Module 3 - Elements of Quantum

Mechanics
Need of Quantum Mechanics
What was predicted about accelerating electric charges through the use of the Maxwell’s Equations?

It was predicted that an accelerated electric charge would radiate energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves

How does this explain the high speed of electricity in conductors?

Conductors have free electrons which are accelerated when connected in a complete circuit

These electrons will have a very low drift velocity (10^-5 m/s) and will collide with each other in a
Brownian motion

Hence the average drift velocity of electrons will be zero

But there is still a flow of current across the conductor as when the electrons are drifting, they get
accelerated and produce EM waves

These EM waves travel at speeds close to speed of light (around 1x10^8 m/s in conductor)

This is the speed in which electricity travels in conductors

Some Electromagnetic Waves Description/Properties

Electromagnetic radiation travels through space as electric energy and magnetic energy

Wavelength and frequency are related by: λν = c = 3.00 ∗ 108 ms−1

Frequency or wavelength determines the type of radiation and its energy

E = hν
The wavelength of EM radiation can range from miles (radio waves) to inches (microwaves in a
microwave oven) to millionths of an inch (the light we see) to billionths of an inch (X-rays)

Visible light has wavelength range of roughly 400 nm to 700 nm. This range of wavelengths is called
the visible spectrum

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 1

 Describe what is observed when an iron rod is heated at a high increasing temperature

As the temperature of the rod is increased, the iron rod glows from red → yellow → white

The different colour glows are due to the different intensities of thermal radiation

Describe the 2 effects which are seen on observing thermal radiation from a heated body

Relation between Energy and Temperature

As the temperature of the object is increased, more energy will be radiated from it

The relationship is shown through Stefan-Boltzmann Law (shown later)

Relation between Radiation Intensity and Wavelength

When the radiation spectrum of the glowing object is analyzed for a particular temperature, it is
found that the intensity of the radiation increases with decreasing wavelength

Then there is a maximum value for radiation intensity at a specific wavelength → this wavelength
is called the peak wavelength

Then the intensity of the radiation decreases relatively rapidly as its wavelength further decreases

State the formula to find the peak wavelength of radiation emitted from a heated object at a given
temperature

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 2

 This is Wein’s Displacement Law

What is a black body ?

It is a theoretical and ideal object/body that absorbs 100% of the radiation that gets incident on it

So no radiation is reflected or passed on and so the object will appear perfectly black

However, since a black body is a perfect absorber of radiation, it is also a perfect emitter of radiation

Where is the idea of black body used?

It is said that starts radiate like a black body radiator where it emits all radiation of the EM Spectrum

This allows us to infer things about starts by using the theory for blackbody radiators

State the properties of black body emitters

At a particular temperature, the black body would emit the maximum amount of energy possible for
that temperature

Black body radiation does not depend on they type of object emitting it. Instead the spectrum of black
body radiation only depends on its temperature

State the 5 relationships between temperature, wavelength and energy emitted by an ideal thermal
radiator (black body)

The bodies at different temperatures emit radiation (heat energy) of a range of wavelengths or color

Ex: the wires in a heater begin to glow red when heated then the color of the wire will change by
increasing the temperature

Blackbody radiation is the theoretical maximum radiation expected for temperature-related thermal
self-radiation

This is because it can absorb all the wavelengths of radiation

This radiation can have a peak energy distribution in the infrared, visible, or ultraviolet region of the
electromagnetic spectrum

The hotter the emitter, the more energy emitted and the shorter the wavelength. An object at room
temperature has its peak radiation in the infrared while the sun has its peak in the visible region

The equations for calculating radiation based on temperature use the Kelvin temperature
scale

State the 3 Basic Laws of Radiation

All objects emit radiant energy

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 Hotter objects emit more energy than colder objects (per unit area). The amount of energy radiated is
proportional to the temperature of the object.

The hotter the object, the shorter the wavelength of emitted energy.

