The History of Glass

From our earliest origins, man has been making use of glass. Historians have discovered
that a type of natural glass – obsidian – formed in places such as the mouth of a volcano as a
result of the intense heat of an eruption melting sand – was first used as tips for spears.
Archaeologists have even found evidence of man-made glass which dates back to 4000 BC;
this took the form of glazes used for coating stone beads. It was not until 1500 BC, however,
that the first hollow glass container was made by covering a sand core with a layer of molten
glass.
从我们最早的起源开始，人类就一直在使用玻璃。 历史学家发现，一种天然玻
璃——黑曜石——由于喷发融化沙子的高温而在火山口等地方形成——最初被用作长
矛的尖端。 考古学家甚至发现了可追溯到公元前 4000 年的人造玻璃的证据； 这采取
了用于涂覆石珠的釉料的形式。 然而，直到公元前 1500 年，第一个中空玻璃容器才
通过在砂芯上覆盖一层熔融玻璃制成。

Glass blowing became the most common way to make glass containers from the first
century BC. The glass made during this time was highly coloured due to the impurities of the
raw material. In the first century AD, methods of creating colourless glass were developed,
which was then tinted by the addition of colouring materials. The secret of glass making was
taken across Europe by the Romans during this century. However, they guarded the skills and
technology required to make glass very closely, and it was not until their empire collapsed in
476 AD that glass-making knowledge became widespread throughout Europe and the Middle
East. From the 10th century onwards, the Venetians gained a reputation for technical skill and
artistic ability in the making of glass bottles, and many of the city’s craftsmen left Italy to set
up glassworks throughout Europe.
从公元前一世纪开始，玻璃吹制成为制造玻璃容器最常见的方法。 这段时间制
作的玻璃，由于原料不纯，颜色很深。 在公元一世纪，开发了制造无色玻璃的方法，
然后通过添加着色材料将其着色。 玻璃制造的秘密在本世纪被罗马人传遍了整个欧洲。
然而，他们非常严密地保护制造玻璃所需的技能和技术，直到他们的帝国在公元 476
年崩溃，玻璃制造知识才在整个欧洲和中东传播开来。 从 10 世纪开始，威尼斯人在
制作玻璃瓶方面的技术精湛和艺术才能享有盛誉，该市的许多工匠离开意大利前往欧
洲各地开设玻璃制品厂。

A major milestone in the history of glass occurred with the invention of lead crystal
glass by the English glass manufacturer George Ravenscroft (1632 – 1683). He attempted to
counter the effect of clouding that sometimes occurred in blown glass by introducing lead to
the raw materials used in the process. The new glass he created was softer and easier to
decorate, and had a higher refractive index, adding to its brilliance and beauty, and it proved

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invaluable to the optical industry. It is thanks to Ravenscroft’s invention that optical lenses,
astronomical telescopes, microscopes and the like became possible.
玻璃历史上的一个重要里程碑是英国玻璃制造商 George Ravenscroft（1632 –
1683 年）发明了铅水晶玻璃。 他试图通过在该过程中使用的原材料中引入铅来抵消有
时在吹制玻璃中出现的混浊效应。 他创造的新玻璃更柔软，更容易装饰，折射率更高，
增添了它的光彩和美丽，事实证明，它对光学工业来说是无价的。 正是由于拉文斯克
罗夫特的发明，光学透镜、天文望远镜、显微镜等才成为可能。

In Britain, the modem glass industry only really started to develop after the repeal of
the Excise Act in 1845. Before that time, heavy taxes had been placed on the amount of glass
melted in a glasshouse, and were levied continuously from 1745 to 1845. Joseph Paxton’s
Crystal Palace at London’s Great Exhibition of 1851 marked the beginning of glass as a
material used in the building industry. This revolutionary new building encouraged the use of
glass in public, domestic and horticultural architecture. Glass manufacturing techniques also
improved with the advancement of science and the development of better technology.
在英国，现代玻璃工业直到 1845 年消费税法被废除后才真正开始发展。在此之
前，对在温室中熔化的玻璃量征收重税，并从 1745 年到 1845 年连续征收。 约瑟夫·帕
克斯顿 (Joseph Paxton) 在 1851 年伦敦大展览会上设计的水晶宫标志着玻璃作为建筑材
料的开端。 这座革命性的新建筑鼓励在公共、家庭和园艺建筑中使用玻璃。 随着科学
的进步和更好技术的发展，玻璃制造技术也得到了改进。

From 1887 onwards, glass making developed from traditional mouth-blowing to a semi-
automatic process, after factory- owner HM Ashley introduced a machine capable of
producing 200 bottles per hour in Castleford, Yorkshire, England – more than three times
quicker than any previous production method. Then in 1907, the first fully automated machine
was developed in the USA by Michael Owens – founder of the Owens Bottle Machine
Company (later the major manufacturers Owens- Illinois) – and installed in its factory. Owens’
invention could produce an impressive 2,500 bottles per hour Other developments followed
rapidly, but it | was not until the First World War when Britain became cut off from essential
glass suppliers, that glass became part of the scientific sector. Previous to this, glass had been
seen as a craft rather than a precise science.
从 1887 年起，玻璃制造从传统的口吹工艺发展为半自动工艺，因为工厂老板
HM Ashley 在英格兰约克郡的卡斯尔福德引进了一台能够每小时生产 200 瓶的机器—
—比以前的任何机器快三倍多 生产方法。 然后在 1907 年，第一台全自动机器由
Michael Owens 在美国开发 - Owens Bottle Machine Company （后来是主要制造商
Owens-Illinois）的创始人 - 并安装在其工厂中。 欧文斯的发明每小时可生产 2,500 瓶，
令人印象深刻 直到第一次世界大战期间，英国与重要的玻璃供应商被切断联系，玻璃

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才成为科学领域的一部分。 在此之前，玻璃一直被视为一门手艺，而不是一门精密的
科学。

