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Reef drowning during the last deglaciation: Evidence for catastrophic sea-level
rise and ice-sheet collapse

Article  in  Geology · January 1995

DOI: 10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0004:RDDTLD>2.3.CO;2

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Reef drowning during the last deglaciation: Evidence SPECIAL
REPORT
for catastrophic sea-level rise and ice-sheet collapse
Paul Blanchon Department of Geology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E3, Canada
John Shaw Department of Geography, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H4, Canada

ABSTRACT reef-accretion rate of 14 mm/yr (Budde-

Elevations and ages of drowned Acropora palmata reefs from the Caribbean-Atlantic meier and Smith, 1988). Consequently, rises
region document three catastrophic, metre-scale sea-level–rise events during the last de- that are below this threshold rate can be ac-
glaciation. These catastrophic rises were synchronous with (1) collapse of the Laurentide curately determined by dating the elevation
and Antarctic ice sheets, (2) dramatic reorganization of ocean-atmosphere circulation, and of A. palmata reef frameworks (Lighty et al.,
(3) releases of huge volumes of subglacial and proglacial meltwater. This correlation sug- 1982).
gests that release of stored meltwater periodically destabilized ice sheets, causing them to What has not been previously recognized,
collapse and send huge fleets of icebergs into the Atlantic. Massive inputs of ice not only however, is that sea-level rates that exceed
produced catastrophic sea-level rise, drowning reefs and destabilizing other ice sheets, but the accretion threshold can be quantitatively
also rapidly reduced the elevation of the Laurentide ice sheet, flipping atmospheric cir- constrained from framework changes in an
culation patterns and forcing warm equatorial waters into the frigid North Atlantic. Such Acropora reef as it drowns. Sea level rising
dramatic evidence of catastrophic climate and sea-level change during deglaciation has faster than 14 mm/yr will displace A. pal-
potentially disastrous implications for the future, especially as the stability of remaining mata from its (monospecific) framework
ice sheets—such as in West Antarctica—is in question. range (0 –5 m) into its remaining habitat
range (5–10 m), where a mixed framework
INTRODUCTION mospheric CO2 content, and whole-ocean with other corals develops (Goreau, 1959).
New evidence from Greenland ice-cores salt budgets, and points to a triggering During the final stage of drowning, the reef
(Alley et al., 1993; Dansgaard et al., 1993; mechanism. surface passes out of the A. palmata habitat
Taylor et al., 1993) and deep North Atlantic To address these problems and identify range, and the mixed framework is replaced
sediment cores (Bond et al., 1992; Lehman the deglacial triggering mechanism, we con- by deeper-water corals. Because the resi-
and Keigwin, 1992) demonstrates that the strain the rate, magnitude, and timing of gla- dence time of the reef surface in the habitat
last glacial to interglacial transition involved cio-eustatic sea-level change from eleva- range is controlled by the rate of sea-level
sudden—and as yet unexplained—reorgani- tions and ages of drowned Acropora palmata rise, there is an inverse relation between the
zation in ice-sheet, ocean, and atmosphere reefs (herein referred to as Acropora reefs) thickness of mixed framework developed
