Final Report Tuwan Road in Kanke Corrected Send

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA
LOWER BENUE RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY, MAKURDI
STUDY AND DESIGN OF TUWAN ROAD IN KABWIR TOWN IN PLATEAU

CENTRAL SENATORIAL DISTRICT, PLATEAU STATE.
FINAL REPORT
CONSULTANT:
ARCHIVISUAL SOLUTIONS LIMITED
PLOT 77, BEHIND WUYE MARKET, WUYE DISTRICT, ABUJA.
SEPTEMBER, 2022
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT PAGE
COVER PAGE 0
TABLE OF CONTENTS i
LIST OF FIGURES iii
LIST OF TABLES iii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 GENERAL 1
1.2 SCOPE OF WORK 1
1.2.1 Desk Story 1
1.2.2 Topographical Survey 2
1.2.3 Geotechnical Investigation 2
1.2.4 Engineering Design of the Road and its Associated Structure 2
1.2.5 Produce Tender Documents and Bill of Engineering Measurement & Evaluation 3
1.3 PROJECT AREA 3
1.3.1 Project Location
1.4 CLIMATE 4
1.4.1 Rainfall 4
1.4.2 Temperature 5
1.4.3 Length of Day and Sunshine Duration 6
1.4.4 Relative Humidity 6
1.4.5 Evaporation 7
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS 8
2.1 DESIGN STANDARDS 8
2.2 DESIGN SPEED 10
2.3 SIGHT DISTANCE 11
2.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance 11
2.3.2 Passing Sight Distance 12
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 HIGHWAY GEOMETRICS 14
3.1 GENERAL 14
3.2 CROSS-SECTION 14
2
3.2.1 Traveled way 14
3.2.2 Shoulder 15
3.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 15
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DESIGN APPROACH 17
4.1 GENERAL 17
4.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR PAVEMENT 17
4.2.1 Axle Load and Design life 17
4.2.2 Determination of the Subgrade strength 18
4.2.3 Determination of Nominal operating climate (Wet and dry) 19
4.2.4 Selection of possible pavement structures 19
4.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR DRAINAGE COMPONENTS 19
4.3.1 Design Procedure for Drains 20
4.3.2 Design Procedure for Culverts 20
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 21
5.1 GENERAL 21
5.2 AFFECTED PROPERTIES 21
5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 22
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 WORK PROGRESS 23
6.1 SITE HANDING-OVER 23
6.2 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY 23
6.3 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY 23
6.4 OUTLINE CONTENT OF DRAFT FINAL REPORT 24
APPENDIX (SITE PHOTOGRAPHS) 25
Appendix A: Some relevant Project Site Pictures
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Project location Map 3
Figure 3.1: Cross section of the proposed road 14
Figure 3.2: Horizontal Curve Features 16
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Precipitation Table for Jos 5
Table 1.2: Mean Monthly Maximum and Minimum Temperature oC for Jos 6
Table 1.3 Mean Monthly Actual Daily Sunshine in Hours for Jos 6
3
Table 1.4: Mean Monthly Relative Humidity (%) for Jos 7
Table 1.5: Mean Monthly Evaporation for Jos 7
Table 2.1: Design Standards Adopted for the Project 8
Table 2.2: AASHTO Recommended Design Speed 11
Table 2.3: AASHTO Recommended Stopping Sight Distance 12
Table 2.4: AASHTO Recommended Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highways 13
Table 3.1: Normal traveled-way cross slope 15
Table 6.1: Outline Content of the Draft Final Report 24
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Transportation is one of the major functional systems of modern society. It is a functional
system because it provides a service (movement of goods and people from place to place),
and it is an essential feature in the economy and personal lives of people everywhere. One of
the physical components of a transportation system is road which is a thoroughfare or way on
land between two places, which has been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by
some conveyance like motor vehicle. An increase in economic activity in Kawbir Town
during the past few decades has led to major expansion which required improved road
network. The existing unpaved roads eroded and reached a condition which warrants further
attention and improvements in terms of riding quality and drainage system. Currently, the
Tuwan Road in Kabwir is unpaved and has been eroded and formed gullies at various section
due to absence of effective drainage system as such the runoff directly flows over the road.
Also, the few existing culverts are either inadequate and filled with sediments and debris or
have failed. To protect the riding quality of this road, there is therefore need for proper design
and construction of paved road and drainage system to take water off the road and increase
the services of the road and safety of the road users.
It is against this background that the Lower Benue River Basin Development Authority,
Makurdi awarded the contract for the Study and Design of Culverts and Drainage on Tuwan
road in Kanke local government area of Plateau State to Archivisual Solutions Limited.
Upon the taking-over of the project site Archivisual Solutions Limited sent a team of
professionals to the site to conduct studies and discuss with all concerned in the project area.
This report covers work progress, and the procedures for the designs of the culverts and
drainage structures.
1.2 SCOPE OF WORK

The scope of consultancy services for the Design of Tuwan Road in Kabwir town of Kanke
Local Government area of Plateau State include the following:
1.2.1 Desk Study
This is essentially the collection of a wide variety of information relating to the site. This
includes but not limited to; topo maps, drawings, local authority information, geological
maps, records, details of utilities, examine the existing structures within the vicinity of the
proposed road etc.
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1.2.2 Topographical Survey
i. Establish a center line, and on either side of the center line, create traverse lines each at an
appropriate distance from the center line.
ii. Survey the road center line and the traverse lines by cross sectioning at every 25m.
iii. Plot the contour using an appropriate vertical interval.
iv. Insert all TBMs and other landmarks like settlements, rivers & streams, outcrops, etc
1.2.3 Geotechnical Investigation.

Dig trial pits along the road prism, and at locations where drainage structures would be sited,
to a depth of about 1m. In each of the trial pits, collect both disturbed and undisturbed
samples for laboratory analysis. Parameters to be analyzed include:
Name of Test Standard Test Method

Natural Moisture Content, BS 1377: Part 2: 1990
Specific Gravity, BS 1377: Part 2: 1990
Limits Test, BS 1377: Part 2: 1990
Sieve Analysis, BS 1377: Part 2: 1990
Compaction Test, BS 1377: Part 4: 1990
CBR Test, and BS 1377: Part 4: 1990
Compressive Tri-axial Test. BS 1377: Part4_ 1990
1.2.4 Engineering Designs of the Road and its Associated Structures

i. Establish the horizontal alignment of the road
ii. Design vertical alignment of the road
iii. Determine road cross section
iv. Carry out pavement design for the road
v. Determine location, type and size of drainage structures for the road
vi. Prepare materials specification
vii. Prepare design report
2.5 Produce Tender Documents and Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation
(BEME)
On the basis of the engineering design of the road:
i. Compute all necessary quantities for works to be executed.
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ii. Determine appropriate rate for the works to be executed
iii. Prepare a Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation (BEME) that will cover all
works to be executed
iv Prepare tender documents
1.3 THE PROJECT AREA

1.3.1 The Project Location
Tuwan Road is situated in Kabwir Town of Kanke Local Government Area of Plateau State.
Kabwir town is located at south eastern slope of the Jos Plateau Highland at T-Junction of
Kabwir Bauch Road on Langtang-Jos Road. Kanke Local Government area was created in
1996 and has it headquarter in Kwal with area of 926km 2 and a population of 121,0000,000
according to 2006 Census. The proposed Tuwan Road begins 80.1m from Kabwir Junction
along Kabwir-Buachi Road at latitude 9023’20.93” and longitude 9033’56.09” and the total
length of the road is about 3.860km. Figure 1.1 displayed the project location Map.
Figure 1.1: The Map of Plateau State showing the Project Location
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Kanke is one of the local Governments in Plateau State. The study area lies in the north-
central part of Nigeria, between a semi-arid setting in the north and sub-humid climate in the
south. Vegetation is basically savannah grassland with shrubs and trees interspaced. The area
is well drain and hilly.
1.4 CLIMATE
The project area lies in the north-central part of Nigeria, with the project catchment area
having no meteorological stations within. The meteorological station with reliable data that
would be considered is that in Jos. This will not make much difference in climatic
characteristics and therefore all the areas will have similar climatic conditions i.e., are
hydrometeorologically similar. It is hereby, safe to extend this concept of hydro-
meteorological similarity to the project area. Data obtained from the meteorological station
include rainfall, evaporation, spatial radiation, temperature, sunshine hours, and wind speed.
1.4.1 Rainfall
Rainfall is the most important of the climatologically factors, which affect crop production. It
supplies moisture necessary for soil nutrient uptake by plants and general growth of plants.
Generally, Nigeria’s climate is characterized by two seasons i.e the rainy season and dry
season. With the annual cycle, the climate is determined predominantly by tropical
continental and moist equatorial maritime. The boundary zone between the two air masses is
the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity (ITD), which moves Northwards or Southwards depending
on the pressure condition in the Sahara.
An examination of the rainfall records of Jos shows that there is a defined rainy season
between April and October. The dry season is from November to March. There is a distinct
and a fairly regular South North gradient in which the annual rainfall decreases from the
southern edges to the northern boundary. Jos earns an average of 1314.8 mm (51.8 in) of
rainfall per year, or 109.6 mm (4.3 in) per month. The driest weather is in November when an
average of 0.3 mm (0 in) of rainfall (precipitation) occurs. `The wettest weather is in July
when an average of 303.8 mm (12 in) of rainfall (precipitation) occurs.
The climate of the study area is closer to temperate than that of the vast majority of Nigeria.
Average monthly temperatures range from 21–25 °C (70–77 °F), and from mid-November to
late January, night-time temperatures drop as low as 7 °C (45 °F). Hail sometimes falls during
the rainy season because of the cooler temperatures at high altitudes. The rainfall is about
1,400 millimeters (55 inches) per annua the precipitation is both conventional
and oragraphic due to its location on the Jos Plateau.
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Table 1.1: Precipitation Table for Jos
Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency
1.4.2 Temperature
Air temperature is closely linked with the rate of growth and development of plants.
Generally, in the northern part of the country, the highest mean daily temperature (37 oC) is
recorded at the height of the dry season in March just before the onset of rains while the
lowest temperatures are recorded during the height of the rainy season (July-September) and
during the intense harmattan period in December and January. Table 1.2 gives the mean
monthly temperatures for Jos. The following characteristics can be inferred from the table:
a) There is a pronounced seasonal variation in temperature regime. During the first part of
the year, there is a gradual increase in the mean temperatures interrupted by the onset of
the rains.
b) During the rainy period, minimum temperatures are fairly steady since cloud and
humidity prevent back radiation.
Table 1.2: Mean Monthly Maximum and Minimum Temperatures oC for Jos
1.4.3 Length of Day and Sunshine Duration