Because E = hν = (hc)/λ
Explain the concept of colour temperature

The color temperature model is based on the relationship between the temperature of a theoretical
material (black body radiator) and the energy distribution of its emitted light

At different temperatures of the black body radiator, corresponding colours of light in the visible
spectrum are emitted from it

So a light spectrum of blackbodies is characterized in terms of its temperature even it its not exactly a
black body

By using Wein’s Displacement Law we can find the colour temperature of an object by looking at the
colour of that object (the object will reflect light of wavelength corresponding to this colour)

This law can also be used to show the peak wavelength of radiation emitted by a body of certain
temperature: Ex: human body of 310K emits peak wavelength of IR radiation

Blackbody Radiation Spectrum

Blackbody Radiation Spectrum

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 4

 State the formula for Intensity

Intensity = P ower/Area
Describe the intensity of the different radiation types emitted by a blackbody

The radiation spectrum of the emitted radiation ranges from part of UV light, all of visible light and
part of IR radiation

The intensity of radiation in the visible spectrum is the highest

The intensity of the longer wavelengths (part of IR radiation, microwaves, radio waves) is
negligible

Describe the relationship between the temperature of the blackbody and the intensity of the different
radiation emitted

As the temperature of the blackbody increases, the peak intensity (power density) increases

This peak intensity corresponds to a certain wavelength of radiation

This is the peak wavelength where its intensity (power density) is maximum

As the temperature of the blackbody increases, the peak wavelength decreases (shifts or gets
displaced to the left on graph)

This is proved by Wein’s Displacement Law where peak wavelength is inversely proportional
to temperature

What does the area under the curve represent?

It represents the total energy that is emitted by the blackbody through the radiation spectrum for a
particular temperature

If the temperature is higher, the area under the curve is larger, so more energy is emitted by that
object

State Wien’s displacement law for wavelength in μm

State the Stefan-Boltzmann Law and its equation

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 5

 This law gives the total energy being emitted at all wavelengths by the blackbody (which is the area
under the Planck Law curve)

The power radiated per unit surface area (Intensity) of the radiator is given by this law

The amount of energy radiated is proportional to the temperature of the object raised to the fourth
power

Explains why there is an abrupt growth in the height of the curve as the temperature increases

E = σT 4
E → Intensity or flux of energy (W /m2 )
σ → Stefan-Boltzmann Constant = 5.67 x 10−8 W m−2 K −4
What does Wein’s Radiation Law show?

It is used to show the mathematical relation between the intensity of blackbody radiation and
wavelengths emitted for different temperatures

Basically, to explain the blackbody radiation spectrum curve

State Wein’s Radiation Law in terms of wavelength

Where C1 = 8πhc and C2 = (hc)/k

u(λ) → Energy Density (energy per unit volume)
d(λ) → Shows that the energy density is being calculated for a range of wavelengths
Therefore u(λ)d(λ) means Energy per unit area emitted by a blackbody

k → Boltzmann Constant
h → Planck’s Constant
Derive the Wein’s Radiation Law in terms of frequency

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 6

 Explain the limitation/flaw of Wein’s Radiation Law to explain the BB radiation spectrum curve

By using the equation in terms of wavelength, we can see that the 2 terms of the equation are
competing with each other

From the 1st term: u(λ) ∝ 1/λ5

From the 2nd term: u(λ) ∝ 1/ehc/λkt
From the 1st term when λ increases, u(λ) decreases

From the 2nd term when λ increases, u(λ) increases

By substituting values, it is found that the 2nd term is the more dominating term hence if the
wavelength decreases, u(λ) will also decrease and vice versa

So this showed that the law’s equation fitted the experimental data (BB radiation spectrum
curve) for small wavelengths only

This means the equation only fits the curve for the wavelengths smaller than the peak wavelength
as the Intensity decreases as the wavelength decreases

But it deviates at larger wavelengths (after the peak wavelength) as by using the equation, u(λ)
will increase as wavelength increases when it is also supposed to decrease

State the law which was used to overcome the flaw in Wein’s Radiation Law

The Rayleigh-Jeans Law

Derive the Rayleigh-Jeans Law in terms of wavelength

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 7

 State how this equation does/does not explain the BB radiation spectrum curve (flaw in R-J formula)

This equation agrees with experimental measurements for long wavelengths (low frequencies) but
fails at short wavelengths

This is opposite to Wein’s Radiation Law

By using the equation, it is predicted that there is an energy output that diverges towards infinity
as wavelength decreases

This disagrees with the experimental results for wavelengths less than the peak wavelength
as the intensity is supposed to decreases

The failure at short wavelengths is known as the ultraviolet catastrophe as it deviates at the
UV wavelengths

But it agrees with the experimental results for wavelengths greater than the peak wavelength
as the intensity does increase as wavelength decreases (only until the peak wavelength)

State the assumptions of Rayleigh-Jeans Law

Assumptions on the Cavity that absorbs/reflects EM Radiation and the standing waves that form
within

First, they considered that the radiation inside a cavity of absolute temperature T whose walls are
perfect reflectors creating a series of standing EM waves