systems. In the Laurentide ice sheet, for ex- in the Caribbean-Atlantic province. When during drowning and the rate of sea-level
ample, two sudden collapse events during these data are integrated with a coral-based rise (Fig. 1). Where mixed framework is .2
deglaciation released huge volumes of ice sea-level curve, they show three cata-
into the North Atlantic, blanketing a broad strophic, metre-scale sea-level rises during
swath of the sea bed with ice-rafted sedi- deglaciation. By converting radiocarbon-
ment (Bond et al., 1992, 1993). Atmospheric dated marine and ice-sheet events to a si-
circulation also changed abruptly, switching dereal chronology (Bard et al., 1993), we
between glacial and interglacial conditions show that the timing of these catastrophic
in less than a decade (Alley et al., 1993; Tay- rises is coincident with ice-sheet collapse,
lor et al., 1993). These events were accom- ocean-atmosphere reorganization, and large-
panied by equally dramatic (;40 yr) scale releases of meltwater.
changes in North Atlantic circulation as the
strongly stratified glacial ocean was dis- REEF-DROWNING EVENTS
rupted by initiation of thermohaline circu- Suitability for radiometric dating (Ed-
lation (Lehman and Keigwin, 1992). wards et al., 1987) and tendency to maintain
Besides investigating such dramatic themselves at sea level by rapid vertical ac-
changes, there is a need to reassess the cause cretion (Buddemeier and Smith, 1988)
of the Younger Dryas episode—a brief and make reefs ideal for studying glacio-eustatic
possibly global return to glacial-type condi- sea-level changes during the Quaternary. Figure 1. Relation between thickness of
tions from 12.9 to 11.7 ka (Taylor et al., Reefs composed of the common Caribbean mixed-coral framework (YM) developed during
reef drowning and rate of sea-level rise (SR).
1993). (Note: Dates quoted in this paper are reef-crest coral Acropora palmata (Lamarck, This is given by SR 5 1/t (YML 1 YM 2 YFL)
calendar years.) Although this episode was 1816) are well suited for the task because (1) derived from inset diagram, where t is time
attributed to changes in the North Atlantic this is the only coral to form monospecific taken for accretion of YM during drowning, YFL
salt budget (Broecker et al., 1990), the evi- reef framework in waters less than 5 m deep is framework depth limit for Acropora pal-
mata, YML is depth limit for mixed A. palmata–
dence from Greenland shows that it started and (2) it has a depth-restricted habitat
other-coral framework, and Y S is sea-level
and ended far too rapidly and was too range to ;10 m (Goreau, 1959; Gladfelter rise during accretion of YM. Note that t is ob-
widespread for ocean forcing to have been and Monahan, 1977), although in rare in- tained from YM by assuming reef-accretion
the sole cause (Denton and Hendy, 1994). stances it has been reported as deep as 17 m rate of 13 mm/yr—the maximum accretion
Any theory explaining late-glacial climate (Goreau and Wells, 1967). This limited rate of Acropora reefs during the last degla-
ciation (from Bard et al., 1990). Dashed arrow
must account for the abruptness of these depth range means that Acropora reefs can shows rate of sea-level rise required to form 2
changes. This rules out mechanisms with track rising sea level, provided the rate of m of mixed framework—a thickness that
slow response times, such as insolation, at- sea-level rise does not exceed the maximum could be easily distinguished in core.