The length of the day is the proportion of each day when there is sunlight and it varies the
latitude, the variation being smaller the nearer the equator is. There is very little variation in
mean length of the day over the project area in contrast to the stronger variations observed in
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the duration of sunshine with the lowest sunshine hours occurring at the peak of the rainy
season (Table 1.3) in Jos. From the Table, the longest day of the year is 12:34 long and the
shortest day is 11:25 long. The longest day is 1:09 longer than the shortest day and at midday
the sun is on average 73.9° above the horizon at Jos.
Table 1.3: Mean Monthly Actual Daily Sunshine in Hours for Jos
1.4.4 Relative Humidity

Mean monthly relative humidity closely follows the seasonal changes in rainfall regime. At
the peak of the dry season in December – February, values of relative humidity are very low.
Relative humidity is highest during August. This pattern was observed in Jos (Table 1.4).
Whatever the season, the relative humidity is generally lower in the afternoon than in the
morning. This is because the capacity of the air to hold moisture increases during the day
with increase in air temperature.
Table 1.4: Mean Monthly Relative Humidity (%) for Jos
1.4.5 Evaporation
Evaporation is the conversion of water from the liquid state to the vapour state while
transpiration is the process by which plants remove moisture from the soil to the air as
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vapour. Evapotranspiration is the combined evaporation from all surfaces and the
transpiration of plants. Evaporation and transpiration largely denote water loss. The main
factors which determine evaporation rates include net radiation, water availability, wind
velocity, atmospheric temperature and reflectivity of the land surface etc. The data for Jos
station (Table 1.5) will be adopted.
Table 1.5 Mean Monthly Evaporation for Jos
Jan Feb Mar Apri May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total
l
Evapora 164.5 191.2 195.9 162. 138.5 111. 107.5 102.6 102. 114. 124. 141.0 1658.5
-tion 4 4 2 3 7 9 7 1 3 7 8 5 0
(mm)
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CHAPTER TWO
DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS
2.1 DESIGN STANDARDS

The principal source of recommended standards for the geometric design of highways is the
AASTHO Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, often referred to as the
"Green Book". In addition, use was made of the following design manuals:
 Highway Manual Part 1: Design, Volume III: Pavement and Materials Design, Federal
Ministry of Transportation (Works), Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2007
 Highway Manual Part 1: Design, Volume IV: Drainage Design, Federal Ministry of
Transportation (Works), Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2007.
The physical performance of a transportation facility, including its comfort and safety, is a
result of the interaction of vehicular characteristics, human characteristics, and the
characteristics of the transportation facility. Table 2.1 shows the physical design standards
that link the physical performance to the design elements such as horizontal alignment,
vertical alignment, cross section, and various design details.
Table 2.1: Design Standards Adopted for the Project
Cross Section
Carriageway (single) lane widths 2 lanes, 3.65m wide each
Shoulders (single carriageway) 1.50m wide, 1.50m sealed
Crossfall 2%
Grades 5% maximum, 0.3% minimum
Design Speed
Design Speed 60km/h
Pavement Design
Pavement Type Flexible
Pavement Depth 50mm
Base course Layer 150mm
Sub-base Layer 300mm
Design Vehicles (Intersections)
Type Passenger Car, Bus, Truck, and Trailer
Drainage
Type Ditches
Depth 1m maximum
Grade 25%
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Vehicular characteristics include physical dimensions such as length, width, height, and
wheelbase; weight, including gross weight and wheel loads for various axle configurations;
acceleration and deceleration characteristics; and maximum speed. In some cases, the
relationship between the vehicular characteristic and the design standard is straightforward,
as in the case of vehicle height and vertical clearance. In other cases, relationships between
vehicular characteristics and facility design features are complicated. For instance, the
relationships between vehicle height and minimum length of vertical curve for highways also
depend on acceleration/deceleration characteristics, design speed, and human characteristics.
Human capabilities and characteristics important in setting design standards include visual
ability to hear, reaction times, gap acceptance behaviour, steering behaviour, and comfort
standards. In many cases, actual design standards are based on comfort. For instance,
limitations on radial acceleration on horizontal curves for highways are normally based not
on the coefficient of friction between the tires and the roadway but rather on the movement of
the passenger's body about the seat. Similarly, limits on vertical acceleration in vertical
curves are normally based not on the necessity of maintaining contact between the tires and
the pavement, but rather on the feeling in the pit of the passenger's stomach. Other important
interactions between human characteristics and design standards have to do with reaction
times, which are of major importance in determining stopping distances and hence sight
distance requirements.
Transportation system characteristics (or design elements) to which design standards apply
include the following:
Minimum radius of horizontal curve: For a given design speed, minimum curve radius is
limited by maximum allowable side friction, which is usually based on a comfort standard;
maximum superelevation rate (or banking) for the curve, and the necessity to maintain
stopping sight distance.
Maximum rate of superelevation: This is limited by side friction and by presence of road
side features such as driveways. The major concern here is to prevent slow moving vehicles
from sliding to the inside of the curve under slippery conditions.
Maximum grade: This is limited by vehicle power/weight ratios and vehicle traction.
Maximum downgrades are also limited by stopping distances and sight distances. Maximum
grade standard for particular classes of roadway is also influenced by traffic levels and the
need to maintain reasonable speeds on upgrades.
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Minimum grades: For some types of highways, they are limited by the need to provide
drainage.
Minimum cross-slopes: This is limited by the need to provide drainage.
Minimum length of vertical curve: This is limited by stopping or passing sight distance
requirements, vertical acceleration, and appearance standards.
Edge radii in roadway intersections: This is limited by vehicle turning radii, which in turn
is related to vehicle wheelbase dimensions.
Minimum intersection setbacks: This is the minimum distances to obstructions to vision. It
is limited by stopping sight distance and driver gap-acceptance behaviour
Freeway ramp junction details: This is limited by gap-acceptance behaviour, steering
behaviour in entering or exiting lanes, and vehicle acceleration and deceleration capabilities
Horizontal and vertical clearances: These are limited by vehicle dimensions and, in the
case of horizontal clearances for highways, by the need to provide clear recovery zones for
vehicles that run off the road.
2.2 DESIGN SPEED

Design speed is defined as the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified
section of highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway
govern. As a general rule, the stated design speed for a highway section establishes the
minimum standard for design features related to it (such as horizontal curve radius, vertical
curve length, super elevation, and minimum sight distance are automatically determined by
the selected design speed). Other features such as pavement and shoulder width, and lateral
clearance to obstructions are not directly affected by design speed but do affect vehicle speed.
Design speed vary depending on terrain and the anticipated level and character of use of the
highway. The AASHTO recommended design speed is given in Table 2.2
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Table 2.2: AASHTO Recommended Design Speed
Conditions Design Speed, km/h

Limited Access Types
Rural freeways in mountainous terrain 80 - 100

Freeways in urban areas 100 - 110
Rural freeways, level terrain 110
Unlimited Access Types
Rural Laterals:
Flat terrain 100 - 110
Rolling terrain 80 - 100
Mountainous terrain 60 - 80
Urban:
Arterial streets 60 - 100
Arterial streets, central business districts 50 - 60
2.3 SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance is the length of the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. It is a
fundamental design element in the safe and efficient operation of a highway. Five basic types
of sight distances must be considered in design:
stopping sight distance (SSD), applicable on all highways;
passing sight distance (PSD), applicable only on two-lane highways;
decision sight distance (DSD), needed at complex locations;
preview sight distance (PVSD), applicable to horizontal curves, especially those combined
with vertical curves; and
intersection sight distance (ISD), needed for all types of intersections.
2.3.1 Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance is the distance that enables a vehicle traveling at or near the design
speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The SSD is the sum of two
distances: (1) the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object
necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied, and (2) the distance needed to stop
15
the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. Although greater lengths of visible
roadway are desirable, the sight distance at every point along a roadway should be at least
that needed for a below average driver or vehicle to stop. AASHTO recommendation for
stopping sight distance for level grade and on grades is given in Table 2.3
Table 2.3: AASHTO Recommended Stopping Sight Distance
Design Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Speed Level Downgrades Upgrades

(km/h) 0% 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%
20 20 20 20 20 19 18 18
30 35 32 35 35 31 30 29
40 50 50 50 53 45 44 43
50 65 66 70 74 61 59 58
60 85 87 92 97 80 77 75
70 105 110 116 124 100 97 93
80 130 136 144 154 123 118 114
90 160 164 174 187 148 141 136
100 185 194 207 223 174 167 160
110 220 227 243 262 203 194 186
120 250 263 281 304 234 223 214
130 285 302 323 350 267 254 243
2.3.2 Passing Sight Distance

Most roads and many streets are two-lane, two-way highways on which vehicles frequently
overtake slower moving vehicles. Passing maneuvers in which faster vehicles move ahead of
slower vehicles must be accomplished on lanes regularly used by opposing traffic. If passing
is to accomplished safely, the passing driver should be able to see a sufficient distance ahead,
clear of traffic, to complete the passing maneuver without cutting off the passed vehicle
before meeting an opposing vehicle that appears during the maneuver. Passing sight distance
for use in design is determined on the basis of the length needed to complete normal passing
maneuver in which the passing driver can determine that there are no potentially conflicting
vehicles ahead before beginning the maneuver.
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The minimum passing sight distance for two-lane highways is determined as the sum of the
following for distances: distance traversed during perception and reaction time and during the
initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left lane; distance travelled while the
passing vehicle occupies the left lane; distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its
maneuver and the opposing vehicle; and distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-
thirds of the time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane. AASHTO's recommendation for
passing sight distance for two-lane highways is given in Table 2.4
Table 2.4: AASHTO Recommended Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highways
Assumed Speeds (km/h) Passing Sight

