Chapter 3: Pressure and Fluıd

Statıcs

Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications

2nd EDITION
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2010

Pressure
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area

Some basic pressure gages.

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Pressure
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero
pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices
are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate
gage pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout this course, the pressure

P will denote absolute pressure unless
specified otherwise.

Pressure at a point
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area but it is not a vector. Pressure
at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions. Pressure has magnitude but
not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity.
Consider a small wedge-shaped fluid element of unit length (into the page) in
equilibrium

x- direction: 1

z- direction: 2

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 Pressure at a point

When ∆Z → 0 and the wedge becomes

infinitesimal, and thus the fluid element shrinks to a
point. Then combining the results of above two
relations gives
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Pressure is a scalar quantity, not a vector; the pressure

at a point in a fluid is the same in all directions.

Variation of pressure with depth

The pressure of a fluid at rest does not change in

horizontal direction as there is no change in
height and hence gravity.

For variation of pressure with depth,

consider a rectangular fluid element.+

A force balance in the vertical z-direction

gives
Pressure
+ head

The pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth (as a result Sp.
of added weight since more fluid rest on deeper layer).
weight
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Variation in pressure for gases

The pressure in a tank containing a gas or the

pressure in a room filled with air.

Can we consider the pressure to be constant ?

In a room filled with a gas, the

variation of pressure with height is
negligible.

If we take point 1 to be at the free surface of a

liquid open to the atmosphere, where the
pressure is the atmospheric pressure, then the
pressure at a depth h from the free surface
becomes

For small variation in elevations:

Liquids: Incompressible; no significant change in
density, weight increases with depth so the pressure
Gases: No significant change in density, no Pressure in a liquid at
significant weight. So variation in pressure negligible. rest increases linearly
However, variation in density with temperature is with distance from the
significant, so for accurate results, must consider the free surface.
change in elevation.
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For fluids whose density changes significantly with
elevation, a relation for the variation of pressure with
elevation can be obtained from
+
Divide this by ∆x ∆z and take the limit ∆z→0
+

+ve z direction in upward

direction and pressure Why –ve?
decreases in this direction

When the variation of density with elevation is known,

the pressure difference between points 1 and 2 can be
determined by integration to be

For constant density and constant gravitational

acceleration, this relation reduces

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 The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a
given fluid regardless of geometry, provided that the points are
interconnected by the same fluid.

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Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a

confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal

mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift.

“Pascal’s machine” has been the source of Lifting of a large weight by

many inventions that are a part of our daily a small force by the
lives such as hydraulic brakes and lifts. application of Pascal’s law.

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6
Pressure Measurement Devıces
The Barometer
 Atmospheric pressure is measured by a
device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.
 A frequently used pressure unit is the
standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of
mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational
acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).
The basic barometer.

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The length or the cross-

sectional area of the tube
has no effect on the height
of the fluid column of a
barometer, provided that
the tube diameter is large
enough to avoid surface
tension (capillary) effects.

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Pressure Measurement Devıces
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
The basic manometer.
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury,
water, alcohol, or oil. Heavy fluids are preferred
to keep the column height small.
Consider the manometer that is used to
measure the pressure in the tank.
As gases have negligible gravitational effects,
pressure in tank and at point 1 is same.
Similarly, point 1 and 2 are at same elevation,
so have same pressure.

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For multiple immiscible fluids of different densities

stacked on top of each other.

Such systems can be analyzed easily by

remembering that
i. The pressure change across a fluid column of
height h is ∆P=ρgh
ii. Pressure increases downward in a given fluid and
decreases upward (i.e., Pbottom > Ptop), and
iii. Two points at the same elevation in a continuous
fluid at rest are at the same pressure.

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Manometers are well-suited to measure pressure
drops across a horizontal flow section between two
specified points

Measuring the pressure drop across a flow section

or a flow device by a differential manometer.