Today, glass making is big business. It has become a modem, hi-tech industry operating
in a fiercely competitive global market where quality, design and service levels are critical to
maintaining market share. Modem glass plants are capable of making millions of glass
containers a day in many different colours, with green, brown and clear remaining the most
popular. Few of us can imagine modem life without glass. It features in almost every aspect
of our lives – in our homes, our cars and whenever we sit down to eat or drink. Glass packaging
is used for many products, many beverages are sold in glass, as are numerous foodstuffs, as
well as medicines and cosmetics.
今天，玻璃制造是一门大生意。 它已成为在竞争激烈的全球市场中运营的现代
高科技产业，在这个市场中，质量、设计和服务水平对于保持市场份额至关重要。 现
代玻璃工厂每天能够生产数以百万计的多种不同颜色的玻璃容器，其中绿色、棕色和
透明仍然是最受欢迎的。 我们中很少有人能想象没有玻璃的现代生活。 它几乎存在于
我们生活的方方面面——在我们的家里、我们的汽车里，以及我们坐下来吃喝的时候。
玻璃包装用于许多产品，许多饮料都用玻璃包装出售，许多食品、药品和化妆品也是
如此。

Glass is an ideal material for recycling, and with growing consumer concern for green
issues, glass bottles and jars are becoming ever more popular. Glass recycling is good news
for the environment. It saves used glass containers being sent to landfill. As less energy is
needed to melt recycled glass than to melt down raw materials, this also saves fuel and
production costs. Recycling also reduces the need for raw materials to be quarried, thus saving
precious resources.
玻璃是一种理想的回收材料，随着消费者对绿色问题的关注日益增加，玻璃瓶
和玻璃罐越来越受欢迎。 玻璃回收对环境来说是个好消息。 它节省了被送往垃圾填埋
场的用过的玻璃容器。 与熔化原材料相比，熔化回收玻璃所需的能量更少，这也节省
了燃料和生产成本。 回收还减少了开采原材料的需要，从而节省了宝贵的资源。

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 Bring back the big cats
It’s time to start returning vanished native animals to Britain, says John Vesty
John Vesty 说，是时候开始将消失的本土动物送回英国了

There is a poem, written around 598 AD, which describes hunting a mystery animal
called a llewyn. But what was it? Nothing seemed to fit, until 2006, when an animal bone,
dating from around the same period, was found in the Kinsey Cave in northern England. Until
this discovery, the lynx – a large spotted cat with tassel led ears – was presumed to have died
out in Britain at least 6,000 years ago, before the inhabitants of these islands took up farming.
But the 2006 find, together with three others in Yorkshire and Scotland, is compelling evidence
that the lynx and the mysterious llewyn were, in fact, one and the same animal. If this is so, it
would bring forward the tassel-eared cat’s estimated extinction date by roughly 5,000 years.
有一首诗写于公元 598 年左右，描述了猎杀一种名为 llewyn 的神秘动物。 但那
是什么？ 似乎没有什么合适的，直到 2006 年，在英格兰北部的金赛洞穴中发现了大
约同一时期的动物骨头。 在这一发现之前，人们推测山猫——一种长着流苏耳的大型
斑点猫科动物——至少在 6,000 年前就已在英国灭绝，当时这些岛屿上的居民还未开
始耕种。 但 2006 年的发现，连同在约克郡和苏格兰发现的其他三只动物，有力地证
明了山猫和神秘的 llewyn 实际上是同一种动物。 如果真是这样，流苏耳猫的估计灭绝
日期将提前大约 5,000 年。

However, this is not quite the last glimpse of the animal in British culture. A 9th- century
stone cross from the Isle of Eigg shows, alongside the deer, boar and aurochs pursued by a
mounted hunter, a speckled cat with tasselled ears. Were it not for the animal’s backside having
worn away with time, we could have been certain, as the lynx’s stubby tail is unmistakable.
But even without this key feature, it’s hard to see what else the creature could have been. The
lynx is now becoming the totemic animal of a movement that is transforming British
environmentalism: rewilding.
然而，这并不是英国文化中动物的最后一瞥。 一个来自艾格岛的 9 世纪石制十
字架展示了一只长着流苏耳朵的斑点猫，旁边是一名骑马猎人追捕的鹿、野猪和野牛。
如果不是因为山猫的臀部随着时间的流逝而磨损，我们本可以确定，因为山猫的粗短
尾巴是不会弄错的。 但即使没有这个关键特征，也很难看出这个生物还能是什么。 山
猫现在正在成为正在改变英国环保主义的运动的图腾动物：野化。

Rewilding means the mass restoration of damaged ecosystems. It involves letting trees
return to places that have been denuded, allowing parts of the seabed to recover from trawling
and dredging, permitting rivers to flow freely again. Above all, it means bringing back missing
species. One of the most striking findings of modern ecology is that ecosystems without large
predators behave in completely different ways from those that retain them Some of them drive
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dynamic processes that resonate through the whole food chain, creating niches for hundreds
of species that might otherwise struggle to survive. The killers turn out to be bringers of life.
野化意味着大规模恢复受损的生态系统。 它包括让树木回到被砍伐的地方，让
部分海床从拖网和疏浚中恢复过来，让河流再次畅通无阻。 最重要的是，这意味着带
回失踪的物种。 现代生态学最引人注目的发现之一是，没有大型捕食者的生态系统的
行为方式与保留大型捕食者的生态系统的行为方式完全不同。 存活。 杀手原来是生命
的使者。

Such findings present a big challenge to British conservation, which has often selected
arbitrary assemblages of plants and animals and sought, at great effort and expense, to prevent
them from changing. It has tried to preserve the living world as if it were a jar of pickles,
letting nothing in and nothing out, keeping nature in a state of arrested development. But
ecosystems are not merely collections of species; they are also the dynamic and ever-shifting
relationships between them. And this dynamism often depends on large predators.
这些发现对英国的保护工作提出了巨大挑战，英国保护组织经常选择任意组合
的植物和动物，并付出巨大的努力和代价，以防止它们发生变化。 它试图保护生命世
界，就好像它是一罐泡菜一样，不进不出，让自然处于停滞发展的状态。 但是生态系
统不仅仅是物种的集合； 它们也是它们之间动态且不断变化的关系。 而这种活力往往
取决于大型捕食者。

