Advanced Quantum Mechanics: Problem Sheet 1

Questions 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and are basic exercises and ellaboration of the lecture material.
Question 4 is a review of basic QM in 1d and 5 is a derivation of an important property
of the wave function, which exists also in 3-dimensions. Questions 1, 2, 3, 5 or similar
have been part of questions on past exams.

1. Using the definition of a Hermitian operator prove the following statements:

†
a) If  and B̂ are Hermitian operators, (i.e.,  = † , B̂ = B̂ † ), then ÂB̂ = B̂ Â.
b) If  and B̂ are Hermitian, then Ĉ = i [Â, B̂] is also Hermitian, where the
commutator is define as [Â, B̂] = ÂB̂ − B̂ Â.

Answer

a) We defined the adjoint of an operator by hΦ|† Ψi = hΨ|ÂΦi. For the product

†
of two operators we get hΦ| ÂB̂ Ψi = hΨ|ÂB̂Φi = hB̂Φ|† Ψi = h† Ψ|B̂Φi =
hΦ|B̂ † † Ψi. (Please try to understand the justification for each step!)
 †
Thus ÂB̂ = B̂ † † = B̂ Â.

b) First note that for any operator Â, multiplying it by i and taking the adjoint
gives −i† ¿ This is because of the complex conjugation symbol in the definition
of the adjoint.

†
†
†
†
Now: Ĉ † = iÂB̂ − iB̂  = −i ÂB̂ + i B̂  = −iB̂ † † + i† B̂ † = Ĉ.

1
2. Let us assume that the states |ψn i are the eigenstates of some Hermitian operator
 with eigenvalues λn and that they form an orthonormal basis, i.e.,

 |ψn i = λn |ψn i

Prove that the operator  can also be written as

X
 = |ψn i λn hψn |.
n

Hint: try acting with the operator on some arbitrary state |φi

Answer
P
We can write an arbitrary state |φi as a linear combination m αm |ψm i. Then
X X
Â|φi = Â αm |ψm i = αm λm |ψm i
m m

On the other hand

X X X
|ψn iλn hψn | αm |ψm i = |ψn iλn αm hψn |ψm i
n m n,m
X X
= |ψn iλn αm δnm = αm λm |ψm i
n,m m

We used in going between the lines that the ψn are an orthonormal basis.

2
3. For the three operators:
Z x
3
Ô1 ψ(x) = x ψ(x); Ô2 ψ(x) = x (∂/∂x) ψ(x); Ô3 ψ(x) = ψ(x′ ) dx′ ;
−∞

Find the commutators: [Ô1 , Ô2 ], [Ô2 , Ô3 ], [Ô1 , Ô3 ].

Answer

We write it a bit formally (in order to convince yourself of this, think of the whole
thing acting of a wave function ψ(x).

[Ô1 , Ô2 ] = x4 ∂x − x∂x x3 = x4 ∂x − 3x3 − x4 ∂x = −3x3 = −3Ô1

Z x 
′ ′
Ô2 Ô3 ψ(x) = x∂x ψ(x ) dx = xψ(x) ,
−∞
Z x Z x
′ x
′ ′ ′ ′

Ô3 Ô2 ψ(x) = x ∂x′ ψ(x ) dx = x ψ(x ) −∞ − ψ(x′ ) dx′
−∞ −∞
Z x
= xψ(x) − ψ(x′ ) dx′ ,
−∞
Rx ′ ′
The difference is −∞
ψ(x ) dx , so

[Ô2 , Ô3 ] = Ô3 .

In the third case there is no simplifications, so we have

Z x Z x
3
[Ô1 , Ô3 ]ψ(x) = x ′ ′
ψ(x ) dx − (x′ )3 ψ(x′ ) dx′
−∞ −∞

3
4. The wavefunction for a particle localized in a one-dimensional infinite well with
walls at x = 0 and x = L is given by
(
A sin( πn
L
x) e−iωn t , 0 < x < L,
ψn (x, t) =
0, otherwise,

where n is a positive integer called the mode number and ωn is the angular fre-
quence of the n’th mode. Find the normalization constant A.

