo to the interviewee
expressing your appreciation
Note date, time, location, purpose of the interview, and
the main points you discussed so the interviewee has a
written summary and can offer additions or corrections

46
Interviews (Cont.)

Step 7. Evaluate the interview

In addition to recording the facts obtained in an
interview, try to identify any possible biases
Unsuccessful Interviews
No matter how well you prepare for interviews, some are
not successful
Misunderstanding or personality conflict could affect
the interview negatively, or the interviewee might be
afraid that the new system will eliminate or change
his or her job

47
Other Fact-Finding Techniques

Document Review
Review old and current forms and
documentation
Observation
Seeing the system in action gives you additional
perspective and a better understanding of the
system procedures
Plan your observations in advance
Consider the Hawthorne Effect Study
Productivity seemed to improve whenever workers knew they
were being observed

48
Other Fact-Finding Techniques (Cont.)

Questionnaires and
Surveys
When designing a
questionnaire, the most
important rule of all is to
make sure that your
questions collect the right
data in a form that you
can use to further your
fact-finding
Fill-in form

FIGURE 4-23 Online version of a sample questionnaire. Does

it follow the suggested guidelines? 49
Other Fact-Finding Techniques (Cont.)
Keep the questionnaire brief and user-friendly
Provide clear instructions that will answer all anticipated questions
Arrange the questions in a logical order, going from simple to more
complex topics
Phrase questions to avoid misunderstandings; use simple terms
and wording
Try not to lead the response or use questions that give clues to
expected answers
Limit the use of open-ended questions that are difficult to tabulate
Limit the use of questions that can raise concerns about job
security or other negative issues
Include a section at the end of the questionnaire for general
comments
Test the questionnaire whenever possible on a small test group
before finalizing it and distributing to a large group

50
Other Fact-Finding Techniques (Cont.)

Sampling
Systematic sample
Select every tenth customer for review
Stratified sample
Select five customers from each of four postal codes
Random sample
Any 20 customers
Main objective of a sample is to ensure that it represents the
overall population accurately

51
Other Fact-Finding Techniques (Cont.)

Research
Can include the Internet, IT magazines, and books to obtain
background information, technical material, and news about
industry trends and developments
Site visit

52
Other Fact-Finding Techniques (Cont.)

Interviews versus Questionnaires

Interview is more familiar and personal
Questionnaire gives many people the opportunity to provide
input and suggestions
Brainstorming
Structured brainstorming
Unstructured brainstorming

53
Documentation

The Need for Recording the Facts

Record information as soon as you obtain it
Use the simplest recording method
Record your findings in such a way that they can be
understood by someone else
Organize your documentation so related material is
located easily

54
Documentation (Cont.)

Software Tools
CASE Tools
Productivity
Software
Word processing
Spreadsheets
Database
management
Presentation
graphics, and
FIGURE 4-27 This histogram displays the results
collaborative from Question 2 in the questionnaire shown in
software programs Figure 4-23 on page 156.
Histogram

55
Documentation (Cont.)

Graphic
Modeling
Software
Produces charts
and diagrams
MS Visio popular

FIGURE 4-28 This Visio drawing uses drag-and-

drop shapes to represent a business process
56
Information Management Software

Personal data management software

Microsoft Outlook
A personal calendar
A to-do list with priorities and ability to check off completed
items
Microsoft OneNote
Handles many different types of input, including text,
handwritten notes, images, audio and video recordings, Web
links
OneNote is included in most versions of the Office

57
Preview of Logical Modeling

At the conclusion of requirements

modeling, systems developers should have
a clear understanding of business
processes and system requirements
The next step is to construct a logical
model of the system
IT professionals have differing views
about systems development
methodologies, and no universally
accepted approach exists

58
Chapter Summary

The systems analysis phase includes three

activities: requirements modeling, data and
process modeling, and consideration of
development strategies
The main objective is to understand the
proposed project, ensure that it will support
business requirements, and build a solid
foundation for the systems design phase
Popular team-based approaches include JAD,
RAD, and agile methods

59
Chapter Summary (Cont.)

The fact-finding process includes

interviewing, document review, observation,
questionnaires, sampling, and research
Systems analysts should carefully record
and document factual information as it is
collected, and various software tools can
help an analyst visualize and describe an
information system

60