These standing waves are formed in all 3 dimensions and are in different modes (n)

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 8

 The condition for standing waves in this cavity is that the path length (L) from wall to wall, in any
direction, must be a whole number of half-wavelengths, so that a node occurs at each reflecting
surface

λ = 2L/n
They then calculated the number of independent standing waves G(ν)dν in the frequency
interval between ν and dν per unit volume in all 3 directions in the cavity

So the number density of standing waves (G(ν)dν ) is proportional to the square of frequency

This shows that if the frequency is more, then more wavelengths are confined within the same
length and number of independent standing waves is larger

The formula for number of independent standing waves is independent of the shape of the cavity

So L is not included in the formula

As we would expect, the higher the frequency , the shorter the wavelength and the greater the
number of possible standing waves.

Assumptions on the Energy of the Standing Waves

Next, they found the average energy per standing wave using theorem of equipartition of energy

The theorem states that the average energy per degree of freedom of an entity (such as a
molecule of an ideal gas) in thermal equilibrium at the temperature T is 1/2kT

Explain what degrees of freedom is with a monatomic ideal gas as an example?

It is an independent coordinate which is required to represent a particle or a system

Ex: To locate a monatomic ideal gas molecule, 3 coordinates in space (x,y,z) is required

Hence this molecule has 3 degrees of freedom and its average total energy is 3/2kT

This type of DOF is called translatory DOF

It is also a mode of energy possession

When considering KE of motion of a monatomic ideal gas molecule, for each coordinate
there is a velocity (vx , vy , vz ) where vx = dx/dt

So for each velocity component, the KE can be calculated : KE = (1/2)(mvx2 )

So the molecule has 3 different modes of KE possession and so it has 3 degrees of
freedom and its average total energy is 3/2kT

Explain the degrees of freedom of a diatomic molecule

It has a total 5 degrees of freedom →3 translatory degrees of freedom and 2 rotational

degrees of freedom

The molecule can rotate about the axis parallel and perpendicular to the bonds

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 9

 So is average total energy is 5/2kT

Explain the degrees of freedom of a one-dimensional harmonic oscillator and relate to

standing waves formed in the cavity

It has two degrees of freedom → one corresponds to its kinetic energy and one corresponds
to its potential energy

Each standing wave in a cavity originates in an oscillating electric charge in the cavity wall

When the radiation incidents on the wall in the cavity, the electrons of the atoms of the
wall start oscillating like a 1D harmonic oscillator

Each of these charges produces EM waves as it oscillates producing standing waves

Hence each standing wave should have an average energy of 2(1/2)kT = kT

Describe how Rayleigh-Jeans Law relates to the number of independent standing waves G(ν)dν

When we multiply the Classical average energy per standing wave (ϵ) with the number density of
standing waves G(ν)dν we get the Rayleigh-Jeans Formula

What was the flaw in Rayleigh-Jeans Law?

They went wrong when finding the energy

They used classical physics to find the average energy associated with each standing wave

This flaw was corrected by Max Planck and his theory of Blackbody Radiation

What was Planck’s Theory of Blackbody Radiation

Planck’s theory leads to an equation for the intensity of the radiation

This equation completely agrees with experimental observations

He assumed the cavity radiation came from atomic oscillations in the cavity walls

Planck made two assumptions about the nature of the oscillators in the cavity walls

State Planck’s assumptions for his theory of BB radiation

He assumed that the energy of an oscillator can have only certain discrete values (En )

En = nhν
n → a positive integer called the quantum number
h is Planck’s constant
ν is the frequency of oscillation

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 10

 In other words the first assumption made was that the energy of the oscillator is quantized

Where each discrete energy value corresponds to a different quantum state (n)

Describe how these oscillators (electrons) emits/absorbs energy

The oscillators emit or absorb energy when making a transition from one quantum state to
another

The entire energy difference between the initial and final states in the transition is emitted or
absorbed as a single quantum of radiation

State what Planck’s Quantum is and how it varies for objects of different sizes

Plank’s Quantum is a discrete quantity of energy that relates to the frequency of the
radiation/movement it represents

For ordinary sized objects that we can see with naked eye, Planck’s Quantum is very small and
insignificant

But for Atomic/Subatomic particles, Planck’s Quantum is much larger and very significant

This is why quantum physics is significant at atomic and subatomic scales and must be considered
while classical physics is significant for normal scales