At sea the potential is even greater: by protecting large areas from commercial fishing,
we could once more see what 18th-century literature describes: vast shoals of fish being chased
by fin and sperm whales, within sight of the English shore. This policy would also greatly
boost catches in the surrounding seas; the fishing industry’s insistence on scouring every inch
of seabed, leaving no breeding reserves, could not be more damaging to its own interests.
在海上，潜力更大：通过保护大片区域免受商业捕鱼，我们可以再次看到 18 世
纪文学所描述的情况：在英国海岸的视线范围内，大片鱼群被长须鲸和抹香鲸追逐。
这一政策还将大大提高周边海域的捕捞量； 捕鱼业坚持将每一寸海床都搜寻干净，不
留任何繁殖保护区，这对其自身利益的损害再大不过了。

Rewilding is a rare example of an environmental movement in which campaigners

articulate what they are for rather than only what they are against. One of the reasons why the
enthusiasm for rewilding is spreading so quickly in Britain is that it helps to create a more
inspiring vision than the green movement’s usual promise of ‘Follow us and the world will be
slightly less awful than it would otherwise have been.
野化是环境运动的一个罕见例子，活动家在其中阐明了他们支持什么，而不仅
仅是他们反对什么。 重建野化的热情在英国传播得如此之快的原因之一是，它有助于

5
创造一个比绿色运动通常承诺的“跟随我们，世界将比原本不那么可怕”更鼓舞人心的
愿景。

The lynx presents no threat to human beings: there is no known instance of one preying
on people. It is a specialist predator of roe deer, a species that has exploded in Britain in recent
decades, holding back, by intensive browsing, attempts to re-establish forests. It will also
winkle out sika deer: an exotic species that is almost impossible for human beings to control,
as it hides in impenetrable plantations of young trees. The attempt to reintroduce this predator
marries well with the aim of bringing forests back to parts of our bare and barren uplands. The
lynx requires deep cover, and as such presents little risk to sheep and other livestock, which
are supposed, as a condition of farm subsidies, to be kept out of the woods.
山猫对人类没有威胁：没有已知的山猫捕食人类的例子。 它是狍的专业捕食者，
狍是近几十年来在英国爆发的物种，通过密集觅食阻止了重建森林的尝试。 它还会发
现梅花鹿：一种人类几乎无法控制的外来物种，因为它隐藏在难以穿越的幼树种植园
中。 重新引入这种捕食者的尝试与将森林带回我们光秃秃的高地部分地区的目标相得
益彰。 山猫需要很深的掩护，因此对绵羊和其他牲畜的威胁很小，作为农业补贴的条
件，这些牲畜应该远离树林。

On a recent trip to the Cairngorm Mountains, I heard several conservationists suggest

that the lynx could be reintroduced there within 20 years. If trees return to the bare hills
elsewhere in Britain, the big cats could soon follow. There is nothing extraordinary about these
proposals, seen from the perspective of anywhere else in Europe. The lynx has now been
reintroduced to the Jura Mountains, the Alps, the Vosges in eastern France and the Harz
mountains in Germany, and has re-established itself in many more places. The European
population has tripled since 1970 to roughly 10,000. As with wolves, bears, beavers, boar,
bison, moose and many other species, the lynx has been able to spread as farming has, left the
hills and people discover that it is more lucrative to protect charismatic wildlife than to hunt
it, as tourists will pay for the chance to see it. Large-scale rewilding is happening almost
everywhere – except Britain.
在最近一次去凯恩戈姆山脉的旅行中，我听到几位自然资源保护主义者建议，
可以在 20 年内将山猫重新引入那里。 如果树木回到英国其他地方的光秃秃的山丘上，
大型猫科动物可能很快就会跟上。 从欧洲其他任何地方的角度来看，这些提议并没有
什么特别之处。 山猫现已被重新引入侏罗山、阿尔卑斯山、法国东部的孚日山脉和德
国的哈尔茨山脉，并在更多地方重新定居。 欧洲人口自 1970 年以来增加了两倍，达
到大约 10,000 人。 与狼、熊、海狸、野猪、野牛、驼鹿和许多其他物种一样，山猫已
经能够像农业一样传播开来，离开了山丘，人们发现保护有魅力的野生动物比猎杀它
更有利可图，因为 游客会为看到它的机会付费。 几乎所有地方都在进行大规模的野化
——除了英国。
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 Here, attitudes are just beginning to change. Conservationists are starting to accept that
the old preservation-jar model is failing, even on its own terms. Already, projects such as Trees
for Life in the Highlands provide a hint of what might be coming. An organisation is being set
up that will seek to catalyse the rewilding of land and sea across Britain, its aim being to
reintroduce that rarest of species to British ecosystems: hope.
在这里，态度才刚刚开始改变。 环保主义者开始接受旧的保存罐模型正在失败，
即使就其自身而言也是如此。 高地的生命之树等项目已经暗示了可能会发生什么。 正
在建立一个组织，以寻求促进英国陆地和海洋的野化，其目标是将最稀有的物种重新
引入英国的生态系统：希望。

UK companies need more effective boards of directors

英国公司需要更有效的董事会
A. After a number of serious failures of governance (that is, how they are managed at the
highest level), companies in Britain, as well as elsewhere, should consider radical changes to
their directors’ roles. It is clear that the role of a board director today is not an easy one.
Following the 2008 financial meltdown, which resulted in a deeper and more prolonged period
of economic downturn than anyone expected, the search for explanations in the many post-
mortems of the crisis has meant blame has been spread far and wide. Governments, regulators,
central banks and auditors have all been in the frame. The role of bank directors and
management and their widely publicised failures have been extensively picked over and
examined in reports, inquiries and commentaries.
在经历了一系列严重的治理失败（即最高层的管理方式）之后，英国和其他地
方的公司应该考虑彻底改变其董事的角色。 很明显，今天的董事角色并不轻松。 继
2008 年金融危机导致经济衰退比任何人预期的更深、持续时间更长之后，在危机的许
多事后分析中寻找解释意味着指责已经广泛传播。 政府、监管机构、中央银行和审计
师都参与其中。 银行董事和管理层的角色以及他们广为人知的失败在报告、调查和评
论中得到了广泛的挑选和审查。

B. The knock-on t of this scrutiny has been to make the governance of companies in general
an issue of intense public debate and has significantly increased the pressures on, and the
responsibilities of, directors. At the simplest and most practical level, the time involved in
fulfilling the demands of a board directorship has increased significantly, calling into question
the effectiveness of the classic model of corporate governance by part-time, independent non-
executive directors. Where once a board schedule may have consisted of between eight and
ten meetings a year, in many companies the number of events requiring board input and
decisions has dramatically risen. Furthermore, the amount of reading and preparation required