Simplifying

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Pressure Measurement Devıces

Other Pressure Measurement Devices
 Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal
tube bent like a hook whose end is
closed and connected to a dial indicator
needle.
 Pressure transducers: Use various
techniques to convert the pressure effect
to an electrical effect such as a change in
voltage, resistance, or capacitance.
 Pressure transducers are smaller and
faster, and they can be more sensitive,
reliable, and precise than their
mechanical counterparts. Various types of Bourdon tubes used to
measure pressure.

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Pressure Measurement Devıces
Measuring Atmospheric Pressure with a Barometer
Determine the atmospheric pressure
at a location where the barometric
reading is 740 mm Hg and the
gravitational acceleration is g = 9.81
m/s2. Assume the temperature of
mercury to be 10°C, at which its
density is 13,570 kg/m3.

Pressure Measurement Devıces

The piston of a vertical piston–cylinder
device containing a gas has a mass of 60 kg
and a cross-sectional area of 0.04 m2, as
shown in Fig. The local atmospheric
pressure is 0.97 bar, and the gravitational
acceleration is 9.81 m/s2.

(a) Determine the pressure inside the

cylinder.
(b) If some heat is transferred to the gas
and its volume is doubled, do you expect
the pressure inside the cylinder to
change?

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Pressure Measurement Devıces

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Pressure Measurement Devıces

A manometer is used to measure

the pressure of a gas in a tank.
The fluid used has a specific
gravity of 0.85, and the
manometer column height is 55
cm, as shown in Fig. If the local
atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa,
determine the absolute pressure
within the tank.

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Pressure Measurement Devıces

The water in a tank is pressurized by air,

and the pressure is measured by a multifluid
manometer as shown in Fig. The tank is
located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400
m where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6
kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank
if h1 = 0.1 m, h2 = 0.2 m, and h3 = 0.35 m.
Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury
to be 1000 kg/m3, 850 kg/m3, and 13,600
kg/m3, respectively.

Introduction to fluıd statıcs

Fluid statics: Deals with problems associated with fluids at
rest. The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid.
Hydrostatics: When the fluid is a liquid.
Aerostatics: When the fluid is a gas.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between
adjacent fluid layers, and thus there are no shear
(tangential) stresses in the fluid trying to deform it.
The only stress we deal with in fluid statics is the normal
stress, which is the pressure, and the variation of
pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid.

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Introduction to fluıd statıcs

The topic of fluid statics has significance only in gravity

fields.
The design of many engineering systems such as water
dams and liquid storage tanks requires the
determination of the forces acting on the surfaces using
fluid statics.

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Hydrostatic forces on submerged plane surfaces

Why we need?
 Gate valve in a dam
 Wall of a liquid storage tank
 Hull of a ship at rest

What to determine?
 The magnitude of the force
 Point or line of application

When analyzing hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces, the

atmospheric pressure can be subtracted for simplicity when it acts on
both sides of the structure.

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 Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface

Consider the top surface of a flat plate of

arbitrary shape completely submerged in a liquid

The pressure on surface at any point

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The resultant force acting on a plane

surface is equal to the product of the
pressure at the centroid of the
The pressure at the centroid of surface and the surface area.
a surface is equivalent to the
average pressure on the
surface.

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How to avoid P0 in calculation?

 P0 can be ignored in most cases since it acts on both

sides of the plate.

 When this is not the case, a practical way of

accounting for the contribution of P0 to the resultant
force is simply to add an equivalent depth hequiv =
P0/𝜌g to hC; that is, to assume the presence of an
additional liquid layer of thickness hequiv on top of the
liquid with absolute vacuum above.