Answer

We get the normalization from integrating

Z ∞ Z L 2 Z L
2
 πn

2 |A| 2πn



1= |ψn (x, t)| dx = A sin
L
x  dx = 1 − cos L
x dx
−∞ 0 2 0

L |A|2 L
 2
|A| x |A|2L

2πn
= − sin L x =
2 4πn 0 2
p
So A = ei α 2/L with an arbitrary real α.

4
5. Starting with the Schrödinger equation for a one-dimensional wavefunction ψ(x, t),
~2 ∂ 2
 
∂
i~ ψ(x, t) = − + V ψ(x, t) ,
∂t 2m ∂x2
where V is a real potential, derive the continuity equation
∂ρ ∂j
=−
∂t ∂x
i~ ∂ ∂
for the probability density ρ = |ψ|2 and the probability current j =


2m
ψ ∂x ψ ∗ − ψ ∗ ∂x ψ .

Answer

First note that the complex conjugate of the Schrödinger equation has a negative
sign
~2 ∂ 2
 
∂ ∗
−i~ ψ(x, t) = − + V ψ(x, t)∗ ,
∂t 2m ∂x2
We plug the definition of ρ and use the original and conjugate equations
∂ρ ∂|ψ|2 ∂ψ ∂ψ ∗
= = ψ∗ +ψ
∂t ∂t  ∂t 2 2∂t
~2 ∂ 2
   
∗ i ~ ∂ i
=ψ − − +V ψ+ψ − + V ψ∗
~ 2m ∂x2 ~ 2m ∂x2
~ ∂2 ~ ∂2 ∗
= iψ ∗ ψ − iψ ψ
2m ∂x2 2m ∂x2
Indeed using the definition of j we note that the ∂x ψ∂x ψ ∗ terms cancel and we get
∂2 ∗ 2
   
∂j i~ ∂ ∂ ∗ ∗ ∂ i~ ∗ ∂
− =− ψ ψ −ψ ψ =− ψ 2ψ − ψ ψ
∂x 2m ∂x ∂x ∂x 2m ∂x ∂x2
which exactly agrees.
6. A particle is described by the wave function
(
Ce−x (1 − e−x ) for x > 0
ψ(x) =
0 for x < 0,
where C is a constant.
a) Determine the value of C that normalizes ψ(x),
b) Where is the particle most likely to be found? That is, for what value of x is
the probability of finding the particle the largest?
c) Calculate the average position hxi for the particle. Compare this result with
the most likely position, and comment on the difference.

5
Answer
Z ∞ Z ∞
2 −2x −x 2 2
e−2x − 2e−3x + e−4x dx


hψ|ψi = |C| e (1 − e ) dx = |C|
0 0
|C|2 √
 
2 1 2 1
= |C| − + = ⇒ C = 2 3.
2 3 4 12

The probability is P (x) = |ψ(x)|2 . Differentiating and setting to zero gives the
equation

dP (x)
= 12 −2e−2x + 6e−3x − 4e−4x = −24e−2x 1 − 3e−x + 2e−2x



dx
= −24e−2x 1 − 2e−x 1 − e−x = 0

The two solutions to this equation are x = 0 and x = ln 2. The real maximum is
the second one.

Z ∞ Z ∞
−2x −x 2
x e−2x − 2e−3x + e−4x dx


hψ|x̂ψi = 12x e
(1 − e ) dx = 12
0 0
√
 
1 2 1 13
= 12 − + = ⇒ C = 2 3.
4 9 16 12

This is to the right of ln 2, which is not too surprising, because the wave function
has a peak at ln 2, but a longer tail in the positive direction, while to the left it
terminates at x = 0.

6
7. A particle is described by the state |ψi with wave function
2 /2
hx|ψi = ψ(x) = Ce−αx

where C, α are constant and α > 0.

a) Determine the value of C that normalizes ψ(x),
b) Calculate the average position x̄ = hψ|x̂ψi for the particle and the variance
(∆x)2 = hψ|(x̂ − x̄)2 ψi.
c) Using that in the coordinate representation p̂ = −i∂x , calculate p̄ = hψ|p̂ψi for
the particle and the variance (∆p)2 = hψ|(p̂ − p̄)2 ψi.
d) Verify that Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is satisfied.
e) Optional: Calculate the momentum space representation of the state ψ(p) =
hp|ψi, by a Fourier transform.