4 Geology; January 1995; v. 23; no. 1; p. 4– 8; 4 figures; 1 table.

m thick, the rate of sea-level rise must be When these catastrophic rise events (or but, given that the minimum rate of sea-
.14 mm/yr—the maximum Acropora reef CREs) are integrated with the corrected Car- level rise was .45 mm/yr, the duration of
accretion rate— but ,45 mm/yr. At higher ibbean sea-level curve (Fig. 3), the stepped the 14.2 ka event must have been ,290
rates, the residence time of the reef surface nature of sea-level rise during deglaciation (6 50) yr, the 11.5 ka event was ,160 (6 50)
in the habitat range is insufficient for a sig- becomes clear. The first two Acropora reef- yr, and the 7.6 ka event was ,140 (6 50) yr.
nificant thickness of mixed framework to de- drowning events confirm and further con-
velop. Hence, mixed frameworks ,2 m thick strain previously identified rapid rises (Fair- SEA-LEVEL–ICE-SHEET LINK
indicate sea level rising at .45 mm/yr banks, 1989), and the third identifies a new Catastrophic steps in sea level recorded
(Fig. 1). rise event. Each step in the curve starts with by drowned Acropora reefs demonstrate
To use this mixed-framework and rise- a CRE with a rise-rate of .45 mm/yr and that oceans were inundated by massive vol-
rate relation, the possibility of framework concludes with a slower rise rate of ,15 umes of meltwater and/or icebergs at least
changes induced by autogenic processes— mm/yr. By using established coral dates three times during deglaciation. Smoother
such as progradation—must be eliminated. (Bard et al., 1990; Fairbanks, 1989; Lighty et steplike rises in the deglacial sea-level
Progradation can clearly be ruled out if reef- al., 1982) and gaps between A. palmata record have been identified, but were attrib-
framework changes in the drowned Acro- framework, the timing and magnitude of uted to large increases in seasonal meltwa-
pora reef are accompanied by reef back step- each CRE can be constrained (Fig. 3): CRE ter discharge (Fairbanks, 1989). Although
ping—i.e., the establishment of A. palmata 1 started at 14.2 (6 0.1) ka and had a mag- melting rates varied during deglaciation, it is
growth further upslope following drowning. nitude of 13.5 (6 2.5) m; CRE 2 started at unlikely that this alone could account for the
Thus, we argue that abrupt framework 11.5 (6 0.1) ka and had a magnitude of 7.5 magnitude of CREs. This assertion is sup-
changes accompanied by back stepping in (6 2.5) m; and CRE 3 started at 7.6 (6 0.1) ported by widely dispersed layers of ice-
Acropora reefs indicate a sea-level rise of ka and had a magnitude of 6.5 (6 2.5) m. rafted detritus in cores of deep North At-
.45 mm/yr. The exact duration of the CREs is unknown lantic sediment (Heinrich, 1988; Bond et al.,
Using this approach, we have constrained
rapid rates of sea-level rise during deglacia-
tion from drowned Acropora reefs (Fig. 2). Figure 2. Depth below sea
Depths of the drowned reefs are grouped at level, age (calendar ka),
;80, 50, and 15 m below present sea level. and framework character
of drowned reefs in Carib-
Although fewer data exist of the 80 and 50
bean-Atlantic province
m groups, drilling on the Barbados shelf (Blanchon and Jones,
(Fairbanks, 1989) shows them to be com- 1994). Dark shading indi-
posed of thick, back-stepping sequences of cates Acropora palmata
A. palmata framework overlain abruptly by framework; light shading
indicates other-coral and
10 –15 m of deeper-water coral framework. unknown framework.
Depths of the deep reefs on Barbados cor- Ages are corrected 14C or
respond to deep reefs in other areas (Fig. 2), U/Th dates. Barbados reef
pointing to a common drowning history. positions corrected for
t e c t o n i c u pl i ft of 0. 34
This is especially clear for the 15 m Acropora
m/ka (Fairbanks, 1989) on
reef group, which drowned simultaneously basis of U/Th chronology
at ;7.6 ka and back stepped at least 5 m (Bard et al., 1990). Note
instantaneously (e.g., compare the drowning that reestablishment fol-
date of Florida reefs with establishment of lowing drowning of 15 m
group was not synchro-
Panamanian reefs in Fig. 2). nous because (1) there
Distinct breaks between the A. palmata was local lack of substrate (e.g., rise did not fully drown local sea cliffs) or (2) lowest date does
reef-framework (Fig. 2) demonstrate that not reflect true date of reestablishment.
these reefs drowned and back stepped to up-
slope positions three times during deglacia-
tion. Not only did the rate of sea-level rise Figure 3. Caribbean deglacial
sea-level curve showing posi-
exceed accretion rates during these drown-
tions of drowned Acropora pal-
ing events, but the magnitude of the rise was mata reef framework (light shad-
also sufficient to remove A. palmata from its ing). Curve is extended after
5 m framework range, thereby preventing Lighty et al. (1982) and incorpo-
reef recovery. Furthermore, the abrupt tran- rates data from Bard et al. (1990)
and Fairbanks (1990). Curve
sition from monospecific A. palmata frame- must lie on or above all data
work to other-coral framework documented points because corals grow be-
in cores from Barbados and St. Croix low sea level. Circles show po-
(Fig. 2) indicates that sea-level rise events sitions of U/Th-dated A. palmata
(white) and corrected 14C-dated
also displaced A. palmata from its habitat
(black) A. palmata; error bars
range before significant accretion of a mixed represent 5 m range of sea level
framework could occur, implying that the due to framework range of A.
rise rate was .45 mm/yr (Fig. 1). Such palmata and age error (1s). Gaps
drowning events must have been truly cata- between A. palmata framework
enable magnitude of sea-level
strophic, involving—to our knowledge—the rise events with rates >45 mm/yr
fastest rates of glacio-eustatic sea-level rise to be quantified by using 1⁄2(2h 1 5) where h is height (m) between successive frameworks and
yet reported. 5 is framework depth range (m) for A. palmata.

GEOLOGY, January 1995 5

 Anderson, 1990; Domack et al., 1991). Thus,
Antarctic ice-sheet instability could account
for CRE 3.