7
for each meeting is increasing. Agendas can become overloaded and this can mean the time
for constructive debate must necessarily be restricted in favour of getting through the business.
这种审查的连锁反应使公司治理成为公众激烈辩论的一个问题，并显着增加了
董事的压力和责任。 在最简单和最实际的层面上，履行董事会职责所需的时间显着增
加，这使兼职独立非执行董事的经典公司治理模式的有效性受到质疑。 过去，董事会
日程可能包括每年 8 到 10 次会议，但在许多公司中，需要董事会参与和决策的事件数
量急剧增加。 此外，每次会议所需的阅读量和准备量也在增加。 议程可能变得超负荷，
这可能意味着必须限制建设性辩论的时间，以支持完成业务。

C. Often, board business is devolved to committees in order to cope with the workload, which
may be more efficient but can mean that the board as a whole is less involved in fully
addressing some of the most important issues. It is not uncommon for the audit committee
meeting to last longer than the main board meeting itself. The process may take the place of
discussion and be at the expense of real collaboration, so that boxes are ticked rather than
issues tackled.
通常，董事会的事务会下放给委员会以应对工作量，这可能会更有效率，但也
可能意味着董事会作为一个整体较少参与全面解决一些最重要的问题。 审计委员会会
议比主板会议本身持续时间更长的情况并不少见。 该过程可能会取代讨论并以牺牲真
正的合作为代价，因此只是勾选方框而不是解决问题。

D. A radical solution, which may work for some very large companies whose businesses are
extensive and complex, is the professional board, whose members would work up to three or
four days a week, supported by their own dedicated staff and advisers. There are obvious risks
to this and it would be important to establish clear guidelines for such a board to ensure that it
did not step on the toes of management by becoming too engaged in the day-to-day running
of the company. Problems of recruitment, remuneration and independence could also arise and
this structure would not be appropriate for all companies. However, more professional and
better-informed boards would have been particularly appropriate for banks where the
executives had access to information that part-time non-executive directors lacked, leaving the
latter unable to comprehend or anticipate the 2008 crash.
一个激进的解决方案可能适用于一些业务广泛而复杂的超大公司，那就是专业
委员会，其成员每周工作三到四天，并由他们自己的专职员工和顾问提供支持。 这样
做存在明显的风险，重要的是为这样的董事会制定明确的指导方针，以确保它不会因
过度参与公司的日常运营而踩到管理层的脚趾。 招聘、薪酬和独立性等问题也可能出
现，而且这种结构并不适合所有公司。 然而，更专业、消息更灵通的董事会尤其适合
银行，因为在这些银行中，高管可以获得兼职非执行董事所缺乏的信息，从而使后者
无法理解或预测 2008 年的崩盘。

8
E. One of the main criticisms of boards and their directors is that they do not focus sufficiently
on longer-term matters of strategy, sustainability and governance, but instead concentrate too
much on short-term financial metrics. Regulatory requirements and the structure of the market
encourage this behaviour. The tyranny of quarterly reporting can distort board decision-
making, as directors have to ‘make the numbers’ every four months to meet the insatiable
appetite of the market for more data. This serves to encourage the trading methodology of a
certain kind of investor who moves in and out of a stock without engaging in constructive
dialogue with the company about strategy or performance, and is simply seeking a short¬ term
financial gain. This effect has been made worse by the changing profile of investors due to the
globalisation of capital and the increasing use of automated trading systems. Corporate culture
adapts and management teams are largely incentivised to meet financial goals.
对董事会及其董事的主要批评之一是，他们没有充分关注战略、可持续性和治
理等长期问题，而是过于关注短期财务指标。 监管要求和市场结构鼓励这种行为。 季
度报告的专制可能会扭曲董事会的决策，因为董事们必须每四个月“公布一次数字”，
以满足市场对更多数据永不满足的胃口。 这有助于鼓励某种投资者的交易方法，他们
在没有与公司就战略或业绩进行建设性对话的情况下进出股票，而只是寻求短期的财
务收益。 由于资本全球化和自动交易系统的使用越来越多，投资者形象的变化使这种
影响变得更糟。 企业文化适应，管理团队在很大程度上受到激励以实现财务目标。

F. Compensation for chief executives has become a combat zone where pitched battles
between investors, management and board members are fought, often behind closed doors but
increasingly frequently in the full glare of press attention. Many would argue that this is in the
interest of transparency and good governance as shareholders use their muscle in the area of
pay to pressure boards to remove underperforming chief executives. Their powers to vote
down executive remuneration policies increased when binding votes came into force. The chair
of the remuneration committee can be an exposed and lonely role, as Alison Carnwath, chair
of Barclays Bank’s remuneration committee, found when she had to resign, having been
roundly criticised for trying to defend the enormous bonus to be paid to the chief executive;
the irony being that she was widely understood to have spoken out against it in the privacy of
the committee.
首席执行官的薪酬已成为投资者、管理层和董事会成员之间激战的战场，通常
是在闭门造车的情况下进行，但越来越频繁地出现在媒体的关注之下。 许多人会争辩
说，这符合透明度和良好治理的利益，因为股东会利用他们在薪酬领域的实力向董事
会施压，要求他们罢免表现不佳的首席执行官。 当有约束力的投票生效时，他们否决
高管薪酬政策的权力增加了。 薪酬委员会主席可能是一个暴露而孤独的角色，正如巴
克莱银行薪酬委员会主席艾莉森·卡恩瓦斯 (Alison Carnwath) 在不得不辞职时发现的那
样，她曾因试图为支付给首席执行官的巨额奖金辩护而受到严厉批评 ; 具有讽刺意味
的是，人们普遍认为她曾在委员会私下公开表示反对。
9
G. The financial crisis stimulated a debate about the role and purpose of the company and a
heightened awareness of corporate ethics. Trust in the corporation has been eroded and
academics such as Michael Sandel, in his thoughtful and bestselling book What Money Can’t
Buy, are questioning the morality of capitalism and the market economy. Boards of companies
in all sectors will need to widen their perspective to encompass these issues and this may
involve a realignment of corporate goals. We live in challenging times.
金融危机引发了关于公司的作用和目的的辩论，并提高了企业道德意识。 对公
司的信任已经受到侵蚀，Michael Sandel 等学者在他深思熟虑的畅销书《金钱买不到什
么》中质疑资本主义和市场经济的道德。 所有行业的公司董事会都需要拓宽视野以涵
盖这些问题，这可能涉及重新调整公司目标。 我们生活在充满挑战的时代。