This is because Laws of nature developed without

consideration of quantum effects do not work for atoms so classical physics (newton’s law) don’t
work in atomic and subatomic scales

State Planck’s Radiation Formula

The Blackbody Radiation Spectrum Curve follows Planck’s Radiation formula for all the wavelength
range

The formula uses the same “number density of standing waves G(ν)dν ” derived by Rayleigh and
Jeans

But the average energy of the standing waves (ϵ) is changed which was derived from the assumption
that the energy of an oscillator can have only certain discrete values

Explain how Planck’s Radiation formula satisfies the experimental Blackbody Radiation Spectrum Curve

Lower Wavelengths

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 11

 When the frequency is large (small wavelength) hν/kT becomes very large hence ehν/kT tends
to infinity

Therefore 1/(ehν/kT − 1) tends to 0 so energy density (u(ν)dν ) approaches 0

This is seen in the experimental BB radiation spectrum curve

Larger Wavelengths

When the frequency is small (large wavelength), hν/kT is very small and less than 1

So using the relation:

1/(ehν/kT − 1) will approximate to kT /hν

Proof

So, at low frequency, energy density (u(ν)dν ) approximates to:

Therefore, at low frequencies, Plank’s Radiation Formula reduces to Rayleigh-Jeans formula

which agrees with the experimental blackbody radiation spectrum curve for the longer
wavelength region

Wave Particle Duality of Matter - De Broglie Hypothesis

State the 4 different evidences for wave-particle duality

Photoelectric Effect - Proved particle nature of light

Compton Effect - Proved particle nature of x-rays

Electron Diffraction - Proved wave nature of matter

Interference of Matter Waves - Proved wave nature of matter

What was De Broglie's hypothesis of matter waves?

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 12

 De Broglie postulated that ordinary matter can have wave like properties where its wavelength relates
to the particle’s momentum

Therefore the prediction was that matter waves can diffract and interfere with each other

Derive the formula for de Broglie Wavelength

This derivation is done by first using energy of a photon which has frequency, wavelength and speed

λ → de Broglie Wavelength (of moving material particle)

E/c = p → momentum of the photon
What does de Broglie Wavelength depend on?

The wavelength depends on the momentum of the particle

So it depends on the mass and velocity of the object as p = mv

But not the physical size of the particle

Derive another formula for momentum of all particles in terms of ℏ and k

k → wave number
ℏ → reduced Planck's constant: the quantization of angular momentum of a particle
Derive the formula for de Broglie Wavelength in terms of Kinetic Energy

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 13

 Derive the formula for d Broglie Wavelength in terms of Average KE of an atom/molecule

f → Degrees of Freedom of the particle

State the relationship between temperature and wavelength

As the temperature increases, the de Broglie wavelength of the particle decreases

Numericals

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 14

 Why is the wave nature of macroscopic objects unobservable

For macroscopic objects when its de Broglie wavelength is found, it will be in the order of 10−34 m

Hence it is too small to be observed (but is still there)

But for atomic/subatomic particles, it is observable due to its very small mass and can move at
relativistic speeds

Why can’t the waves associated with a particle be represented as a sin wave

A travelling sin waves goes up to an infinite extent

This would mean that the particle associated with the wave also extends up to infinity

This is not true as we known the particle is a localised (and moving) so sin waves are not used to
represent them

Describe the waves associated with a particle

The particle is a confined (localised) entity with a fixed shape and fixed volume

But the wave associated with the moving particle is not confined

So the particle is extended over the whole wave

and there is a large probability of finding the particle in the extent of its wave (in a small
region of space at a specific time → as it is moving)

Therefore the wave associated with a moving particle is represented as a wave group of limited
extent

And this wave group moves with a velocity vg (group velocity) which is identical to the classical
particle speed (v)

vg = v
Describe this wave group associated with a moving particle

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 15

 A wave group consists of a superposition of waves with different wavelengths, with the amplitude
and phase of each component wave adjusted so that the waves interfere constructively over a
small region of space

Outside of this region the combination of waves produces a net amplitude that approaches zero
rapidly as a result of destructive interference.

What is phase velocity (general)?