Design Speed (km/h)
Passed Vehicle Passing Vehicle Distance (m)
30 29 44 200
40 36 51 270
50 44 59 345
60 51 66 410
70 59 74 485
80 65 80 540
90 73 88 615
100 79 94 670
110 85 100 730
120 90 105 775
130 94 109 815
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CHAPTER THREE
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF THE PROPOSED ROAD
3.1 GENERAL
Geometric design deals with the dimensioning of the elements of highways, such as vertical
and horizontal curves, cross sections and parking facilities. The characteristics of driver,
pedestrian, vehicle, speed and road, serve as the basis for determining the physical
dimensions of these elements. The fundamental objective of geometric design is to produce a
smooth-flowing and safe highway facility. This objective can only be achieved by providing
a consistent design standard that satisfies the characteristics of the driver and the vehicles that
use the road. Geometric design follows the following sequence which includes;
 Road location and collection of relevant survey data
 Design speed
 Design of horizontal alignment
 Design of vertical alignment
3.2 DESIGN SPEED
Design speed is defined as the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified
section of highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway
govern. As a general rule, the stated design speed for a highway section establishes the
minimum standard for design features related to it (such as horizontal curve radius, vertical
curve length, super elevation, and minimum sight distance are automatically determined by
the selected design speed). Other features such as pavement and shoulder width, and lateral
clearance to obstructions are not directly affected by design speed but do affect vehicle speed.
Design speed vary depending on terrain and the anticipated level and character of use of the
highway. The AASHTO recommended design speed is given in Table 3.1
Table 3.1: AASHTO Recommended Design Speed
Conditions Design Speed, km/h

Limited Access Types
Rural freeways in mountainous terrain 80 - 100

Freeways in urban areas 100 - 110
Rural freeways, level terrain 110
Unlimited Access Types
Rural Laterals:
Flat terrain 100 - 110
Rolling terrain 80 - 100
Mountainous terrain 60 - 80
Urban:
Arterial streets 60 - 100
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Arterial streets, central business districts 50 - 60
3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The vertical alignment is basically the direction and course of the road in profile. The vertical
alignment of a roadway consists of straight sections known as grades, connected by vertical
curves. The design of the vertical alignment therefore involves the selection of suitable
grades for the tangent sections and the appropriate length of vertical curves. Vertical curves
are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to another so that vehicles may
run smoothly as they traverse the highway. Vertical curves are normally parabolas centered
about the point of vertical intersection (PVI) of the vertical tangents they join. Vertical curves
are thus of the form:
y = ax 2 + bx + c (3.1)
where, y = roadway elevation at distance x from the PVC,
x = distance from the
c = elevation of PVC
b = G1 (3.2)
a = (G2−G1)/ 2L (3.3)
PVC = Point of vertical curvature
L = Length of curve G1 = initial roadway grade in percent
G2 = final roadway grade in percent
PVT = Point of vertical tangency
A = absolute value of difference in grades
3.3.1 Gradient
In geometric design standards, maximum grades are determined according to several factors
such as road class, design speed, terrain conditions and vehicle performance. Gentle
longitudinal gradients are better however, for drainage purposes a minimum gradient of 0.4%
is recommended. Road sections with steep gradients must have appropriate signs to caution
drivers.
3.3.2 K Value
K value is the ratio of the minimum length of vertical curve in meters to the algebraic
difference in percentage gradients adjoining the curve. It is effectively an expression for
degree of curvature and is the main design parameter for vertical curves. K value is computed
using equation (3.4)
L
K= (3.4)
A
3.3.3 Length of Vertical Curves
The equations used to calculate minimum lengths of vertical curves based on sight distance
depend on whether the sight distance is greater than or less than the vertical curve length. For
the purpose of this report, sag vertical curves are considered. For sag vertical curves, stopping
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sight distance is based on the distance illuminated by the headlights at night. We are
concerned with height of headlight above roadway and inclined angle of headlight beam
Sag vertical curves based on standard headlight criteria is calculated using the equations (3.5)
and 3.(6)
A S2
L= (3.5)
120−3.5 S
120+3.5 A
L=2 A− (3.6)
A
Where, A = absolute value of difference in grades. L = minimum length of sag vertical curve
3.3.4 Stopping Sight distance in Vertical Curve
This is the visibility necessary for a driver to be able to see an obstruction in time to bring the
vehicle to a halt without a collision. This is a basic minimum standard for two-lane single
carriageway roads. It is assumed that the driver’s eye height is 1.2m and the height of the
obstruction is at least 0.15m above the road surface. Equation (3.7) was used to compute the
stopping sight distance in vertical curves.
V2
s= + 0.278Vt
a (3.7)
254 ±G
9.81
Where
S = Stopping sight distance (ft or m)
G = Percentage grade divided by 100
V = Design speed (mph or km/h
Q = Deceleration (ft/s2 or m/s2
t = Driver reaction time (s)
3.4 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Horizontal alignment in road design consists of straight sections of road, known as tangent,
connected by circular horizontal curves. Circular curves are defined by radius and deflection
angle. This design shows the proposed roadway location in relation to the existing terrain and
adjacent land conditions. The horizontal alignment is the route of the road. The design of the
horizontal alignment entails the determination of the minimum radius, determination of the
length of the curve, and the computation of the horizontal offsets from the tangents to the
curve to facilitate locating the curve in the field.
3.4.1 Curve Radii
Horizontal alignments must provide smooth traffic flows in the straights and in the curves. In
curves, super elevation shall be incorporated into the design to prevent turning vehicles from
toppling. Minimum curve radii for running vehicles are designed based on safety limits of
friction using equation (3.8)
V2
R= (3.8)
127( e+ f )
Where R = minimum curve radius in meters, V = Design speed in km/h,
e = superelevation in % and f = coefficient of friction
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Figure 3.1 illustrates several important features that describes horizontal curves such as
radius (R), central angle
(Δ), length (L), semi-tangent distance (T), middle ordinate (M), external distance (E), and
chord (C).
Figure 3.1: Horizontal Curve Features

Equation (3.9) to (3.14) will be used in the design of the horizontal curve of the proposed
project.
The degree of curvature, D is given by (3.9)
729.58
D= (3.9)
R
The length of a circular curve, L is given in equation (3.10)
2 πR ∆
L= 0 (3.10)
360
The semitangent, T of a circular curve is given in equation (3.11)
∆
T =Rtan (3.11)
2
The middle ordinate, M is given in equation (3.12)
R
M =R−
∆ (3.12)
cos( )
2
The external distance, E is given in equation (3.13)
R
E= −R
∆ (3.13)
cos ( )
2
The chord, C is given in equation (3.14)
∆
C=2 Rsin (3.14)
2
Where R is the radius of curvature in feet and Δ is the central angle of the curve
3.4.2 Length of Horizontal Curves
21
When vehicles negotiate curves with short lengths steering is abrupt and difficult. Minimum
lengths of curves are used to eliminate the defect. For curves with intersection angle more
than 7%, equation (3.15) below is used
1000 ( m )
L(m)=V × ×6S (3.15)
3600 VS
3.4.3 Superelevation
The safety and convenience of motorists and other road users influences the design of the
superelevation. A maximum of 5% is recommended for urban roads that have intersections
and accesses which cause stoppages making high values of superelevation unacceptable. For
large curve radii, the centrifugal forces for the curves are small and the superelevation
becomes unnecessary. Curve radii is related to superelevation values and design speed
according to equation (3.16)
V2
e=0.003858 (3.16)
R
Where, e = superelevation, v = design speed (km/h), R = curve radius (m)
3.4.4 Transition Curves
Transition curves are introduced between straights and circular curves of significantly
different radii for the following reason:
 For easy steering operation and riding comfort
 They improve the appearance of the road by avoiding sharp discontinuities in
alignment at the start and end of circular curves.
3.4.4.1 Transition lengths
The length of transition is a function of the design speed and it is derived from the ratee of
gain of radial acceleration. This is computed from equation (3.17)
0.06 V 23
Ls = (3.17)
R
Where, Ls = Transition length (m), V = Design speed (km/h), R = Radius (m)
3.4.4.1.1 Minimum transition lengths.

From the rate of pavement rotation method, the change in crossfall is divided by the time
taken to travel along the length of transition at a given design speed. This is computed from
equation (3.18).
V
Ls = t (3.18)
3.6
Where, Ls = minimum transition length (m), V = design speed (km/h), t = time taken to
traverse the transition curve taken to be 2 second.
22
From the shift criterion method, the shift is the offset of the start of the circular curve from
the line of the tangent. The minimum limit of the shift recommended is 0.2m. For values
below 0.2m, transition curves are deemed not necessary. Generally, equation (3.19)
Ls
S= (3.19)
24 R
Where, S = Shift (m), Ls = Transition length (m), R = Radius (m)
3.5 SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight distance is the length of the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. It is a
fundamental design element in the safe and efficient operation of a highway. Five basic types
of sight distances must be considered in design include:
 stopping sight distance (SSD), applicable on all highways
 passing sight distance (PSD), applicable only on two-lane highways;
 decision sight distance (DSD), needed at complex locations;
 preview sight distance (PVSD), applicable to horizontal curves, especially those combined
with vertical curves; and
 intersection sight distance (ISD), needed for all types of intersections.
3.5.1 Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance is the distance that enables a vehicle traveling at or near the design
speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The SSD is the sum of two
distances: (1) the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object
necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied, and (2) the distance needed to stop
the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. Although greater lengths of visible
roadway are desirable, the sight distance at every point along a roadway should be at least
that needed for a below average driver or vehicle to stop.
The stopping sight distance is given in equation (3.20).
2
V
S=0.694 V +0.00394 (3.20)
f
Where; s = sight distance (m), t = judgement time + reaction time (2.5sec), g = acceleration
(9.8m/s2) and v = running speed (km/h).
AASHTO recommendation for stopping sight distance for level grade and on grades is given
in Table 3.2
Table 3.2: AASHTO Recommended Stopping Sight Distance
Design Stopping Sight Distance (m)

Speed Level Downgrades Upgrades
23
(km/h) 0% 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%
20 20 20 20 20 19 18 18
30 35 32 35 35 31 30 29
40 50 50 50 53 45 44 43
50 65 66 70 74 61 59 58
60 85 87 92 97 80 77 75
70 105 110 116 124 100 97 93
80 130 136 144 154 123 118 114
90 160 164 174 187 148 141 136
100 185 194 207 223 174 167 160
110 220 227 243 262 203 194 186
120 250 263 281 304 234 223 214
130 285 302 323 350 267 254 243
3.5.2 Passing Sight Distance