Music and the emotions

Why does music make us feel? On the one hand, music is a purely abstract art form,
devoid of language or explicit ideas. And yet, even though music says little, it still manages to
touch us deeply. When listening to our favourite songs, our body betrays all the symptoms of
emotional arousal. The pupils in our eyes dilate, our pulse and blood pressure rise, the
electrical conductance of our skin is lowered, and the cerebellum, a brain region associated
with bodily movement, becomes strangely active. Blood is even re-directed to the muscles in
our legs. In other words, sound stirs us at our biological roots.
为什么音乐让我们有感觉？ 一方面，音乐是一种纯粹抽象的艺术形式，没有语
言或明确的想法。 然而，即使音乐说的很少，它仍然能深深地打动我们。 当听我们最
喜欢的歌曲时，我们的身体会表现出情绪激动的所有症状。 我们眼睛的瞳孔放大，我
们的脉搏和血压升高，我们皮肤的电导率降低，与身体运动相关的大脑区域小脑变得
异常活跃。 血液甚至会重新流向我们腿部的肌肉。 换句话说，声音在我们的生物学根
源上激发了我们。
A recent paper in Neuroscience by a research team in Montreal, Canada, marks an
important step in repealing the precise underpinnings of ‘the potent pleasurable stimulus’ that
is music. Although the study involves plenty of fancy technology, including functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and ligand-based positron emission tomography (PET)
scanning, the experiment itself was rather straightforward. After screening 217 individuals
who responded to advertisements requesting people who experience ‘chills’ to instrumental
music, the scientists narrowed down the subject pool to ten. They then asked the subjects to
bring in their playlist of favourite songs – virtually every genre was represented, from techno
to tango – and played them the music while their brain activity was monitored. Because the
scientists were combining methodologies (PET and fMRI), they were able to obtain an

10
impressively exact and detailed portrait of music in the brain. The first thing they discovered
is that music triggers the production of dopamine – a chemical with a key role in setting
people’s moods – by the neurons (nerve cells) in both the dorsal and ventral regions of the
brain. As these two regions have long been linked with the experience of pleasure, this finding
isn’t particularly surprising.
加拿大蒙特利尔的一个研究小组最近在神经科学杂志上发表的一篇论文标志着
在废除音乐这一“强大的愉悦刺激”的精确基础方面迈出了重要的一步。 尽管这项研究
涉及大量奇特的技术，包括功能性磁共振成像 (fMRI) 和基于配体的正电子发射断层扫
描 (PET) 扫描，但实验本身相当简单。 在筛选了 217 名响应广告的人后，这些人要求
人们对器乐感到“寒战”，科学家们将受试者范围缩小到 10 人。 然后，他们要求受试
者带入他们最喜欢的歌曲播放列表——几乎代表了每一种流派，从铁克诺到探戈——
并在他们的大脑活动被监测的同时播放这些音乐。 由于科学家们将方法论（PET 和
fMRI）结合起来，他们能够获得大脑中令人印象深刻的精确和详细的音乐肖像。 他
们发现的第一件事是，音乐会触发大脑背侧和腹侧区域的神经元（神经细胞）产生多
巴胺——一种对调节人的情绪起关键作用的化学物质。 由于这两个区域长期以来一直
与愉悦体验相关联，因此这一发现并不特别令人惊讶。

What is rather more significant is the finding that the dopamine neurons in the caudate
– a region of the brain involved in learning stimulus-response associations, and in anticipating
food and other ‘reward’ stimuli – were at their most active around 15 seconds before the
participants’ favourite moments in the music. The researchers call this the ‘anticipatory phase’
and argue that the purpose of this activity is to help us predict the arrival of our favourite part.
The question, of course, is what all these dopamine neurons are up to. Why are they so active
in the period preceding the acoustic climax? After all, we typically associate surges of
dopamine with pleasure, with the processing of actual rewards. And yet, this cluster of cells is
most active when the ‘chills’ have yet to arrive, when the melodic pattern is still unresolved.
更重要的是发现尾状核中的多巴胺神经元——大脑中一个参与学习刺激-反应关
联以及预期食物和其他“奖赏”刺激的区域——在开始前 15 秒左右处于最活跃状态。
参与者最喜欢的音乐时刻。 研究人员将此称为“预期阶段”，并认为这项活动的目的是
帮助我们预测我们最喜欢的部分的到来。 当然，问题是所有这些多巴胺神经元都在做
什么。 为什么它们在声学高潮之前的时期如此活跃？ 毕竟，我们通常将多巴胺的激增
与愉悦联系在一起，并与实际奖励的处理联系起来。 然而，当“寒意”尚未到来，旋律
模式仍未解决时，这群细胞最为活跃。
One way to answer the question is to look at the music and not the neurons. While music can
often seem (at least to the outsider) like a labyrinth of intricate patterns, it turns out that the
most important part of every song or symphony is when the patterns break down, when the
sound becomes unpredictable. If the music is too obvious, it is annoyingly boring, like an

11
alarm clock. Numerous studies, after all, have demonstrated that dopamine neurons quickly
adapt to predictable rewards. If we know what’s going to happen next, then we don’t get
excited. This is why composers often introduce a key note in the beginning of a song, spend
most of the rest of the piece in the studious avoidance of the pattern, and then finally repeat it
only at the end. The longer we are denied the pattern we expect, the greater the emotional
release when the pattern returns, safe and sound.
回答这个问题的一种方法是看音乐而不是神经元。 虽然音乐通常（至少对局外人而言）
看起来像是复杂模式的迷宫，但事实证明，每首歌曲或交响乐最重要的部分是模式崩
溃时，即声音变得不可预测时。 如果音乐太明显，就会像闹钟一样乏味烦人。 毕竟，
大量研究表明，多巴胺神经元会迅速适应可预测的奖励。 如果我们知道接下来会发生
什么，那么我们就不会感到兴奋。 这就是为什么作曲家经常在歌曲的开头引入一个关
键音符，将乐曲的大部分时间花在刻意避免模式上，最后只在结尾重复它。 我们被拒
绝我们期望的模式的时间越长，当这种模式安全无虞地回归时，我们的情绪释放就越
多。