Answer

a)
∞
r
π  α 1/4
Z  2
2  −αx2 /2 
hψ|ψi = |C| e  dx = |C|2 = 1 ⇒ C= .
−∞ α π

b) r Z ∞
α 2
x̄ = hψ|x̂ψi = xe−αx dx = 0 ,
π −∞
r Z ∞
2 2 2 α 2 1
(∆x) = hψ|(x̂ − x̄ )ψi = x2 e−αx dx = .
π −∞ 2α
c)
r Z ∞ r Z ∞
α 2
 2
 α 2
p̄ = hψ|p̂ψi = e−αx /2 −i~∂x e−αx /2 dx = i~ αxe−αx dx = 0 ,
π −∞ π −∞
r Z ∞
α 2
 2

(∆p)2 = hψ|(p̂2 − p̄2 )ψi = e−αx /2 −~2 ∂x2 e−αx /2 dx
π −∞
r Z ∞
α 2 α
= ~2 (α − α2 x2 )e−αx dx = ~2 ,
π −∞ 2
q q
1 α~2
d) The product of uncertainties is ∆x∆p = 2α 2
= ~2 which is equal to half
the commutator hψ| 2i1 [x̂, p̂]ψi = hψ| 2~ ψi = 2~ . So these Gaussians saturate the
inequality in the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

7
e) Given any wave function in the coordinate representation ψ(x), we can con-
struct the momentum representation by a Fourier transform
Z ∞
1
ψ(p) = √ e−ipx/~ ψ(x)dx .
2π −∞
Indeed
∞ ∞
1 1
Z Z
−ipx/~
i~∂x e−ipx/~ ψ(x)dx = pψ(p) .


p̂ψ(p) = √ e (−i~∂x ψ(x))dx = √
2π −∞ 2π −∞

For our ψ(x) we perform the integral by completing the square

Z ∞ Z ∞
1 α1/4 2
ψ(p) = √ e−ipx/~
ψ(x)dx = √ e−ipx/~−αx /2 dx
2π −∞ 2π 3/4
−∞
1/4 Z ∞
α 2 2 2 1 −p2 /2~2 α
=√ e−α(x−ip/~α) /2−p /2~ α dx = e .
2 π 3/4 −∞ (πα)1/4

We find a new Gaussian with the replacement x → p and α√→ 1/~2 α. Note
though that it is not normalized, which√require to divide by√ ~, so we would
get a normalized function if we used 1/ 2π~ instead of 1/ 2π in the Fourier
transform.
With this substitution we then find p̄ = 0 and (∆p)2 = α~2 /2, as we also found
before..

8
8. Consider the state | ↑i = ( 10 ) ∈ C2 and the two Pauli matrices
   
1 0 1 2 0 −i
τ = , τ = ,
1 0 i 0

a) Calculate the average and variance of τ 1 in the state | ↑i

b) Calculate the average and variance of τ 2 in the state | ↑i
c) Verify that Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is satisfied.

Answer

a)   
1

0 1 1
h↑ |τ ↑i = 1 0 = 0,
1 0 0
  

1 0 1
h↑ |(τ 1 )2 ↑i = 1 0 = 1.
0 1 0
b)   
2

0 −i 1
h↑ |τ ↑i = 1 0 = 0,
i 0 0
  
2 2

1 0 1
h↑ |(τ ) ↑i = 1 0 = 1.
0 1 0
c) The commutator of τ 1 and τ 2 is
 
1 2 2i 0
[τ , τ ] =
0 −2i

In the state | ↑i we get

1 1 2
h↑ |
[τ , τ ] ↑i = 1 .
2i
and before we found that ∆τ 1 = ∆τ 2 = 1, so the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle is satisfied and the inequality is in fact an equality.