Most roads and many streets are two-lane, two-way highways on which vehicles frequently
overtake slower moving vehicles. Passing maneuvers in which faster vehicles move ahead of
slower vehicles must be accomplished on lanes regularly used by opposing traffic. If passing
is to accomplished safely, the passing driver should be able to see a sufficient distance ahead,
clear of traffic, to complete the passing maneuver without cutting off the passed vehicle
before meeting an opposing vehicle that appears during the maneuver. Passing sight distance
for use in design is determined on the basis of the length needed to complete normal passing
maneuver in which the passing driver can determine that there are no potentially conflicting
vehicles ahead before beginning the maneuver.
The minimum passing sight distance for two-lane highways is determined as the sum of the
following for distances: distance traversed during perception and reaction time and during the
initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left lane; distance travelled while the
passing vehicle occupies the left lane; distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its
maneuver and the opposing vehicle; and distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-
thirds of the time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane. AASHTO's recommendation for
passing sight distance for two-lane highways is given in Table 3.3
Table 3.3: AASHTO Recommended Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highways
24
Assumed Speeds (km/h) Passing Sight Distance
Design Speed (km/h) (m)
Passed Vehicle Passing Vehicle
30 29 44 200
40 36 51 270
50 44 59 345
60 51 66 410
70 59 74 485
80 65 80 540
90 73 88 615
100 79 94 670
110 85 100 730
120 90 105 775
130 94 109 815
3.6 CROSS-SECTION
Typical cross section a road is shown in Fig. 3.2. The cross-section elements include the
traveled way, shoulders, curbs, medians, side slopes and backslopes, and drainage channel.
Figure 3.2: Cross section of the proposed road
3.6.1 Traveled Way

The main features of the traveled way are lane width and cross slope. The lane width of a
travel way greatly influences the safety and comfort of driving. Lane widths of 2.7 to 3.65m
are generally used, with a 3.65m lane predominant on most highways. The extra cost of
providing a 3.65m lane width, over the cost of providing 3m lane width is offset to some
extent by a reduction in cost of shoulder maintenance and a reduction in surface maintenance
due to lessened wheel concentrations at the pavement edges. The wider 3.65m lane provides
desirable clearances between large commercial vehicles travelling in opposite directions on
two-lane highways when high traffic volumes and particularly high percentages of
commercial vehicles are expected.
25
Undivided traveled ways on tangents, or on flat curves, have crown or high point in the
middle and a cross slope downward toward both edges. Selection of proper cross slope
depends upon speed-curvature relations, vehicle characteristics, curb requirements, and
general weather conditions. AASTHO Recommended normal traveled-way cross slope is
presented in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Normal traveled-way cross slope
Surface type Range in cross slope rate (%)
High 1.5-2
Low 2-6
3.6.2 Shoulder
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way that
accommodates stopped vehicles, emergency use, and lateral support of subbase, base, and
surface courses. It varies in width from only 0.6m on minor rural roads where there is no
surfacing, to approximately 3.6m on major roads where the entire shoulder may be stabilized
or paved. It is essential that shoulders be sloped sufficiently to rapidly drain surface water,
but not to the extent that vehicular use would be restricted.
3.7 DESIGN PARAMETER FOR THE PROPOSED ROAD
3.7.1 Horizontal Alignment
Based on the type of road according to Federal Ministry of Works Design Manual AASHTO,
2011 recommendation, the road is a class C road. Based on this the following parameters
were adopted from the Design Manual;
 Design speed = 60km/h
 Lane width = 3.65m
 Shoulder width = 1.5m
 Desirable Curve radii = 200m
 Minimum length of horizontal curves = 100m
 Superelvation = 6%
 Transition curves if any = Yes
 Transition lengths = 59m
 Stopping sight distance = 100m
 Passing sight distance = 360m
3.7.2 Vertical Alignment
For a class C roadway with undulating nature, the following parameter were adopted from
the Highway Manual, 2013, Federal Ministry of Works, Nigeria and AASHTO, 2011
recommendation:
26
 Design speed = 60km/h
 Gradient = Maximum of 5%
 K value = 11 for sag curves and 14 for crest curves
 Minimum length of vertical curves = 50m
3.7.3 Cross Sope
The cross slope is to ensure easy drainage of road surface water and safety of running
vehicles. From the GHA Road Design Guide, the cross slope is 3%
The alignment and profile design ware implemented in civil 3D 2018 and the results
generated is presented in tables 3.5 to 3.7
Table 3.5: Horizontal Alignment Design Verfication Report
1 Tangent 2 Circular Curve
Start Station: 0+000 Start Station: 0+054
End Station: 0+055 End Station: 0+126
Length: 54.784m Radius: 150.00m
Design Speed: 60km/h Design Speed: 60km/h
Design Checks: Design Criteria:
subdivision street Cleared Minimum Radius 135.00 Cleared
Start Station: 0+126.42 Start Station: 0+165
End Station: 0+165.03 End Station: 0+215
27

Start Station: 2+024.51 Start Station: 2+276.22
End Station: 2+276.22 End Station: 2+288.21
28
29 Tangent
Start Station: 3+038
End Station: 3+375.09
Length: 126.478m
Design Speed: 60km/h
Design Checks:
subdivision street Cleared

Horizontal Alignment for Road II (0 + 000 to 0 + 484)
Start Station: 0+000 Start Station: 0+090
Length: 0+000 Radius: 200.000m
Start Station: 0+134 Start Station: 0+189.52
End Station: 0+189 End Station: 0+233.81
9 Tangent
Start Station: 0+339.22
End Station: 0+484
Length: 39.840m
Design Speed: 40km/h
Design Checks:
subdivision street Cleared
29
Table 3.6: Vertical Alignment Design Verfication Report
Vertical Alignment for Road II (0 + 000 to 0 + 484)
1 Crest Curve: Parabolic 3 Crest Curve: Parabolic
PVC Station: 0+022.43 PVC Station: 0+277.71
PVI Station: 0+033.51 PVI Station: 0+320.42
PVT Station: 0+044.59 PVT Station: 0+363.13
Grade in(%): 2.15% Grade in(%): 1.15%
Grade out(%): -0.98% Grade out(%): -1.67%
Curve Length: 22.158m Curve Length: 85.424m
K: 39 K: 30.36
Design Criteria: Design Criteria:

Minimum K for
Minimum K for Stopping Stopping Sight
Sight Distance: 11.000m Cleared Distance: 11.000m Cleared
Minimum K for Passing Minimum K for

Sight Distance: 38.000m Violated Passing Sight Distance: 38.000m Violated
2 Sag Curve: Parabolic 4 Sag Curve: Parabolic
Grade in(%): -0.98% Grade in(%): -1.67%
Grade out(%): 1.15% Grade out(%): 5.80%

K: 20.65 K: 13
Design Speed: 40km/h Design Speed: 60

Minimum K for Minimum K for
Headlight Sight Distance: 18.000m Cleared Headlight Sight 18.000m Cleared
30
Distance:
Vertical Alignment for Road I (0 + 000 to 3 + 375)
1 Crest Curve: Parabolic 7 Sag Curve: Parabolic
Grade in(%): -0.28% Grade in(%): -1.16%
Grade out(%): -3.91% Grade out(%): 1.27%

K: 13 K: 61.75
Minimum K for
Minimum K for Stopping Headlight Sight
Minimum K for Passing
Sight Distance: 38.000m Violated 8 Sag Curve: Parabolic
2 Sag Curve: Parabolic PVC Station: 1+612.65
PVC Station: 0+092.35 PVI Station: 1+687.65
PVI Station: 0+167.35 PVT Station: 1+762.65
PVT Station: 0+242.35 Grade in(%): 1.27%
Grade in(%): -3.91% Grade out(%): 2.51%
Grade out(%): -2.83% Curve Length: 150.000m

150.000
Curve Length: m K: 120.76
K: 138.78 Design Speed: 60km/h
Design Speed: 60km/h Design Criteria:
Minimum K for
Headlight Sight
Design Criteria: Distance: 18.000m Cleared
Minimum K for
Headlight Sight Distance: 18.000m Cleared 9 Crest Curve: Parabolic
3 Crest Curve: Parabolic PVC Station: 2+031.40
PVT Station: 0+455.00 Grade in(%): 2.51%
Grade in(%): -2.83% Grade out(%): -0.13%

150.000
Minimum K for
Stopping Sight
Minimum K for Stopping Minimum K for
Sight Distance: 11.000m Cleared Passing Sight Distance: 38.000m Cleared
Minimum K for Passing
Sight Distance: 38.000m Cleared 10 Crest Curve: Parabolic
31
4 Sag Curve: Parabolic PVC Station: 2+501.60
PVT Station: 0+669.06 Grade in(%): -0.13%
Grade in(%): -3.33% Grade out(%): -3.01%

150.000
Minimum K for
Stopping Sight
Minimum K for Minimum K for
Headlight Sight Distance: 18.000m Cleared Passing Sight Distance: 38.000m Cleared
5 Sag Curve: Parabolic 11 Sag Curve: Parabolic
Grade in(%): -0.35% Grade in(%): -3.01%
Grade out(%): 1.80% Grade out(%): 0.26%
150.000
Curve Length: m Curve Length: 150.000m
K: 69.62 K: 45.91
Minimum K for
Minimum K for Headlight Sight
Headlight Sight Distance: 18.000m Cleared Distance: 18.000m Cleared
Minimum K for
6 Crest Curve: Parabolic Passing Sight Distance: 38.000m Cleared
PVC Station: 1+198.79 11 Sag Curve: Parabolic
PVI Station: 1+261.63 PVC Station: 2+714.34
PVT Station: 1+324.47 PVI Station: 2+789.34
Grade in(%): 1.80% PVT Station: 2+864.34
Grade out(%): -1.16% Grade in(%): -3.01%
125.683
Curve Length: m Grade out(%): 0.26%
K: 42.41 Curve Length: 150.000m