To demonstrate this psychological principle, the musicologist Leonard Meyer, in his classic
book Emotion and Meaning in Music (1956), analysed the 5th movement of Beethoven’s
String Quartet in C-sharp minor, Op. 131. Meyer wanted to show how music is defined by its
flirtation with – but not submission to – our expectations of order. Meyer dissected 50
measures (bars) of the masterpiece, showing how Beethoven begins with the clear statement
of a rhythmic and harmonic pattern and then, in an ingenious tonal dance, carefully holds off
repeating it. What Beethoven does instead suggest variations of the pattern. I want to preserve
an element of uncertainty in his music, making our brains beg for the one chord he refuses to
give us. Beethoven saves that chord for the end.
为了证明这一心理学原理，音乐学家伦纳德·迈耶 (Leonard Meyer) 在他的经典著作
《音乐中的情感与意义》(1956) 中分析了贝多芬升 C 小调弦乐四重奏的第 5 乐章，作
品。 131. 迈耶想要展示音乐是如何通过调情——但不服从——我们对秩序的期望来定
义的。 迈耶剖析了这部杰作的 50 小节（小节），展示了贝多芬如何以清晰的节奏和
谐波模式开始，然后以巧妙的音调舞蹈，小心地阻止重复它。 贝多芬所做的反而暗示
了模式的变化。 我想在他的音乐中保留一种不确定的元素，让我们的大脑乞求他拒绝
给我们的一个和弦。 贝多芬把那个和弦留到了最后。
According to Meyer, it is the suspenseful tension of music, arising out of our unfulfilled
expectations, that is the source of the music’s feeling. While earlier theories of music focused
on the way a sound can refer to the real world of images and experiences – its ‘connotative’
meaning – Meyer argued that the emotions we find in music come from the unfolding events
of the music itself. This ‘embodied meaning’ arises from the patterns the symphony invokes
and then ignores. It is this uncertainty that triggers the surge of dopamine in the caudate, as we
struggle to figure out what will happen next. We can predict some of the notes, but we can’t
12
predict them all, and that is what keeps us listening, waiting expectantly for our reward, for
the pattern to be completed.
根据迈耶的说法，正是由于我们未实现的期望而产生的音乐悬疑张力，才是音乐感觉
的源泉。 虽然早期的音乐理论侧重于声音可以指代图像和体验的真实世界的方式——
它的“内涵”意义——但梅耶认为，我们在音乐中发现的情感来自音乐本身展开的事件。
这种“具身意义”源于交响乐调用然后忽略的模式。 正是这种不确定性触发了尾状核中
多巴胺的激增，因为我们很难弄清楚接下来会发生什么。 我们可以预测一些音符，但
我们无法预测所有音符，这就是让我们倾听、期待我们的奖励、等待模式完成的原因。

Flying tortoises
A
Forests of spiny cacti cover much of the uneven lava plains that separate the interior of the
Galapagos island of Isabela from the Pacific Ocean. With its five distinct volcanoes, the island
resembles a lunar landscape. Only the thick vegetation at the skirt of the often cloud-covered
peak of Sierra Negra offers respite from the barren terrain below.
刺仙人掌森林覆盖了大部分不平坦的熔岩平原，这些熔岩平原将加拉帕戈斯群岛的伊
莎贝拉内部与太平洋分隔开来。岛上有五座不同的火山，就像月球上的风景。只有
Sierra Negra 山顶周围厚厚的植被能让人暂时摆脱下面的贫瘠地形。

This inhospitable environment is home to the giant Galapagos tortoise. Some time after the
Galapagos’s birth, around five million years ago, the islands were colonised by one or more
tortoises from mainland South America. As these ancestral tortoises settled on the individual
islands, the different populations adapted to their unique environments, giving rise to at least
14 different subspecies. Island life agreed with them. In the absence of significant predators,
they grew to become the largest and longest-living tortoises on the planet, weighing more than
400 kilograms, occasionally exceeding 1,8 metres in length and living for more than a century.
这个恶劣的环境是加拉帕戈斯巨龟的家。在加拉帕戈斯群岛诞生后的一段时间，大约
500 万年前，这些岛屿被来自南美洲大陆的一只或多只陆龟殖民。由于这些祖先龟定
居在个别岛屿上，不同的种群适应了它们独特的环境，产生了至少 14 个不同的亚种。
岛上的生活和他们一致。在没有大型捕食者的情况下，它们成长为地球上最大、寿命
最长的乌龟，体重超过 400 公斤，有时长度超过 1.8 米，寿命超过一个世纪。

13
B
Before human arrival, the archipelago’s tortoises numbered in the hundreds of thousands.
From the 17th century onwards, pirates took a few on board for food, but the arrival of whaling
ships in the 1790s saw this exploitation grow exponentially. Relatively immobile and capable
of surviving for months without food or water, the tortoises were taken on board these ships
to act as food supplies during long ocean passages. Sometimes, their bodies were processed
into high- grade oil.
在人类到来之前，这个群岛的乌龟数量已经达到了数十万只。从 17 世纪开始，海盗就
把一些人带到船上作为食物，但是 18 世纪 90 年代捕鲸船的到来使得这种掠夺呈指数
级增长。这些乌龟相对不能移动，能够在没有食物和水的情况下生存数月，因此在长
途航行中，它们被带上这些船只作为食物供应。有时，他们的尸体会被加工成高级精
油。
In total, an estimated 200,000 animals were taken from the archipelago before the 20th century.
This historical exploitation was then exacerbated when settlers came to the islands. They
hunted the tortoises and destroyed their habitat to clear land for agriculture. They also
introduced alien species – ranging from cattle, pigs, goats, rats and dogs to plants and ants –
that either prey on the eggs and young tortoises or damage or destroy their habitat.
在 20 世纪之前，估计总共有 20 万只动物从这个群岛被带走。当殖民者来到这些岛屿
时，这种历史性的剥削进一步加剧。他们猎杀乌龟，破坏它们的栖息地，为农业开垦
土地。他们还引进了外来物种——从牛、猪、山羊、老鼠和狗到植物和蚂蚁——这些
外来物种要么捕食龟蛋和幼龟，要么破坏或摧毁它们的栖息地。
C
Today, only 11 of the original subspecies survive and of these, several are highly endangered.
In 1989, work began on a tortoise-breeding centre just outside the town of Puerto Villamil on
Isabela, dedicated to protecting the island’s tortoise populations. The centre’s captive-breeding
programme proved to be extremely successful, and it eventually had to deal with an
overpopulation problem.
今天，只有 11 个原始亚种幸存下来，其中几个是高度濒危物种。1989 年，在伊莎贝
拉维拉米尔港外的一个龟类繁育中心开始了工作，该中心致力于保护岛上的龟类种群。
事实证明，该中心的圈养繁殖计划非常成功，最终不得不解决人口过剩的问题。
D
The problem was also a pressing one. Captive-bred tortoises can’t be reintroduced into the
wild until they’re at least five years old and weigh at least 4,5 kilograms, at which point their