It is the velocity in which the phase of the wave is advancing in a medium

It is also known as wave velocity

Derive the equation to find the phase velocity of sinusoidal waves

Derive the equation for phase velocity of matter waves and state its implications

v0 → particle velocity
From this derivation: vp = (c/v0 )c
Since c/v0 > 1 , vp > c
This implies that the phase velocity of the wave associated with the particle is greater than the speed
of light which is practically impossible

This means that the wave would travel faster than the particle it is associated with which is also not
possible

Therefore, it shows that a moving material particle can’t be represented using a single sine
wave so a wave group (group velocity) is used instead

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 16

 phase velocity has no physical meaning in case of matter waves

Derive the equation for group velocity for matter waves and state its implications

From the derivation we can see that the group velocity equals to particle velocity

This proves that we can represent the matter wave associated with particles as a wave group

Check Module 2 Notes for vg equations and its relation with vp

Davisson-Germer Experiment
What did the Davisson-Germer Experiment prove?

It demonstrated the wave nature of the electron proving the hypothesis of de Broglie made earlier

Describe the set up of Davisson-Germer Experiment

In a glass-vacuum vessel, there was a nickel target, a moveable electron detector, a filament and 2
plates

A low tension battery was connected across the filament which produce electrons through thermionic
emission

A high tension battery was connected across 2 plates which collimates and accelerates the electrons,
produced by the filament, into a fine beam of electrons

This beam of electrons will then incident on the nickel target and get scattered

The scattered electrons are detected by the movable electron detector

By using a fluorescent screen, it allowed them to see the intensity of electrons at different angles
after being scattered

Describe the structure of a crystalline material

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 17

 The unit cells of the material are arranged perfectly in order

It has a long range order in all 3 spatial directions

This material is also called a single crystal

Describe the structure of a polycrystalline material

This material consists of multiple regions of unit cells in order

But the orientation of these regions change

Hence the material has a short range order

The boundaries of these regions are called Grain Boundaries and each of the ordered regions is
called the Grain

Describe the structure of the nickel target used in the Davisson-Germer Experiment

Initially, the nickel was polycrystalline

But as the experiment was performed, air leaked into the vacuum vessel

So the oxygen reacted with the nickel atoms at the surface of the target to form Nickel Oxide at the
surface only

To recover the original nickel target, they placed it in a reducing atmosphere in a high temperature
furnace

This removed the oxygen and also converted the nickel to a single crystal

Describe the results of the Davisson-Germer Experiment

A Polar Plot was created using the readings (scattered intensity against scattering angle) for different
electron accelerating potential (from the high tension battery)

Scattering angle is measured from the original electron beam

The method of plotting is such that the intensity

at any angle is proportional to the distance of the curve at that angle from the point of scattering

It was observed that the peak intensity was at a scattering angle of Φmax = 50° at 54V or 54eV of
accelerating voltage

Also as the accelerating voltage increased from 40V to 54V, they observed a hump originating on the
polar plot which got bigger and reached a maximum at 54V. Then after 54V, the hump decreased

Overall, as the scattering angle increases from 0°, the scattering intensity decreases initially, then
increases to the maximum intensity then decreases again

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 18

 Derive the formula for de Broglie wavelength in terms of eV

eV is another unit for Kinetic Energy

e → Charge of the electron

V → normal accelerating voltage used

State and explain the formula for the condition for constructive interference

dsinΦ = nλ
d → distance between the atoms
dsinθ → path difference between adjacent diffracted waves

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 19

 When the incidents waves get diffracted, the diffracted waves will interfere with each other to
produce interference fringes

To have these interference fringes, the path difference between 2 waves must be equal to nλ for
constructive interference

Diagram for Nickel Target

The atoms in the nickel target were arranged in a different and single plane and so the distance d
is different but the same condition for constructive interference is used

Explain how the results of this experiments were used

The de Broglie wavelength of the electrons that were accelerated at 54V was found

This came out to be: λ = 1.67 x 10−10 m → 1.67Å

This wavelength is the Predicted Wavelength

Then using the formula dsinΦ = nλ they found distance between the atoms (d) for nickel which
came to be 2.15 Å (found using X ray diffraction experiment)

Then using the Diffraction rule: dsinΦ = nλ they found the value of λ for n=1 (Principle Maxima)
This came out to be 1.65Å

This wavelength is the Observed Wavelength

This shows the wave nature of electrons

So we can see that the Observed Wavelength is in agreement with the Predict Wavelength

This demonstrates the wave nature of electrons and proves de Broglie’s hypothesis that
matter also posses wave like properties (diffraction)

This agreement shows us that if we want to analyse something (at atomic/subatomic level), the
wavelength used should be in the same order as the spacing of the particles of the object

For this experiment, the de Broglie wavelength is very lose to the interatomic spacing of the nickel
atoms hence, we are able to observe the structure of the nickel target

What are the implications of the results?