Design Speed: 60km/h K: 45.91
Design Criteria: Design Speed: 60km/h
Minimum K for Stopping
Sight Distance: 11.000m Cleared Design Criteria:
Minimum K for
Minimum K for Passing Headlight Sight
32
Table 4.8 Profile Elevation Differences Report for Road I (0 + 000 to 3 + 375)
Elevation Elevation Elevation
PVI Station Easting Northing Existing Design Difference Point Type
1037834.5
0 0+000 562112.79 0 783.519m 783.519m 0.000m Start
1037834.5
1 0+002 562112.79 0 783.519m 783.519m 0.000m PVI
1037851.5
2 0+025 562128.00 5 783.238m 782.820m 0.418m Regular
1037870.2
3 0+050 562144.64 1 782.081m 782.055m 0.026m Regular
1037873.7
4 0+055 562147.82 8 781.861m 781.908m -0.047m Line - Curve
1037889.7
5 0+075 562160.22 3 781.023m 781.289m -0.267m Regular
6 0+100 562172.41 1037911.5 780.253m 780.524m -0.271m Regular
2
1037935.0
7 0+125 562180.82 3 779.481m 779.759m -0.279m Regular
1037936.4
8 0+126 562181.18 1 779.433m 779.716m -0.283m Curve - Line
1037959.2
9 0+150 562187.02 5 778.591m 778.994m -0.403m Regular
1037973.8
10 0+165 562190.75 2 778.088m 778.534m -0.446m Line - Curve
1037983.3
11 0+175 562193.59 7 777.789m 778.229m -0.440m Regular
1038006.1
12 0+200 562203.85 2 777.159m 777.464m -0.304m Regular
1038026.7
13 0+225 562217.94 5 776.666m 776.699m -0.033m Regular
1038046.9
14 0+250 562232.73 1 775.739m 775.934m -0.195m Regular
1038049.0
15 0+252 562234.31 5 775.649m 775.852m -0.203m Line - Curve
1038065.8
16 0+275 562249.00 4 774.969m 775.168m -0.199m Regular
1038066.0
17 0+275 562249.20 3 774.962m 775.160m -0.198m Curve - Line
1038083.1
18 0+300 562267.05 3 774.411m 774.403m 0.007m Regular
33
1038100.4
19 0+325 562285.11 3 774.087m 773.638m 0.448m Regular
1038117.7
20 0+350 562303.16 2 773.665m 772.873m 0.792m Regular
1038135.0
21 0+375 562321.22 1 772.346m 772.108m 0.238m Regular
1038152.1
22 0+399 562339.08 2 771.012m 771.351m -0.340m Start Vertical TP
1038152.3
23 0+400 562339.27 0 770.999m 771.343m -0.344m Regular
1038169.6
24 0+425 562357.33 0 769.988m 770.585m -0.597m Regular
1038186.8
25 0+450 562375.38 9 769.357m 769.843m -0.486m Regular
1038203.9
26 0+474 562393.24 9 769.056m 769.124m -0.068m PVI
1038204.1
27 0+475 562393.44 8 769.049m 769.116m -0.066m Regular
1038221.4
28 0+500 562411.49 8 768.361m 768.403m -0.043m Regular
1038238.7
29 0+525 562429.55 7 767.591m 767.706m -0.115m Regular
1038255.8
30 0+549 562447.40 7 766.831m 767.032m -0.201m End Vertical TP
1038256.0
31 0+550 562447.60 6 766.822m 767.024m -0.202m Regular
1038273.3
32 0+575 562465.65 5 766.050m 766.405m -0.355m Regular
1038290.6
33 0+600 562483.71 5 765.317m 765.899m -0.581m Regular
1038307.9
34 0+625 562501.76 4 765.052m 765.504m -0.452m Regular
1038325.2
35 0+650 562519.82 3 765.031m 765.220m -0.189m Regular
1038342.5
36 0+675 562537.87 2 765.020m 765.049m -0.029m Regular
1038359.8
37 0+700 562555.93 2 765.010m 764.990m 0.020m Regular
1038360.6
38 0+701 562556.83 8 765.009m 764.990m 0.019m Start Vertical TP
1038377.1
39 0+725 562573.98 1 764.987m 764.877m 0.109m Regular
1038393.5
40 0+749 562591.13 4 764.567m 764.546m 0.021m End Vertical TP
1038394.4
41 0+750 562592.04 0 764.544m 764.522m 0.022m Regular
1038404.7
1038411.6
43 0+775 562610.09 9 763.815m 764.066m -0.250m Regular
1038428.9
44 0+800 562628.15 9 763.291m 763.686m -0.395m Regular
1038446.2
45 0+825 562646.20 8 762.965m 763.402m -0.437m Regular
1038456.6
46 0+840 562657.03 5 762.851m 763.277m -0.426m PVI
1038463.5
47 0+850 562664.25 7 762.864m 763.212m -0.348m Regular
48 0+875 562682.31 1038480.8 762.963m 763.117m -0.154m Regular
34
6
1038489.6
49 0+887 562691.46 3 763.050m 763.105m -0.055m Low Point
1038498.1
50 0+900 562700.36 6 763.138m 763.116m 0.022m Regular
1038508.5
1038509.6
1038514.1
53 0+923 562717.01 0 763.202m 763.181m 0.021m High Point
1038515.4
54 0+925 562718.42 5 763.202m 763.180m 0.022m Regular
1038516.2
55 0+926 562719.22 2 763.202m 763.178m 0.024m PVI
1038516.9
56 0+927 562720.00 6 763.202m 763.176m 0.027m Line - Curve
1038522.5
1038531.2
58 0+950 562737.77 2 763.172m 763.014m 0.158m Regular
1038543.0
59 0+975 562759.77 1 763.049m 762.812m 0.237m Regular
1038547.9
1038549.1
61 0+994 562778.31 8 762.840m 762.656m 0.184m Curve - Line
1038550.5
62 1+000 562783.59 0 762.772m 762.620m 0.152m Regular
1038556.5
63 1+025 562807.84 8 762.475m 762.528m -0.053m Regular
1038558.1
64 1+031 562814.04 3 762.405m 762.524m -0.119m Low Point
65 1+050 562832.09 1038562.6 762.215m 762.558m -0.343m Regular
6
1038566.3
66 1+065 562846.64 1 762.085m 762.634m -0.549m PVI
1038568.7
67 1+075 562856.34 4 762.152m 762.709m -0.558m Regular
1038574.8
68 1+100 562880.59 2 762.782m 762.983m -0.201m Regular
1038580.9
69 1+125 562904.84 0 763.579m 763.379m 0.201m Regular
1038584.5
1038586.9
71 1+150 562929.09 8 764.269m 763.886m 0.383m Regular
1038593.0
72 1+175 562953.34 5 764.806m 764.416m 0.390m Regular
1038599.1
73 1+200 562977.59 3 765.197m 764.946m 0.251m Regular
1038603.6
1038605.2
75 1+225 563001.84 1 765.628m 765.466m 0.162m Regular
1038607.5
76 1+234 563010.99 1 765.804m 765.616m 0.188m Line - Curve
1038610.3
77 1+250 563026.28 4 766.131m 765.771m 0.360m Regular
35
1038611.2
78 1+263 563039.62 5 766.313m 765.814m 0.500m High Point
1038611.2
79 1+265 563041.32 6 766.324m 765.813m 0.511m PVI
1038610.8
80 1+275 563051.23 7 766.235m 765.782m 0.453m Regular
1038606.4
81 1+300 563075.79 3 765.654m 765.497m 0.158m Regular
1038602.7
1038578.5
83 1+366 563136.09 9 763.293m 764.013m -0.720m Line - Curve
1038575.1
84 1+375 563143.84 4 763.025m 763.819m -0.794m Regular
1038569.4
85 1+400 563168.10 2 762.521m 763.311m -0.790m Regular
1038569.7
86 1+410 563187.98 7 762.311m 762.995m -0.684m Curve - Line
1038570.4
87 1+425 563193.01 2 762.277m 762.927m -0.650m Regular
1038573.6
88 1+450 563217.80 2 762.110m 762.667m -0.557m Regular
1038576.8
89 1+475 563242.60 2 762.316m 762.530m -0.214m Regular
1038578.7
90 1+490 563257.59 5 762.496m 762.507m -0.011m Low Point
1038580.0
91 1+500 563267.39 2 762.600m 762.517m 0.083m Regular
1038581.8
92 1+514 563281.50 4 762.729m 762.565m 0.164m Line - Curve
1038583.8
93 1+525 563292.08 6 762.839m 762.628m 0.211m Regular
1038588.4
94 1+539 563305.52 2 762.939m 762.726m 0.214m Curve - Line
1038592.6
95 1+550 563315.44 8 763.005m 762.800m 0.205m Regular
1038594.4
96 1+554 563319.57 5 763.029m 762.831m 0.197m Line - Curve
1038597.4
1038597.6
98 1+574 563338.23 0 763.134m 762.973m 0.160m Curve - Line
1038597.5
99 1+575 563339.62 0 763.141m 762.987m 0.154m Regular
1038597.0
100 1+581 563346.09 4 763.178m 763.059m 0.119m Existing
1038595.7
101 1+600 563364.56 1 763.270m 763.341m -0.071m Regular
1038593.9
102 1+625 563389.49 2 763.375m 763.904m -0.528m Regular
1038592.7
103 1+641 563405.33 8 763.428m 764.370m -0.941m PVI
1038592.1
104 1+649 563413.52 9 763.866m 764.644m -0.778m Line - Curve
1038592.1
105 1+650 563414.43 4 763.920m 764.676m -0.755m Regular
1038602.2
106 1+675 563436.28 6 765.763m 765.657m 0.106m Regular
107 1+692 563441.95 1038618.6 766.864m 766.475m 0.390m Curve - Line
36
2
1038625.9
108 1+700 563441.97 9 767.179m 766.847m 0.332m Regular
1038641.8
1038642.3
1038650.9
111 1+725 563442.00 9 768.251m 768.117m 0.134m Regular
1038651.8
112 1+726 563442.00 7 768.284m 768.142m 0.142m PVI
1038660.5
113 1+734 563442.02 7 768.470m 768.261m 0.209m High Point
1038661.3
1038675.9
115 1+750 563442.04 9 768.730m 768.223m 0.508m Regular
1038685.9
1038696.4
117 1+770 563442.07 6 768.513m 768.184m 0.329m Low Point
1038700.9
118 1+775 563442.08 9 768.464m 768.186m 0.278m Regular
1038725.9
119 1+800 563442.12 9 768.198m 768.289m -0.092m Regular
1038750.9
120 1+825 563442.15 9 767.936m 768.544m -0.608m Regular
1038760.9
121 1+835 563442.17 9 768.007m 768.688m -0.681m PVI
1038775.9
122 1+850 563442.19 9 768.307m 768.949m -0.642m Regular
1038800.9
123 1+875 563442.23 9 768.885m 769.506m -0.621m Regular
124 1+900 563442.27 1038825.9 769.421m 770.214m -0.793m Regular
9
1038835.9
1038850.9
126 1+925 563442.31 9 770.139m 771.046m -0.906m Regular
1038874.8
127 1+949 563442.34 2 771.178m 771.851m -0.673m Line - Curve
1038875.9
128 1+950 563442.33 9 771.229m 771.890m -0.661m Regular
1038899.0
129 1+975 563433.86 5 772.262m 772.734m -0.472m Regular
1038912.3
130 2+000 563413.22 7 773.258m 773.578m -0.320m Regular
1038910.7
131 2+024 563389.17 7 774.686m 774.406m 0.280m Curve - Line
1038910.5
132 2+025 563388.72 9 774.713m 774.422m 0.291m Regular
1038907.1
1038901.2
134 2+050 563365.53 3 776.077m 775.228m 0.849m Regular
1038891.8
135 2+075 563342.35 8 776.957m 775.857m 1.101m Regular
1038882.5
136 2+100 563319.16 3 777.145m 776.296m 0.850m Regular
37
1038873.1
137 2+125 563295.98 8 777.150m 776.545m 0.605m Regular
1038865.5
138 2+145 563277.17 9 776.644m 776.607m 0.037m High Point
1038863.8
139 2+150 563272.79 3 776.496m 776.604m -0.107m Regular
1038854.4
140 2+175 563249.61 8 775.447m 776.473m -1.026m Regular
1038851.0
1038845.1
142 2+200 563226.42 2 774.628m 776.191m -1.562m Regular
1038843.3
1038835.7
144 2+225 563203.24 7 775.002m 775.950m -0.948m Regular
1038826.6
145 2+249 563180.57 3 775.194m 775.871m -0.677m Low Point
1038826.4
146 2+250 563180.05 2 775.198m 775.871m -0.673m Regular
1038817.0
147 2+275 563156.87 7 775.257m 775.957m -0.700m Regular
1038816.6
148 2+276 563155.74 2 775.252m 775.966m -0.714m Line - Curve
1038815.4
149 2+279 563152.51 7 775.250m 775.991m -0.741m PVI
1038813.9
150 2+288 563144.11 0 775.374m 776.069m -0.696m Curve - Line
1038811.1
151 2+325 563107.42 1 776.545m 776.624m -0.079m Regular
1038809.2
152 2+350 563082.50 2 777.324m 777.204m 0.120m Regular
1038808.8
1038808.7
1038807.3
155 2+375 563057.57 2 778.056m 777.763m 0.293m Regular
1038806.0
156 2+392 563040.34 2 778.396m 777.879m 0.516m High Point
1038805.8
157 2+395 563037.55 0 778.451m 777.876m 0.575m PVI
1038805.4
158 2+400 563032.64 3 778.290m 777.856m 0.434m Regular
1038803.5
159 2+425 563007.71 4 777.472m 777.463m 0.009m Regular
1038802.9
1038802.6
1038801.6
162 2+450 562982.78 5 776.632m 776.720m -0.088m Regular
1038799.7
163 2+475 562957.85 5 775.788m 776.138m -0.350m Regular
1038798.7
164 2+488 562945.00 8 775.472m 775.919m -0.447m PVI
1038797.8
165 2+500 562932.93 6 775.524m 775.765m -0.241m Regular
166 2+525 562908.00 1038795.9 775.630m 775.601m 0.029m Regular
38
7
1038795.4