14
size and weight – and their hardened shells – are sufficient to protect them from predators. But
if people wait too long after that point, the tortoises eventually become too large to transport.
这个问题也是一个紧迫的问题。人工饲养的乌龟只有到了 5 岁，体重至少达到 4.5 公
斤，才能重新被放归野外。到那时，它们的体型和重量——以及坚硬的外壳——足以
保护它们免受捕食者的伤害。但是，如果人们在这一点之后等待太久，乌龟最终会变
得太大而无法运输。
E
For years, repatriation efforts were carried out in small numbers, with the tortoises carried on
the backs of men over weeks of long, treacherous hikes along narrow trails. But in November
2010, the environmentalist and Galapagos National Park liaison officer Godfrey Merlin, a
visiting private motor yacht captain and a helicopter pilot gathered around a table in a small
cafe in Puerto Ayora on the island of Santa Cruz to work out more ambitious reintroduction.
The aim was to use a helicopter to move 300 of the breeding centre’s tortoises to various
locations close to Sierra Negra.
多年来，遣返工作一直在小规模进行，人们背着乌龟沿着狭窄的小路徒步行走了几个
星期，路途漫长而艰险。但是在 2010 年 11 月，环保人士和加拉帕戈斯国家公园联络
官戈弗雷 · 梅林、一位来访的私人摩托艇船长和一位直升机飞行员聚集在圣克鲁斯岛
Puerto Ayora 一家小咖啡馆的桌子周围，商讨更加雄心勃勃的重新引进计划。目的是
用一架直升机将繁殖中心的 300 只乌龟运送到 Sierra Negra 附近的不同地点。
F
This unprecedented effort was made possible by the owners of the 67-metre yacht White Cloud,
who provided the Galapagos National Park with free use of their helicopter and its experienced
pilot, as well as the logistical support of the yacht, its captain and crew. Originally an air
ambulance, the yacht’s helicopter has a rear double door and a large internal space that’s well
suited for cargo, so a custom crate was designed to hold up to 33 tortoises with a total weight
of about 150 kilograms. This weight, together with that of the fuel, pilot and four crew,
approached the helicopter’s maximum payload, and there were times when it was clearly right
on the edge of the helicopter’s capabilities. During a period of three days, a group of volunteers
from the breeding centre worked around the clock to prepare the young tortoises for transport.
Meanwhile, park wardens, dropped off ahead of time in remote locations, cleared landing sites
within the thick brush, cacti and lava rocks.
这一前所未有的努力之所以成为可能，是因为这艘 67 米长的游艇“白云”号的所有者为
加拉帕戈斯国家公园免费提供了直升机和经验丰富的飞行员，以及游艇、船长和船员
的后勤支持。这艘游艇原本是一架空中救护车，它的直升机有一个后双门和一个很大
15
的内部空间，非常适合装载货物，所以设计了一个定制的箱子，可以容纳 33 只乌龟，
总重量约为 150 公斤。这个重量，加上燃料，飞行员和四名机组人员，接近直升机的
最大有效载荷，有时候，它显然是在直升机的能力的边缘。在三天的时间里，一组来
自繁殖中心的志愿者昼夜不停地工作，为幼龟的运输做准备。与此同时，公园管理员
提前到达了偏远地区，清理了茂密的灌木丛、仙人掌和熔岩岩石中的着陆点。
G
Upon their release, the juvenile tortoises quickly spread out over their ancestral territory,
investigating their new surroundings and feeding on the vegetation. Eventually, one tiny
tortoise came across a fully grown giant who had been lumbering around the island for around
a hundred years. The two stood side by side, a powerful symbol of the regeneration of an
ancient species.
当它们被放出来后，幼年的乌龟迅速扩展到它们祖先的领地，调查它们的新环境，并
以植物为食。最后，一只小乌龟偶然发现了一个成年巨人，它已经在岛上笨拙地行走
了大约一百年。两人并肩而立，这是一个古老物种再生的有力象征。

The Intersection of Health Sciences and Geography

健康科学与地理学的交叉

A
While many diseases that affect humans have been eradicated due to improvements in
vaccinations and the availability of healthcare, there are still areas around the world where
certain health issues are more prevalent. In a world that is far more globalised than ever before,
people come into contact with one another through travel and living closer and closer to each
other. As a result, super-viruses and other infections resistant to antibiotics are becoming more
and more common.
虽然由于疫苗接种和医疗保健的改善，许多影响人类的疾病已被根除，但世界上仍有
一些地区的某些健康问题更为普遍。在一个比以往任何时候都更加全球化的世界里，
人们通过旅行和住得越来越近而彼此接触。因此，超级病毒和其他对抗生素具有抗药
性的感染正变得越来越普遍。

B
Geography can often play a very large role in the health concerns of certain populations. For
instance, depending on where you live, you will not have the same health concerns as someone