ICE-SHEET–OCEAN-ATMOSPHERE
LINK
The correlation between CREs and
ocean-atmosphere reorganization (Fig. 4)
implies that ice-sheet collapse had a signif-
icant impact on climate. This is best illus-
trated by covariant trends in ice-sheet and
ocean records. Abrupt changes occurred in
all records at ;14.5 ka (Fig. 4): glacial air
masses over Greenland were suddenly (,10
yr) replaced by warmer, moister, and less
dusty conditions (Alley et al., 1993; Dans-
gaard et al., 1993; Mayewski et al., 1993), the
sea-ice– covered North Atlantic was invaded
by warm-water masses (Koç et al., 1993; Leh-
man and Keigwin, 1992), and deep waters
overturned in response to North Atlantic
deep-water formation (Charles and Fair-
banks, 1992). Although temperature and
snow-accumulation trends show gradual de-
terioration (Dansgaard et al., 1993; Alley
et al., 1993), these conditions persisted until
the next major reorganization at 12.9 ka—
the onset of the Younger Dryas—when
ocean-atmosphere circulation abruptly re-
verted to former glacial-type patterns (Leh-
Figure 4. Rate of sea-level rise, differentiated from curve in Figure 3, correlated with Northern man and Keigwin, 1992; Taylor et al., 1993).
Hemisphere insolation and ocean-atmosphere changes during last deglaciation. Ice-core
records of dust (Mayewski et al., 1993), snow (Alley et al., 1993), and temperature (Dansgaard Finally, at ;11.5 ka, the Younger Dryas was
et al., 1993) are dated by layer counting with an estimated accuracy of 3%. With these errors terminated by an abrupt (,3 yr) reorgani-
considered, CREs in sea-level record are synchronous with atmospheric-reorganization events zation in ocean-atmosphere circulation that
recorded in ice cores. Note how Heinrich layers immediately precede oceanic reorganization heralded the start of present interglacial
events that correlate with CREs and atmospheric reorganizations.
conditions (Alley et al., 1993; Koç et al.,
1993).
1992). These Heinrich (H) layers, as they affected by bioturbation, and this is con- On the basis of the coincident timing of
are called, record the massive discharge of firmed by numerous date reversals in the CREs, we propose that this covariant pat-
icebergs into the North Atlantic resulting best dated cores (e.g., DSOP 609 in Bond tern of dramatic ocean-atmosphere reorga-
from the collapse of the Laurentide ice et al., 1992). Nevertheless, the youngest date nization resulted from atmospheric thresh-
sheet (Bond et al., 1992), which, according in the H-1 age range correlates with CRE 1. old changes induced by a rapid decrease in
to some estimates, may have taken place in More reliable temporal evidence of ice- the elevation (collapse) of the Laurentide
,100 yr (Broecker et al., 1992). Such rapid sheet collapse has been identified from ice sheet. In this view, the first collapse
purges of ice into the North Atlantic would dated terrestrial and submerged diamictons event—marked by CRE 1 at 14.2 ka—low-
cause CREs that drowned the fast-growing on the north shore of the Hudson Strait ered the ice-sheet surface sufficiently to
Acropora reefs in the Caribbean. (Miller and Kaufman, 1990; Kaufman et al., change tropospheric boundary conditions,
To link ice-sheet collapse and CREs, we 1993). These, together with ice-direction weakening the ridge in the upper westerlies
matched deglacial ocean-volume changes, and source indicators, show that a major ice over the ice sheet and causing the split po-
recorded by the Caribbean sea-level curve, stream from the Labrador dome (the single lar-front jet stream to unite and rapidly re-
with patterns of climatic and oceanic change largest center of the Laurentide ice sheet) treat northward (COHMAP, 1988). This re-
recorded in ice and deep-ocean cores underwent surge-and-retreat events consist- treat facilitated the expansion of subtropical
(Fig. 4). This matching shows that episodes ent with collapse at ;14 and 11.5 ka— dates air masses and westerly winds; this, in turn,
of ice-sheet collapse, marked by H-1 and that match closely with CREs 1 and 2. caused retreat of North Atlantic sea ice and
H-0 layers in core V23-81 (Bond et al., Although ice-sheet collapse provides a allowed the warm western-boundary current
1993), correlate closely with CREs 1 and 2 compelling explanation for CREs 1 and 2, a to flow unrestricted into the northeast At-
and with reorganization of the ocean-atmo- link between CRE 3 at 7.6 ka and Northern lantic, reactivating deep-water formation. In
sphere system. A survey of 14C dates for Hemisphere ice-sheet instability is improb- addition to abrupt circum-Atlantic warming,
H-1, however, shows that calendar ages able because of the small volume of ice re- this rapid influx of subtropical water caused
range from 14.5 ka (Broecker et al., 1992) to maining at that time. Corrected 14C dates on a dramatic increase in evaporation rates and
16.9 ka (Bond et al., 1992; Andrews et al., marine cores from the shelves adjacent to delivered large amounts of moisture to Lau-
1994). For an event that is considered to be the Antarctic ice sheet, however, show that rentide margins. Snow accumulation rates
almost instantaneous (Bond et al., 1992), significant changes in marine-ice extent took doubled (Alley et al., 1993), and over the
such poor resolution indicates that dates are place between 7 and 8 ka (Herron and next few thousand years, the ice sheet began