167 2+532 562900.98 3 775.661m 775.593m 0.068m Low Point
1038794.8
1038794.7
1038794.3
170 2+546 562886.44 3 775.728m 775.614m 0.114m High Point
1038794.0
171 2+550 562883.07 7 775.748m 775.611m 0.137m Regular
1038792.1
172 2+575 562858.14 8 775.731m 775.411m 0.320m Regular
1038791.8
173 2+580 562853.16 0 775.666m 775.333m 0.333m PVI
1038790.2
174 2+600 562833.21 9 774.700m 774.896m -0.196m Regular
1038788.8
1038788.3
176 2+625 562808.28 9 773.603m 774.077m -0.475m Regular
1038786.5
177 2+650 562783.36 0 772.580m 773.173m -0.593m Regular
1038785.8
178 2+658 562775.16 8 772.268m 772.876m -0.608m Line - Curve
1038784.3
179 2+666 562767.06 9 771.950m 772.578m -0.628m Curve - Line
1038781.9
180 2+675 562758.88 7 771.635m 772.269m -0.634m Regular
1038779.1
1038774.8
182 2+700 562734.91 9 770.834m 771.400m -0.566m Regular
183 2+725 562710.93 1038767.8 770.108m 770.709m -0.601m Regular
0
1038760.7
184 2+750 562686.96 1 769.417m 770.212m -0.795m Regular
1038757.8
185 2+760 562677.37 7 769.195m 770.068m -0.872m PVI
1038753.6
186 2+775 562662.98 2 769.517m 769.909m -0.392m Regular
1038751.9
187 2+781 562657.30 4 769.657m 769.865m -0.208m Line - Curve
1038744.4
188 2+797 562643.35 7 769.961m 769.803m 0.158m Curve - Line
1038742.4
189 2+800 562640.94 6 769.991m 769.800m 0.192m Regular
1038741.4
190 2+801 562639.71 3 770.007m 769.799m 0.208m Low Point
1038726.4
191 2+825 562621.75 3 770.180m 769.884m 0.296m Regular
1038720.0
1038718.8
1038710.4
194 2+850 562602.57 1 770.296m 770.094m 0.201m Regular
1038701.4
195 2+864 562591.79 1 770.328m 770.132m 0.197m High Point
39
1038697.3
196 2+870 562586.87 0 770.339m 770.124m 0.215m PVI
1038694.3
197 2+875 562583.38 8 770.302m 770.109m 0.193m Regular
1038678.3
198 2+900 562564.19 6 770.037m 769.886m 0.151m Regular
1038675.7
1038662.3
200 2+925 562545.00 3 769.795m 769.509m 0.287m Regular
1038646.3
201 2+950 562525.82 0 769.532m 769.128m 0.404m Regular
1038641.0
1038630.2
203 2+975 562506.63 8 769.059m 768.768m 0.291m Regular
1038614.2
204 3+000 562487.44 5 768.403m 768.494m -0.091m Regular
1038610.2
205 3+006 562482.59 0 768.239m 768.440m -0.201m Line - Curve
1038603.4
206 3+020 562470.78 3 768.062m 768.342m -0.280m PVI
1038603.1
207 3+021 562469.90 3 768.059m 768.336m -0.277m Curve - Line
1038601.8
208 3+025 562466.04 5 768.051m 768.313m -0.261m Regular
1038593.9
209 3+050 562442.32 6 768.056m 768.223m -0.167m Regular
1038590.1
210 3+062 562430.97 9 768.103m 768.213m -0.110m Low Point
1038586.0
211 3+075 562418.59 7 768.162m 768.225m -0.063m Regular
1038583.9
1038583.8
1038582.9
214 3+085 562409.10 2 768.251m 768.260m -0.009m PVI
1038581.9
1038578.1
216 3+100 562394.87 9 768.415m 768.475m -0.061m Regular
1038571.8
1038570.3
218 3+125 562371.14 0 768.951m 768.847m 0.103m Regular
1038563.2
219 3+147 562349.88 3 769.433m 769.134m 0.299m Line - Curve
1038562.3
220 3+150 562347.45 3 769.477m 769.162m 0.315m Regular
1038562.3
221 3+151 562347.44 3 769.477m 769.162m 0.315m Curve - Line
1038552.8
222 3+175 562324.30 9 769.787m 769.392m 0.395m Regular
1038545.3
223 3+195 562305.79 3 769.896m 769.516m 0.380m PVI
1038543.4
224 3+200 562301.16 4 769.877m 769.538m 0.339m Regular
225 3+225 562278.01 1038533.9 769.741m 769.599m 0.142m Regular
40
9
1038531.8
226 3+230 562272.84 8 769.706m 769.601m 0.105m High Point
1038524.5
227 3+250 562254.87 4 769.583m 769.576m 0.007m Regular
1038516.9
1038516.5
1038515.1
230 3+275 562231.72 0 769.446m 769.473m -0.027m Regular
1038511.9
231 3+283 562223.97 3 769.410m 769.457m -0.048m Low Point
1038507.5
232 3+295 562213.20 4 769.363m 769.487m -0.124m PVI
1038505.6
233 3+300 562208.57 5 769.388m 769.518m -0.130m Regular
1038498.5
1038496.2
235 3+325 562185.43 0 769.630m 769.830m -0.200m Regular
1038486.7
236 3+350 562162.28 5 770.038m 770.219m -0.181m Regular
1038485.7
237 3+375 562161.81 3 770.016m 770.205m -0.181m Regular
Table 4.8 Profile Elevation Differences Report for Road II (0 + 000 to 0 + 475)
Elevation Elevation Elevation
PVI Station Easting Northing Existing Design Difference Point Type
563010.9
1 0+000 9 1038607.51 765.804m 765.804m -0.000m Start
563032.6
2 0+022 0 1038613.48 766.287m 766.286m 0.001m Start Vertical TP
563043.2
3 0+033 8 1038616.42 766.432m 766.438m -0.006m PVI
563047.2
4 0+037 7 1038617.52 766.386m 766.450m -0.064m High Point
563053.9
5 0+044 6 1038619.37 766.308m 766.416m -0.107m End Vertical TP
563059.1
6 0+050 8 1038620.81 766.248m 766.362m -0.114m Regular
563083.2
7 0+075 8 1038627.47 766.048m 766.117m -0.069m Regular
563098.3
8 0+090 2 1038631.62 765.984m 765.964m 0.020m Line - Curve
563107.4
9 0+100 4 1038633.90 765.970m 765.872m 0.098m Regular
563132.1
10 0+125 0 1038637.88 765.789m 765.626m 0.163m Regular
41
563152.6
11 0+145 6 1038639.13 765.519m 765.424m 0.095m Existing
563152.8
12 0+146 5 1038639.14 765.517m 765.422m 0.095m Existing
563152.8
13 0+146 7 1038639.14 765.517m 765.422m 0.094m Existing
563157.0
14 0+150 5 1038639.35 765.444m 765.381m 0.063m Regular
563182.0
15 0+175 2 1038640.60 765.021m 765.136m -0.114m Regular
563185.0
16 0+178 5 1038640.75 764.969m 765.106m -0.137m Start Vertical TP
563196.5
17 0+189 2 1038641.32 764.770m 765.025m -0.255m Line - Curve
563199.9
18 0+193 1 1038641.64 764.717m 765.014m -0.297m Existing
563201.5
19 0+194 9 1038641.91 764.694m 765.010m -0.316m Existing
563201.7
20 0+195 6 1038641.94 764.692m 765.010m -0.317m Existing
563203.2
21 0+196 6 1038642.26 764.674m 765.008m -0.333m Existing
563204.9
22 0+198 1 1038642.67 764.657m 765.007m -0.350m Existing
563205.1
23 0+198 7 1038642.74 764.655m 765.007m -0.352m Low Point
563206.8
24 0+200 0 1038643.24 764.640m 765.007m -0.367m Regular
563216.3
25 0+211 9 1038647.96 764.613m 765.044m -0.431m Existing
563222.3
26 0+218 3 1038652.92 764.658m 765.105m -0.447m Existing
563223.5
27 0+220 0 1038654.16 764.673m 765.123m -0.450m Existing
563224.6
28 0+222 1 1038655.45 764.690m 765.141m -0.451m Existing
563224.6
563225.6
30 0+223 7 1038656.79 764.711m 765.161m -0.450m Existing
563226.5
31 0+225 0 1038657.93 764.730m 765.177m -0.447m Regular
563226.6
32 0+225 6 1038658.17 764.734m 765.180m -0.447m Existing
563227.5
33 0+227 9 1038659.59 764.759m 765.200m -0.441m Existing
563228.4
34 0+229 6 1038661.06 764.787m 765.219m -0.432m Existing
563229.2
35 0+230 7 1038662.56 764.818m 765.239m -0.421m Existing
563229.8
36 0+232 8 1038663.81 764.845m 765.255m -0.410m Existing
563230.0
37 0+232 1 1038664.10 764.852m 765.258m -0.407m Existing
563230.4
38 0+233 8 1038665.19 764.877m 765.272m -0.395m Existing
563230.6
39 0+233 8 1038665.66 764.888m 765.278m -0.390m Existing
40 0+233 563230.6 1038665.66 764.888m 765.278m -0.390m Curve - Line
42
8
563234.6
41 0+244 6 1038675.56 765.124m 765.400m -0.277m Existing
563236.7
42 0+250 2 1038680.68 765.246m 765.464m -0.218m Regular
563236.8
43 0+250 3 1038680.96 765.252m 765.467m -0.215m Existing
563237.1
44 0+251 4 1038681.74 765.270m 765.477m -0.206m Existing
563241.3
45 0+262 8 1038692.27 765.520m 765.607m -0.087m Existing
563241.3
46 0+262 8 1038692.27 765.520m 765.607m -0.087m Line - Curve
563242.0
47 0+264 5 1038693.83 765.556m 765.626m -0.070m Existing
563242.7
48 0+266 9 1038695.37 765.590m 765.646m -0.056m Existing
563243.6
49 0+267 0 1038696.87 765.621m 765.665m -0.044m Existing
563244.4
50 0+269 7 1038698.34 765.649m 765.685m -0.036m Existing
563245.2
51 0+270 9 1038699.61 765.672m 765.702m -0.030m Existing
563245.4
52 0+271 0 1038699.77 765.675m 765.704m -0.029m Existing
563245.8
54 0+272 7 1038700.44 765.687m 765.714m -0.027m Existing
563246.4
55 0+273 0 1038701.15 765.699m 765.724m -0.026m Existing
563247.4
56 0+274 5 1038702.49 765.719m 765.744m -0.025m Existing
563247.8
57 0+275 2 1038702.93 765.725m 765.750m -0.025m Regular
563249.6
563250.9
62 0+279 6 1038706.21 765.763m 765.802m -0.039m Curve - Line
563265.9
65 0+300 3 1038720.16 765.889m 765.955m -0.066m Regular
563275.0
68 0+312 8 1038728.69 765.966m 765.981m -0.015m High Point
563277.9
69 0+316 7 1038731.38 765.989m 765.978m 0.011m Existing
563281.0
73 0+320 0 1038733.92 766.005m 765.970m 0.035m PVI
563284.8
77 0+325 1 1038736.47 766.004m 765.955m 0.049m Regular
563289.7
83 0+330 0 1038738.90 765.976m 765.928m 0.048m Existing
563300.9
90 0+342 7 1038741.77 765.823m 765.836m -0.013m Existing
563302.2
91 0+343 4 1038741.98 765.802m 765.823m -0.021m Existing
563308.7
92 0+350 4 1038743.06 765.698m 765.749m -0.051m Regular
563329.1
98 0+370 4 1038746.42 765.426m 765.433m -0.007m Existing
563333.4
105 0+375 5 1038746.72 765.361m 765.361m 0.000m Regular
43
563333.9
106 0+375 9 1038746.72 765.352m 765.352m 0.000m Existing
563333.9
107 0+375 9 1038746.72 765.352m 765.352m 0.000m Curve - Line
563347.7
563358.4
111 0+400 5 1038746.68 764.934m 765.004m -0.070m Regular
563363.7
114 0+405 2 1038746.67 764.839m 764.989m -0.150m Low Point
563383.4
118 0+425 5 1038746.64 764.505m 765.193m -0.688m Regular
563404.6
123 0+446 5 1038746.61 764.147m 765.864m -1.717m Existing
563405.4
124 0+447 0 1038746.61 764.200m 765.897m -1.697m Existing
563408.4
125 0+450 5 1038746.61 764.482m 766.034m -1.552m Regular
563419.2
563430.1
129 0+472 3 1038746.57 766.672m 767.230m -0.558m Existing
563433.4
130 0+475 5 1038746.57 767.035m 767.423m -0.388m Regular
CHAPTER FOUR
DESIGN APPROACH
4.1 GENERAL
Flexible pavement which, would be adopted for the proposed road is defined by AASTHO as
a pavement structure which maintains intimate contact with and distributes loads to the
subgrade and depends upon aggregate interlock, particle friction and cohesion for stability.
Structural design of the pavement is the determination of the thickness of subbases, bases and
pavements to be placed over the subgrade soil. The basic purpose of the structural design
process is to make the selection of the most suitable available materials and their most
advantageous use. Their grouping in horizontal pavement layers from good to poor should be
such that the most benefit will be derived from the inherent qualities of each material. In
establishing the thickness of each layer, the objective is to provide a minimum thickness of
overlying material that will reduce the unit stress of the next lower layer commensurate with
the load-carrying capacity of the material within that layer.
4.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR PAVEMENT