The results of the experiment shows us that de Broglie wavelength of accelerated electrons can be
used to predict the crystal structure of an object

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 20

 This is similar to how x-rays are used to determine the crystal structure of objects

By using electrons, we will be able to control its de Broglie wavelength by altering the accelerating
voltage

The greater the accelerating voltage, the smaller the de Broglie wavelength of electron

and so objects with smaller spacing between the particles can be observed and analysed (at the
sub angstrom scale)

This is the basic working principle of Transmission Electron Microscope whose resolution can be
controlled by accelerating voltage of electron

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

What was Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle?

The principle is that it is not possible to find the position and the momentum of the object
simultaneously with great accuracy

Explain how the size of wave group affect the measurement for position of the particle

Matter Waves associated with a particle can be represented by wave groups or wave packets

So particle associated with this wave group can be anywhere in this wave packet

But where the amplitude of the wave packet is greater, the greater the probability that the particle
will be there

But probability is never zero (only zero at infinity)

By making the wave packet is smaller, the particle will be more localised

Hence, this will reduce the uncertainty in measuring the position of the particle

By making the wave packet larger, the particle is more delocalised over a larger region

Hence, this will reduce the uncertainty in measuring the position of the particle

So as the size/wavelength of the wave group decreases, there will be less uncertainty and more
definite information on the position of the particle

State the formula for Heisenberg's’ Uncertainty Principle

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 21

 Δ means taking derivative
Δx → uncertainty in the measurement of the position of the particle
Δh = Δx because the wavelength is taken in x direction
px → momentum in x direction
This principle also applies to y and z direction

First Form of Uncertainty Principle: ΔxΔpx ≥ ℏ/2

product

Explain the principle using this formula

When the uncertainty in position of the particle (Δx) is decreased to find the exact position of the
particle, then the uncertainty in the momentum of that particle will increase (Δp) and vice versa

So it is said that position and momentum are conjugate variables

From the formula we can also see that Uncertainty Principle was a consequence of de Broglie’s
Hypothesis

State what happens if the position in one direction and the momentum in another direction of the
particle is found

Then ΔxΔpy ≥0
Arbitrary precision is possible in principle for position in one direction and momentum in another

State and explain the second form of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

ΔEΔt ≥ ℏ/2
This form is there because there is also an energy-time uncertainty relation

This means Energy and Time are also conjugate variables

If the uncertainty in measurement of energy is decreased, the uncertainty in measurement of time

increases and vice versa

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 22

 What happens after an electron gets excited?

The electron will stay in the excited state for t = 10−8 s

Then it will return to the lower energy level and certain amount of energy will be emitted

Describe this emitted energy as the electron spontaneously decays to a lower energy level

This energy is not of a single frequency / wavelength

The energy is in the form of an EM wave

The energy is expected to be monochromatic but it isn’t

Instead the emitted Energy consists of a range of frequency called Δνnm

n is the higher principle quantum number or main energy level and m is the lower one

So it is said that the transitions between energy levels of atoms are not perfectly sharp in
frequency

Explain why the emitted energy is not a single value?

Practically, there are many atoms within some volume and not just one

And so these atoms are influenced by the neighbouring atoms where the energy levels develop a
width

So now for ex: electrons can return from the top of an energy level to the bottom of al lower
energy level

So there are different ways in which electrons can get excited and de-excited between 2
energy levels

So on an average, when transitions happen from higher to lower level, a bandwidth of

frequencies develop (Δν ) for the emitted energy (E )

Now we know that Δν = 1/Δt which shows us that having the bandwidth of frequencies gives
uncertainty in time

Therefore, the uncertainty in time will give uncertainty in Energy

Derive the 1st Form of the HUP from the 2nd

Taking a free particle → its total energy (E ) is equal to its kinetic energy (no PE)

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 23

 What is the Gedanken Experiment?

It was a thought experiment by Heisenberg to explain why uncertainty arrives when trying to measure
momentum and position of a moving

How do we see objects?