6 GEOLOGY, January 1995

to regain lost elevation, aided to some extent demonstrate an exceptionally large meltwa-
by glacio-isostatic recovery. By 12.9 ka it had ter spike at ;14 ka (Broecker et al., 1989)
regained sufficient height to split and divert that may have diluted a 1112 m water col-
the polar-front jet stream once more, caus- umn in the gulf (Aharon, 1992). Such large
ing an arm to shift southward. By restricting amounts of meltwater could potentially de-
the subtropical air masses and westerly stabilize ice sheets grounded below sea
winds, this shift in the jet stream caused sea- level.
ice formation, which effectively blocked the Although the link between gradual melt-
transport of warm water into the North At- water input, sea-level rise, and ice-sheet col-
lantic and plunged the global climate back lapse has been suggested (Denton and
into glacial mode during the Younger Hughes, 1983) it is considered ineffective
Dryas. The second ice-sheet collapse because of compensation by glacio-isostatic
event—marked by CRE-2 at 11.5 ka— had rebound (Lingle and Clark, 1985). The rapid
the same effect as the first, switching the influx of meltwater megafloods at times co-
cold Younger Dryas ocean-atmosphere sys- incident with ice-sheet collapse and CREs is
tem back into warm interglacial mode, but a more effective mechanism for triggering
this time, melting induced by peak insola- ice-sheet instability. It also provides the link
tion—and perhaps reduced glacio-isostatic between deglaciation mechanisms and inso-
uplift— offset the increase in snow accumu- lation—a forcing function acknowledged to
lation, and the Laurentide ice sheet was be a major player in the glacial-interglacial
never able to recover. cycle (Hays et al., 1976).
A key point in this explanation is the ex-
pansion of subtropical air masses and the
activation of thermohaline circulation by DEGLACIATION MECHANISMS
North Atlantic sea-ice retreat. Thermoha- By identifying CREs from drowned Acro-
line activation was previously attributed to pora reefs, we provide a critical piece of ev-
an over-balanced North Atlantic salt budget idence that links insolation, large meltwater
related to a gradual increase in salinity dur- ation, with 7 to 14 ka between events (Bond influxes, ice-sheet collapse, and ocean-at-
ing glacial conditions (Broecker et al., 1990; et al., 1993), it cannot account for events ,3 mosphere reorganization. From these links,
Lehman and Keigwin, 1992). Carbon and ka apart during deglaciation. Furthermore, we conclude that Northern Hemisphere
oxygen isotope records from the Greenland, if internal processes forced collapse and summer-insolation maxima forced deglacia-
Iceland, and Norwegian seas show that triggered deglaciation, it is difficult to ex- tion because greater land area in mid-lati-
these sensitive areas of North Atlantic deep- plain why previous collapse events did not tudes allowed more extensive ice sheets.
water formation were dominated by low-sa- have the same effect. In short, deglaciation Stronger insolation over these latitudes gen-
linity waters during glacial conditions, there- must have been triggered by an external erated large volumes of meltwater that,
fore throwing doubt on this mechanism mechanism that affected ice-sheet stability. when catastrophically released, provided a
(Veum et al., 1992). Our suggestion—that Atmospheric cooling has been proposed trigger for subsequent interactions among
thermohaline activation resulted from air- as a cause of ice-sheet instability (Bond et ice sheets, oceans, and atmosphere. These
mass expansion during atmospheric reorga- al., 1992), but no simple relation between interactions were dramatic. Collapse of one
nization—finds support from evidence of climate change and ice-sheet response exists ice sheet affected them all (Denton et al.,
rapid and synchronous climate change at (Oerlemans, 1993). The only other viable 1986), producing CREs that drowned reefs
;14 and 11.5 ka in tropical African lake sys- mechanisms for destabilizing ice sheets over and other coastal features (Blanchon and