The design procedure adopted for the proposed road is based on the guide to design process
presented in Section 2.1.5 of the Federal Government of Nigeria Highway Manual Part 1:
Design, Volume III: Pavement and Materials. The design procedure includes the following:
 Estimating the cumulative traffic loading expected during the design life
44
 Evaluating the strength of the subgrade
 Defining the nominal operating climate (wet or dry)
 Selecting possible pavement structures
4.2.1 Axle Load and Design Life

The loads imposed by private cars do not contribute significantly to the structural damage
caused to road pavements by traffic. For the purpose of structural design, only the numbers
of commercial vehicles and their axle loadings will be considered. In Nigeria, the standard
axle load is 80kN. The design life is the period during which the road is expected to carry
traffic at a satisfactory level of service, without requiring major rehabilitation or repair work.
A design life of 20years will be adopted for the proposed road.
Design Traffic Loading
A pavement must be designed to have a specific bearing capacity which is expressed in terms
of the number of Standard (80kN) Axle (SA) load repetitions that will result in a certain
condition of deterioration. This condition is normally considered to be the terminal
condition, indicating that the pavement has structurally failed, and can no longer support the
functional services set the services objective. A pavement could have a bearing capacity of 1
million Standard Axle repetitions (1 x 106 SA’s), indicating that the pavement will be able to
carry a traffic spectrum to the Equivalent of 1 million standard Axle loads (1 x 106 ESA’s).
The traffic spectrum therefore has to be converted to Equivalent Standard Axle (ESA) for
structural pavement design purposes. The ESA is then used to calculate how long a certain
pavement will be able to support a specific traffic spectrum before its predefined terminal
functional service level is reached.
The pavement design process requires the estimation of the average daily number of ESAs on
one lane at the opening of a new road to traffic, which is then projected and cumulated over
the designed period to give the design traffic load. Two methods for the estimation design
traffic loading (presented in Section 2.3.2 of the Federal Government of Nigeria Highway
Manual Part 1: Design, Volume III: Pavement and Materials) are: a) Traffic count data and
static vehicle axle load survey data
Weigh-in-motion (WIM) axle load survey data.
The traffic count data and static vehicle axle load survey data method will be adopted for the
proposed road.
Design Traffic Class
Pavement structures are classified in various categories on the basis of the cumulative ESAs
expected. Use would be made of Table 2.3.5 (presented in Section 2.3.2 of the Federal
45
Government of Nigeria Highway Manual Part 1: Design, Volume III: Pavement and
Materials) which gives these classifications, and the design traffic determined to decide
which category is applicable.
4.2.2 Determination of the Subgrade Strength
The characteristics of the native soil directly affect not only the pavement structure design,
but may even dictate the type of pavement best suited for a given location. A careful
examination of the soil characteristics is a basic requirement for each individual pavement
structure design. The subgrade materials will be evaluated to provide information for an
adequate and economical design. The materials would be checked to determine quality and
to establish compaction requirements.
The mechanical strength test that will be used for the subgrade, subbase and base materials is
the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). The CBR test is described in BS 1377 (Methods of
testing soils for civil engineering purposes). The CBR strength for the wettest moisture
condition likely to occur during the design life would then be determined. The subgrade
strength for design will reflect the lowest representative CBR likely to occur during the life of
the proposed road. Subsequently, the subgrade will be classified according to the Subgrade
Class Designation presented in Table 2.4.1, Section 2.4.1 of the Federal Government of
Nigeria Highway Manual Part 1: Design, Volume III: Pavement and Materials)
4.2.3 Determination of Nominal Operating Climate (Wet or Dry)
Rainfall can seasonably influence the bearing capacity of subgrade materials. Moisture has a
direct effect on pavement wearing surfaces which will be reflected in the cost of maintenance
and repairs. Predominantly, two regions exist in Nigeria i.e. wet and dry regions. A
predominantly dry region refers to a region where annual rainfall is less than 250mm, and
there is likelihood of moisture ingress due to factors such as significant flooding,
underground springs or well, etc. The opposite of the definition of a predominantly dry
region is true for a predominantly wet region.
The annual rainfall of Makurdi which has hydrological similarity to the location of the
proposed road is 1438.30mm, which is higher than 250mm, therefore, the location of the
proposed road is under a predominantly wet region.
4.2.4 Selection of the Possible Pavement Structures
The results obtained and conclusions reached in the preceding sections (i.e. Sections 4.2 to
4.3) would be put together and used in conjunction with Design Catalogue given in Appendix
C of the Federal Government of Nigeria Highway Manual Part 1: Design, Volume III:
Pavement and Materials, to obtain a set of structures deemed most appropriate.
46
Flexible pavement design by CBR method is used to determine the total thickness of pavement
which was used to computed pavement thickness based on the design parameters. The
parameters used include_
i. Assumed Vehicle/day >1500 when the road will be opened to traffic
ii. Subgrade CBR (soaked) = 14%
iii. Subbase material CBR (soaked) = 36%
iv. Base materials CBR (soaked) ≥ 83%
v. Design Life = 20yrs
vi. Growth rate = 6%
Recommended Thickness of Surface
 Light traffic; T3 ≥ 50
 Medium traffic; T3 ≥ 75
 Heavy traffic; T3 ≥ 100
With the Information provided and the CBR Design Chart in Figure 4.1 the following
flexible pavement layer thickness were obtained
T1 = Total thickness of pavement = 500mm
T2 = Thickness of base and surface = 200mm
T3 = Thickness of surface = Tsurface = 50mm
T2 – T3 = Thickness of base = Tbase = 150mm
T1 – T2 = Thickness of sub-base = Tsubbase = 300mm
The Typical cross section of the road is presented in Figure 4.1
47
Figure 4.2: Flexible Pavement Design Chart CBR
4.3 DESGN PROCEDURE FOR DRAINAGE COMPONENTS