Light gets reflected of the object and enters our eyes allowing us to see it

So the photons (particles) are reflected of the object and enters of eyes

Describe the Gedanken Experiment

To see a moving electron through a microscope, a photon will first incidents on the electron

When this happens, the momentum of the electron will change

Its direction of motion will change and its position will change

If the change in momentum /uncertainty in momentum (Δp) is very small (velocity remains same after
incidence of photon) the uncertainty in the position (Δx) of the electron will be very large will
measuring it

Conclusions

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 24

 Justification of Bohr’s Angular Momentum Postulate
Describe Bohr’s Atomic Model

An atom consists of a nucleus with electrons revolving around the nucleus in circular orbits

State the postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model

Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits

When an electron transitions from an outer orbit to inner orbit, its energy is change by: E2 − E1
He said that electrons can only revolve in those circular orbits in which their angular momentum is
quantized

L = nh/2π where L is angular momentum

This last postulate can be justified using de Broglie’s hypothesis

Explain how Bohr’s angular momentum postulate is justified by de Broglie’s hypothesis

According to de Broglie’s hypothesis, if a particle is moving, it has wave nature

So for the waves associated with the electrons revolving around the nucleus, it will have an integral
number of wavelengths that fits in the orbit

These waves are like standing waves

So the circumference of orbit should be equal to the integral number of wavelengths if the angular
momentum has to be quantized

2πr = nλ

Derive the equation for the angular momentum of the electrons revolving the nucleus

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 25

 Compton Effect (Qualitative Idea)
What is the Compton Effect?

When x-ray’s are incident on a loosely bound electron, the wavelength of the reflected x-ray was
higher than the incident ray

This experiment showed that x-rays (or EM waves) have a particle nature (photons)

It showed that the photons carried momentum as well as energy

This experiment showed that there was an elastic particle-particle collision

Describe the set up of the experiment

A collimator was used to create a fine beam of x-rays

These x-rays were then incident on a block of graphite (which

The x-rays get scattered which is then detected by a movable detector

So overall the intensity for various wavelength of the scattered photon for multiple scattering angles
was measured and graphed

Describe the collision that takes place

It is an elastic collision

So energy and momentum is conserved

Total Energy Before = Total Energy After

Total Momentum Before = Total Momentum After

Describe the changes in energy and momentum of the electron and the x-ray photon

Before collision, the electron’s velocity was zero and its mass is m0 = 1.6 x 10− 19kg so its
momentum was zero

After collision it moves at relativistic speeds, so it has a velocity and momentum.

Its mass also become infinite due to Einstein's theory of relativity which states that when objects
move at speeds comparable to speed of light, its mass will increase

m = m0 /(1 − v2 /c2 )1/2

The energy of the electron after collision is given by E = mc2
The x-ray’s photon’s energy decreases after the collision as some energy is transferred to the electron

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 The x-ray’s photon’s momentum decreases after the collision as it has less energy and its wavelength
increases

p = h/λ

State the formula to find the change in wavelength of the x-ray after collision

λ′ − λ = Δλ → Compton Shift
Φ → Scattering Angle X-ray photon to the Horizontal
State the energy conservation equation

using energy before collision = energy after collision

E − E ′ = Ee or E = E ′ + EE
hν − hν ′ = Ee = KE of electron
E → energy of incident photon
E ′ → energy of scattered photon
Ee → energy of electron (KE of electron)
State the momentum conservation equation along x-axis

p = p′ cosΦ + pe cosθ

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 State the momentum conservation equation along y-axis

0 = p′ sinΦ − pe sinθ
p′ sinΦ = pe sinθ
What does the Compton Shift depend on?

Δλ (Compton shift) depends on scattering angle of photon as the other terms in the RHS of the
equation are constants

What is the Compton wavelength for an electron?

It is the Compton shift wavelength when the scattering angle is 90° → cos90 =0
So Δλ = h/m0 c = λe
λe = 2.42 x 10−12 m
When does the maximum Compton Shift happen?

When the scattering angle of the photon is 180° → cos180 = −1

This is called back scattering

So Δλ = 2h/m0 c
Δλ = 4.84 x 10−12 m
What would be the effect on the Compton shift, if the x-rays were incident on a proton?

The Compton shift would be much smaller as the mass of the proton is much higher than an electron

What would happen if this experiment was done using visible light instead of x-rays?

The incident wavelength of visible light would be much larger than that of x-rays as it has much less
energy than x-rays

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 Therefore the energy imparted onto the electron would be very small and so the Compton shift would
also be very small

Graph Results

Conclusion: As the scattering angle increases, the Compton shift (change in wavelength of x-ray) also
increases

Wave Function of Matter Waves - Ψ

Describe matter waves

Matter waves are described as a pulse or a wave group of limited spatial extent

This pulse/wave group can be formed by adding sinusoidal waves of different wavelengths

These matter waves represent a quantum mechanical particle

State and describe the general form of the matter wave function

It is a one dimensional function → wave is moving in x direction

Its Amplitude can be complex

The wave function itself can be complex → that’s why there is i (imaginary number) in the function

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 However, only the physically measurable quantities must be real

These include the probability, momentum and energy

the matter waves is represented as a complex function to simplify the calculations

State and describe the 7 Properties all Valid Wave Functions satisfy

The matter waves can be written in the form...