tems (Street-Perrott and Perrott, 1990) and a relatively short time are either delayed gla- Jones, 1994). Collapse also abruptly
Younger Dryas advance of mountain gla- cio-isostatic subsidence along the ice-sheet switched atmospheric circulation patterns
ciers in New Zealand (Denton and Hendy, grounding line or rapid sea-level rise from glacial to interglacial modes and con-
1994). Such parallel and synchronous trends (Hughes, 1987). sequently initiated changes in oceanic circu-
from distant areas of the globe suggest that We propose that ice-sheet instability dur- lation that activated the Atlantic thermoha-
atmospheric circulation flipped between ing the last deglaciation was triggered by the line heat pump—the mechanism ultimately
glacial and interglacial modes, regulating catastrophic release of meltwater mega- responsible for Northern Hemisphere
deglaciation by switching the North Atlantic floods from glacial and proglacial reservoirs. warming.
thermohaline heat pump on and off. Such megafloods were released close to the More important, we show that ice-sheet
times of ice-sheet collapse and CREs (Ta- collapse and CREs were an integral part of
TRIGGERING ICE-SHEET COLLAPSE ble 1). For instance, a large meltwater res- deglaciation. Given that two large ice sheets
Although ice-sheet collapse accounts for ervoir associated with the Laurentide ice over Greenland and Antarctica still exist,
CREs and ocean-atmosphere reorganiza- sheet was catastrophically released some- there is further potential for collapse. In-
tion, a fundamental problem remains: What time after the ice sheet reached its maxi- deed, if global atmospheric and surface-
initially triggered ice-sheet collapse? Mac- mum extent during early deglaciation ocean warming continues at its present rate
Ayeal (1993) proposed that collapse was re- (Shaw, 1989). The volume of water dis- (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
lated to the onset of warm-based conditions charged produced regional-scale fields of Change, 1992), collapse of the West Antarc-
in a previously cold-based ice sheet and, by drumlins, giant flutings, and extensive tracts tic ice sheet is a distinct possibility (Bind-
estimating accumulation rates and geother- of scoured bedrock (see Rains et al., 1993). schadler, 1990). Consequently, despite the
mal flux, he calculated a collapse-recurrence Furthermore, faunally derived records of prediction of gradual sea-level rise by the
interval of ;7 ka. Although this mechanism meltwater influx into the Gulf of Mexi- IPCC (1992), the potential for future cata-
might explain collapse during the last glaci- co—an expected megaflood outflow site— strophic sea-level rise also exists— especially

GEOLOGY, January 1995 7

now that catastrophic rises have been rec- dence from Southern Ocean sediments for Society of America, Geology of North
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on climate: Nature, v. 355, p. 416– 419. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS COHMAP, 1988, Climatic changes of the last 1992, Climate change: Supplementary report
We thank John Andrews, Ian Hunter, Brian 18,000 years: Observations and model simu- to the IPCC scientific assessment: Cam-
Jones, Bruce Rains, Charlie Schweger, Richard lations: Science, v. 241, p. 1043–1052. bridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge Univer-
Allen, Noel James, William Ruddiman, and Hank Dansgaard, W., and ten others, 1993, Evidence of sity Press, 50 p.
Mullins for constructive criticism; Lisa Sankeralli general instability of past climate from a Kaufman, D. S., Miller, G. H., Stravers, J. A., and
for introducing us; and the Commonwealth Schol- 250-kyr ice-core record: Nature, v. 364, Andrews, J. T., 1993, Abrupt early Holocene
arship Program for support (Blanchon). p. 218–220. (9.9 –9.6 ka) ice-stream advance at the mouth
Dawson, A. G., 1992, Ice Age Earth. London: of Hudson Strait, Arctic Canada: Geology,
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