The entire serviceability of a highway is greatly dependent upon the adequacy of its drainage
system. Water standing on the carriageway is a danger to high-speed traffic, equally, water
seeping into the pavement and subgrade leads to the development of soft spots which result in
the break-up of the surfacing and the need for expensive maintenance work. Thus, it can be
said with total justification that proper drainage design is an essential and integral part of
economical highway design; indeed, it is a consideration which should not only be taken into
48
account during design but should also, when necessary, influence the location of the highway
itself.
It is envisaged that the drainage system for the proposed road will comprise of side drains and
culvert. Side drains are located beyond the shoulder breakpoint and parallel to the center line
of the road. While usually employed in cuts, they may also be used to run water along the toe
of a fill to a point where the water can conveniently be diverted, either away from the road
prism or through it, by means of a culvert. Side drains are intended as collectors of water and
the area that they drain usually includes a cut face and the road surface.
4.4 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR CULVERT AND DRAINAGE
The design procedure for culverts and drainage includes the following:
1 Location of culvert or side drains
2 Determination of catchment characteristics such as;
 Catchment area, A
 Length of the catchment area, L
 The slope of the catchment area, S
3 Calculation of Quantity of Run-off (Discharge)

The quantity of runoff is obtained using Davies Rational Formula as follows:
Q = AIC (4.1)
Where;
Q = Expected runoff in m3/s
I = Intensity of Rainfall in mm/hr.
A = Catchment area in km2
D = Runoff Coefficient
. Note that the above formula is valid for catchment area not exceeding 12km2. A correction
factor is applied for catchment area in excess of 12km2.
The runoff coefficient (C) is a function of imperviousness of the catchment area. A runoff
coefficient (C) of 0.45 is adopted for the calculations.
Rainfall intensity (I) expressed in mm/hr is given by equation (4.2)
I = 25.4kn/ (t + a)n (4.2)
Where,
t = duration of rainfall or time of concentration a, b = Station constants
kn = A+BLog10n (4.3)
Where,
A, B = Station constants
For a storm frequency of 25 years, and station constant for Benue State, we have the
following constants.
a = 0.417, b = 0.947, A = 2.565, B = 1.675, n = 25
49
4 Sizing of the drainage channel is based on Manning's equation:
Q = AV =1/n (R2/3S1/2A.)
n = Manning's roughness coefficient = 0.05
A = Area of the drainage channel required bh (m2) for rectangular section.
P = Wetted Perimeter = b + 2h (m), for rectangular section
R = Hydraulic Radius =A/P in m
S = Slope of Catchment Area 0.0110
b = Width of the proposed channel, (m)
The maximum depth of the various culverts and drainage channel have been fixed based
on the slope required for effective drainage.
5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF DRAINGE AND CULVERT

Below are data used for design of culvert and drainage in the project.
Design Stresses: Concrete, fcu = 25N/mm2, Steel, fy = 410N/mm2
Fire Resistance: One hour for all elements
Exposure conditions: Severe for all elements
Cover: bottom slab and walls =50mm.
Sub-soil Condition: Sandy soil. Angle of response, ϕ = 280
Unit Weight of Materials Concrete = 24kN/m3
Water = 9.81kN/m3
Saturated soil = 18kN/m3
Table 4.1 gives different types of drainage and culverts design based on their locations.
Table 4.1; Drainage and Culvert Designed

Chainage Drainage Type Shape Dimension
1+375 Culvert Circular 750mm diameter
50
As Side drain Rectangular b = 600, h =1000mm
specified
CHAPTER FIVE
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
5.1 GENERAL
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a formal process for identifying likely effects of
activities or projects on the environment, and on human health and welfare and postulating
the means and measures to mitigate and monitor these impacts.
51
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool for assisting environmental management
and for contributing to Sustainable Development. The purpose of EIA is to identify potential
environmental impacts from proposals, such as projects and programs, and to propose means
to avoid or reduce the significant impacts. The EIA process makes sure that environmental
issues are raised when a project or plan is first discussed and that all concerns are addressed
as a project gains momentum through to implementation. Recommendations made by the
EIA may necessitate the redesign of some project components, require further studies,
suggest changes which alter the economic viability of the project or cause a delay in project
implementation.
UNEP (2002) defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool used to identify the
environmental, social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making. It aims to
predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find ways and
means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and present the
predictions and options to decision- makers. In general, the benefits of EIA include:
 Better environmental planning and design of a proposal

 Ensuring compliance with environmental standards
 Savings in capital and operating costs
 Increased project acceptance by the public; etc.
5.2 AFFECTED PROPERTIES

The proclaimed width for main roads in Nigeria is 50m. Where radii of horizontal curves do
not comply with the design standards for a lateritic road, the radii will be increased to ensure
compliance with the design standards and these matters shall be discussed with owners of the
affected properties. The purpose of the owner interview is to provide the Roads Authority
with the necessary information regarding properties and improvements that are affected by
any drainage, realignment of the road and borrow pits.
5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Environmental impacts shall be largely limited to the impact of the wider road reserve on
adjacent properties and the utilization of material resources (existing and new borrow pits)
with the resultant loss of land. The EIA report has to be submitted to the Ministry of
Environment and Tourism for approval after which a Clearance Certificate will be issued.
After issuance of the Clearance Certificate, the Environmental Management Plan (EMP) will
be compiled for inclusion in the Tender documentation.
52
5.4 POTENTIAL POSITIVE IMPACTS
 reduce the transport operating cost by improving the riding quality of the road.
 reduce journey time by minimizing congestion in urban centers.
 minimize road accidents by increasing road widths, improving inter sections and road
geometry.
 upgrade roads to function in all weathers, by improving drainage and raising road levels.
 provide route options to achieve better distribution of traffic.
 Easy access to farmlands and settlements long the corridor of the road.
 Open up markets in the area especially farm produce.
5.5 POTENTIAL NEGATIVE IMPACTS
 Destruction of farms on the road corridor
 Pollution of water bodies for instance streams cross the proposed route
 Air pollution- (dust) during the construction phase
 Noise pollution during construction
5.6 MITIGATION OF NEGATIVE IMPACTS
 Preventing contamination of stream;
 Planning and executing earthworks with due diligence to prevent soil erosion;
 Minimizing dust generation within the settlements by applying water to exposed surfaces t
three times – morning, noon and late afternoon;
 Ensuring the EPA guidelines on ambient noise are observed by servicing equipment regularly
and not working early morning and at night especially in front of noise sensitive development
such as lecture halls and offices;
 Ensuring that construction camp and borrow pit sites are carefully selected and arranged to
minimize soil erosion, land degradation, ponding and social conflict;
 Keeping the road sections open for traffic during the construction phase
 All trucks carrying loads of aggregate and spoil will be covered during transportation.
53

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FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA

LOWER BENUE RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY, MAKURDI

STUDY AND DESIGN OF TUWAN ROAD IN KABWIR TOWN IN PLATEAU

1.2 SCOPE OF WORK

1.2.3 Geotechnical Investigation.

Name of Test Standard Test Method

1.2.4 Engineering Designs of the Road and its Associated Structures

1.3 THE PROJECT AREA

Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency

Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency

1.4.3 Length of Day and Sunshine Duration

Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency

1.4.4 Relative Humidity

Table 1.4: Mean Monthly Relative Humidity (%) for Jos

Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency

Table 1.5 Mean Monthly Evaporation for Jos

Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency

2.1 DESIGN STANDARDS

Table 2.1: Design Standards Adopted for the Project

2.2 DESIGN SPEED

Conditions Design Speed, km/h

Rural freeways in mountainous terrain 80 - 100

2.3 SIGHT DISTANCE

Design Stopping Sight Distance (m)

Speed Level Downgrades Upgrades

70 105 110 116 124 100 97 93

80 130 136 144 154 123 118 114

90 160 164 174 187 148 141 136

100 185 194 207 223 174 167 160

110 220 227 243 262 203 194 186

120 250 263 281 304 234 223 214

130 285 302 323 350 267 254 243

2.3.2 Passing Sight Distance

Assumed Speeds (km/h) Passing Sight

110 85 100 730

120 90 105 775

130 94 109 815

Conditions Design Speed, km/h

Rural freeways in mountainous terrain 80 - 100

3.4 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Figure 3.1: Horizontal Curve Features

3.4.4.1.1 Minimum transition lengths.

Table 3.2: AASHTO Recommended Stopping Sight Distance

Design Stopping Sight Distance (m)

70 105 110 116 124 100 97 93

80 130 136 144 154 123 118 114

90 160 164 174 187 148 141 136

100 185 194 207 223 174 167 160

110 220 227 243 262 203 194 186

120 250 263 281 304 234 223 214

130 285 302 323 350 267 254 243

3.5.2 Passing Sight Distance

Figure 3.2: Cross section of the proposed road

3.6.1 Traveled Way

Design Speed: 40km/h Design Speed: 40km/h

Design Criteria: Design Criteria:

Minimum K for Passing Minimum K for

PVI Station: 0+200.00 PVI Station: 0+425.06