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who lives in a different geographical region. Perhaps one of the most obvious examples of this
idea is malaria-prone areas, which are usually tropical regions that foster a warm and damp
environment in which the mosquitos that can give people this disease can grow. Malaria is
much less of a problem in high-altitude deserts, for instance.
地理因素往往在某些人群的健康问题中发挥重大作用。例如，取决于你住在哪里，你
不会像住在不同地理地区的人那样有同样的健康问题。这种想法最明显的例子之一可
能是疟疾易发地区，这些地区通常是热带地区，这些地区形成了一个温暖潮湿的环境，
在这种环境中，可能导致疟疾的蚊子可以生长。例如，疟疾在高海拔沙漠地区的问题
要小得多。

C
In some countries, geographical factors influence the health and well-being of the population
in very obvious ways. In many large cities, the wind is not strong enough to clear the air of the
massive amounts of smog and pollution that cause asthma, lung problems, eyesight issues and
more in the people who live there. Part of the problem is, of course, the massive number of
cars being driven, in addition to factories that run on coal power. The rapid industrialisation
of some countries in recent years has also led to the cutting down of forests to allow for the
expansion of big cities, which makes it even harder to fight the pollution with the fresh air that
is produced by plants.
在一些国家，地理因素以非常明显的方式影响人口的健康和福祉。在许多大城市，风
力不足以清除空气中大量的烟雾和污染物，这些污染物会导致哮喘、肺部疾病、视力
问题以及更多居住在那里的人们的疾病。当然，问题的一部分在于，除了依靠煤电运
转的工厂之外，还有大量的汽车在行驶。近年来，一些国家的快速工业化也导致了森
林砍伐，以便大城市扩张，这使得用植物产生的新鲜空气对抗污染变得更加困难。

D
It is in situations like these that the field of health geography comes into its own. It is an
increasingly important area of study in a world where diseases like polio are re-emerging,
respiratory diseases continue to spread, and malaria-prone areas are still fighting to find a
better cure. Health geography is the combination of, on the one hand, knowledge regarding
geography and methods used to analyse and interpret geographical information, and on the
other, the study of health, diseases and healthcare practices around the world. The aim of this
hybrid science is to create solutions for common geography-based health problems. While
people will always be prone to illness, the study of how geography affects our health could
lead to the eradication of certain illnesses, and the prevention of others in the future. By
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understanding why and how we get sick, we can change the way we treat illness and disease
specific to certain geographical locations.
正是在这样的情况下，卫生地理学才有了自己的领域。在脊髓灰质炎等疾病再次出现、
呼吸道疾病继续蔓延、疟疾易发地区仍在努力寻找更好的治疗方法的世界上，这是一
个日益重要的研究领域。健康地理学一方面是关于地理学的知识和用于分析和解释地
理信息的方法的结合，另一方面是对全世界的健康、疾病和保健实践的研究。这种混
合科学的目的是为常见的基于地理的健康问题创造解决方案。虽然人们总是容易生病，
但研究地理环境如何影响我们的健康，可能会导致消除某些疾病，并在未来预防其他
疾病。通过理解我们为什么会生病以及如何生病，我们可以改变我们治疗疾病的方式，
特定的地理位置。

E
The geography of disease and ill health analyses the frequency with which certain diseases
appear in different parts of the world, and overlays the data with the geography of the region,
to see if there could be a correlation between the two. Health geographers also study factors
that could make certain individuals or a population more likely to be taken ill with a specific
health concern or disease, as compared with the population of another area. Health geographers
in this field are usually trained as healthcare workers, and have an understanding of basic
epidemiology as it relates to the spread of diseases among the population.
疾病和健康不良的地理分析了某些疾病在世界不同地区出现的频率，并将数据与该区
域的地理覆盖起来，以查明两者之间是否存在相关性。健康地理学家还研究可能使某
些个人或群体与另一地区的人口相比更有可能患上某种特定的健康问题或疾病的因素。
这一领域的卫生地理学家通常作为卫生保健工作者接受培训，并对基本流行病学有所
了解，因为它涉及到疾病在人口中的传播。

F
Researchers study the interactions between humans and their environment that could lead to
illness (such as asthma in places with high levels of pollution) and work to create a clear way
of categorising illnesses, diseases and epidemics into local and global scales. Health
geographers can map the spread of illnesses and attempt to identify the reasons behind an
increase or decrease in illnesses, as they work to find a way to halt the further spread or re-
emergence of diseases in vulnerable populations.

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研究人员研究人类与环境之间可能导致疾病的相互作用(例如在污染严重的地区哮喘) ，
并努力创造一种将疾病、疾病和流行病划分为地方和全球范围的清晰方法。卫生地理
学家可以绘制疾病传播的地图，并试图查明疾病增加或减少的原因，因为他们正在努
力找到一种方法，制止疾病在弱势人群中的进一步传播或再次出现。

G
The second subcategory of health geography is the geography of healthcare provision. This
group studies the availability (of lack thereof) of healthcare resources to individuals and
populations around the world. In both developed and developing nations, there is often a very
large discrepancy between the options available to people in different social classes, income
brackets, and levels of education. Individuals working in the area of the geography of
healthcare provision attempt to assess the levels of healthcare in the area (for instance, it may
be very difficult for people to get medical attention because there is a mountain between their
village and the nearest hospital). These researchers are on the frontline of making
recommendations regarding the policy to international organisations, local government bodies
and others.
卫生地理学的第二个分类是卫生保健供应地理学。这个小组研究世界各地的个人和群
体的医疗资源的可用性(缺乏)。在发达国家和发展中国家，不同社会阶层、不同收入
阶层和不同教育水平的人们的选择往往存在很大的差异。在卫生保健提供地理区域工
作的个人试图评估该地区的卫生保健水平(例如，人们可能很难得到医疗照顾，因为在
他们的村庄和最近的医院之间有一座山)。这些研究人员站在第一线，向国际组织、地
方政府机构和其他方面提出有关政策的建议.
H
The field of health geography is often overlooked, but it constitutes a huge area of need in the
fields of geography and healthcare. If we can understand how geography affects our health no
matter where in the world we are located, we can better treat disease, prevent illness, and keep
people safe and well.
卫生地理学领域经常被忽视，但它构成了地理学和卫生保健领域的一个巨大需求领域。
如果我们能够理解地理环境如何影响我们的健康，无论我们身处世界的哪个角落，我
们就能够更好地治疗疾病，预防疾病，保证人们的安全和健康。

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