 If P0 is ignored;
FR = ρgy sinθA 12

Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface

I ,
y =y +
P
(y + ρgsinθ )A

If P0 = 0

I ,
y =y +
y A

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The centroid and the centroidal moments of inertia for some common
geometries.
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Pressure prism
This virtual pressure prism has an interesting
physical interpretation: its volume is equal to the
magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic force acting
on the plate since FR =  PdA, and the line of action
of this force passes through the centroid of this
homogeneous prism.
The projection of the centroid on the plate is the
pressure center.
Therefore, with the concept of pressure prism, the
problem of describing the resultant hydrostatic force The hydrostatic forces
acting on a plane
on a plane surface reduces to finding the volume
surface form a
and the two coordinates of the centroid of this
pressure prism whose
pressure prism. base (left face) is the
surface and whose
length is the pressure.

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 Hydrostatic Forces - Special Cases
Submerged Rectangular Plate: Tilted

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Hydrostatic Forces - Special Cases

Submerged Rectangular Plate: Vertical

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Hydrostatic Forces - Special Cases
Submerged Rectangular Plate: Horizontal

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Hydrostatic Forces - Curved Surfaces

tan α = FV/FH W = ρgV

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 Hydrostatic Forces - Curved Surfaces

When a curved surface is above The hydrostatic force acting on a

the liquid, the weight of the circular surface always passes
liquid and the vertical through the center of the circle
component of the hydrostatic since the pressure forces are
force act in the opposite normal to the surface and they all
directions. pass through the center.
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Hydrostatic Forces - Multilayered Fluid

In a multilayered fluid of different

densities can be determined by
considering different parts of
surfaces in different fluids as
different surfaces, finding the force
on each part, and then adding them
using vector addition.

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 Problem

A heavy car plunges into a lake during an

accident and lands at the bottom of the
lake on its wheels (Fig.). The door is 1.2
m high and 1 m wide, and the top edge
of the door is 8 m below the free surface
of the water. Determine the hydrostatic
force on the door and the location of the
pressure center and discuss if the driver
can open the door.

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Problem
A long solid cylinder of radius 0.8 m
hinged at point A is used as an
automatic gate, as shown in Fig.
When the water level reaches 5 m,
the gate opens by turning about the
hinge at point A.
Determine
(a) the hydrostatic force acting on
the cylinder and its line of action
when the gate opens and
(b) the weight of the cylinder per
m length of the cylinder.

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 Problem

A room in the lower level of a cruise ship has a 30-cm-

diameter circular window. If the midpoint of the window is
5 m below the water surface, determine the hydrostatic
force acting on the window, and the pressure center.
Take the specific gravity of seawater to be 1.025.

Problem
Consider a 4-m-long, 4-m-wide, and 1.5-m-high
aboveground swimming pool that is filled with water to the
rim.
(a) Determine the hydrostatic force on each wall and the
distance of the line of action of this force from the ground.
(b) If the height of the walls of the pool is doubled and the
pool is filled, will the hydrostatic force on each wall double
or quadruple? Why?

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 Buoyancy and Stability
Buoyant force: The upward force a fluid exerts on a body immersed in it.
The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure with depth in a fluid.

The buoyant force acting on the

plate is equal to the weight of the
liquid displaced by the plate.
For a fluid with constant density,
the buoyant force is independent
of the distance of the body from
the free surface.
It is also independent of the
density of the solid body.

A flat plate of uniform thickness h submerged

in a liquid parallel to the free surface.

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The buoyant forces acting on a solid body

submerged in a fluid and on a fluid body of
the same shape at the same depth are
identical. The buoyant force FB acts
upward through the centroid C of the
displaced volume and is equal in
magnitude to the weight W of the displaced
fluid, but is opposite in direction. For a solid
of uniform density, its weight Ws also acts
through the centroid, but its magnitude is
not necessarily equal to that of the fluid it
displaces. (Here Ws > W and thus Ws > FB;
this solid body would sink.)

Archimedes’ principle: The buoyant force acting on a body immersed

in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it
acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.

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For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the
buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid whose volume is equal
to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body:

A solid body dropped into a

fluid will sink, float, or
remain at rest at any point
in the fluid, depending on its
average density relative to
the density of the fluid.
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Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

Stability is easily
understood by
analyzing a ball
on the floor.

For floating bodies such as

ships, stability is an important
consideration for safety.
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A floating body possesses vertical stability, while an
immersed neutrally buoyant body is neutrally stable
since it does not return to its original position after a
disturbance.

If an immersed neutrally buoyant body is raised or

lowered to a different depth, the body will remain in
equilibrium at that location. If a floating body is
raised or lowered somewhat by a vertical force, the
body will return to its original position as soon as the
external effect is removed.

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Rotational stability of an immersed body

It depends on relative location of G and B.

(a) stable if the center of gravity, G is directly below the center of
buoyancy, B of the body,
(b) neutrally stable if G and B are coincident, and
(c) unstable if G is directly above B.

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 A boat can tilt to some
max angle without
capsizing but beyond
When the center of gravity G of an that angle, it overturns.
immersed neutrally buoyant body is not E.g: a ball in a trough
vertically aligned with the center of between two hills is
stable for small
buoyancy B of the body, it is not in an
disturbances, but
equilibrium state and would rotate to its unstable for large
stable state, even without any disturbance. disturbances.
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A floating body is stable (as in immersed) if the body is bottom-heavy and

thus the center of gravity G is below the centroid B of the body, or if the
metacenter M is above point G. However, the body is unstable if point M is
below point G.
Metacentric height GM: The distance between the center of gravity G and
the metacenter M—the intersection point of the lines of action of the
buoyant force through the body before and after rotation.
The length of the metacentric height GM above G is a measure of the
stability: the larger it is, the more stable is the floating body.
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 Fluıds ın rıgıd-body motıon
Pressure at a given point has the same magnitude in
all directions, and thus it is a scalar function.
In this section we obtain relations for the variation of
pressure in fluids moving like a solid body with or
without acceleration in the absence of any shear
stresses (i.e., no motion between fluid layers relative
to each other).

Newton’s 2nd law of

motion

Net surface force:

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Expressing in vector form:

i, j, k = unit vectors in
x,y,z directions

Pressure gradient

Body force,
Remember, m = ρ V

From Newton’s 2nd law of motion, δF = δma = ρ dx dy dz . a

Therefore,

Expressing in scalar form in three orthogonal directions;

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Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest
For fluids at rest or moving on a straight path at constant
velocity, all components of acceleration are zero, and the
relations reduce to

The pressure remains constant in any horizontal

direction (P is independent of x and y) and varies only in
the vertical direction as a result of gravity [and thus P =
P(z)]. These relations are applicable for both
compressible and incompressible fluids.

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Special Case 2: Free Fall of a Fluid Body

A freely falling body accelerates under the influence of
gravity. When the air resistance is negligible, the
acceleration of the body equals the gravitational
acceleration, and acceleration in any horizontal direction
is zero. Therefore, ax = ay = 0 and az = -g.

The effect of acceleration on the

pressure of a liquid during free
fall and upward acceleration.

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Problem
A crane is used to lower weights into a lake for an
underwater construction project. Determine the tension
in the rope of the crane due to a 3-ft-diameter spherical
steel block (density = 494 lbm/ft^3) when it is
(a) suspended in the air and
(b) completely immersed in water.

Problem

A 170-kg granite rock (density = 2700 kg/m^3) is

dropped into a lake. A man dives in and tries to lift the
rock. Determine how much force the man needs to
apply to lift it from the bottom of the lake. Do you think
he can do it?

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Problem

The hull of a boat has a volume of 150 m^3, and the

total mass of the boat when empty is 8560 kg. Determine
how much load this boat can carry without sinking
(a) in a lake and
(b) in seawater with a specific gravity of 1.03.

Problem

Consider two water tanks filled with water. The first

tank is 8 m high and is stationary, while the second tank
is 2 m high and is moving upward with an acceleration
of 5 m/s2. Which tank will have a higher pressure at the
bottom?

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Thank You

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