Since Ψ(r, t) is a complex function, it can be written in this form

In this form, both A and B are real numbers

For one dimension, r vector is replaced with x

The wave function has a complex conjugate

The complex conjugate wave function is given by Ψ∗

It will have the opposite sign of the imaginary part of the function Ψ

Ψ(x, t) = A(x, t) + iB(x, t)

Ψ∗ (x, t) = A(x, t) − iB(x, t)
The complex conjugates can be multiplied to give an always positive and real value

Ψ∗ (x, t)Ψ(x, t) = A2 (x, t) + B2 (x, t)

or ∣Ψ∣2 = ΨΨ∗ = A2 + B2
The square of the wave function has a physical significance

Ψ itself has no physical interpretation

But ∣Ψ∣2 has a physical interpretation called probability density

When ∣Ψ∣2 is evaluated at a particular space at a particular time, it equals to the probability
of finding the particle there at that time

This space can be 1D 2D or 3D

The probability density is always real and positive

The wave function should be normalized

Explanation given later

Some Mathematical Properties of the wave function needs to be satisfied

Ψ must be continuous and single values everywhere

Only 1 value of Ψ(x) for each value of x

dΨ/dx must be continuous and single values everywhere

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 This means the gradient of the graph should only change gradually and have no abrupt
changes

There should be no infinity gradients

However, there are some exceptions

The wave function Ψ should be normalizable

To do this the wave functions must approach zero as x approaches infinity

∣Ψ∣2 must approach 0 vast enough as x approaches ±∞

This is required so that the integral of ∣Ψ∣2 remains a finite value

Miscellaneous conditions to be satisfied

In order to avoid infinite probabilities, the wave function must be finite and single valued
everywhere

For finite potentials, the wave function and its derivative must be continuous. This is required
because the second-order derivative term in the wave equation must be single valued. (There are
exceptions to this rule when V is infinite.)

State the general form of the conjugate of the matter wave function
Ψ∗ (x, t) = Ae−i(kx−ωt)
State the expression to find the probability in 1D of finding a particle

P (x)dx = Ψ∗ (x, t)Ψ(x, t)dx = ∣Ψ∣2

This is the probability per unit length as it is in 1D

It represents the probability of a particle being between x and (x+dx)

State the expression to find the total probability in 1D of finding a particle within a given length

When the previous equation above is integrated on both sides with the limits of 2 points, it gives the
probability of finding the particle between these 2 points (length)

What does normalization mean?

Normalization is the scaling of wave functions so that the total probability adds to 1

It shows that the particle being within a length from −∞, ∞ (limits of x axis) is always 1 because the
particle actually exists and has to be moving somewhere along this length

This is for 1D

State the normalization condition for a matter wave function in 1 dimension

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 Infinity is used if the limits are not already given

Limits will be given if there is a definite space in which we know the particle is moving in

What should be done if the wavefunction is not normalized?

The wave function is said to not be normalized when we evaluate the definite integrals of ∣Ψ∣2 and the
answer is not 1

So to normalize the wavefunction, we just divide the wavefunction with the normalization constant
which is the squareroot of the evaluated answer that was gotten

Normalize the wave function Ψ = Acos2 x within the limits −π/2 < x < π/2
For this question we have to find the value of A that makes the integral of ∣Ψ∣2 for the given limits
equal to 1

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Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 33
 Schrodinger Wave Equations
State the equation of motion for classical objects

It is Newton’s Second Law: F = ma

or F = dp/dt → rate of change of momentum

These equations are not valid for quantum mechanical objects (at atomic/subatomic scales)

Why are these classical equations not valid for quantum mechanical objects

In classical physics, objects can be continuous amount of energy from 0J and above

But for quantum objects, their energies are discrete values and non-zero but still very small

E = hν
What is the Schrodinger Wave Equation?

This equation is the equation of motion for quantum mechanical objects

There are 2 types:

Time-Dependent Equation (Dynamic State)

Time-Independent Equation (Stationary State)

How is the Dynamic State achieved for classical objects?

When the net force acting on the object/system is non-zero, then the object will be in a Dynamic State
and its position will change

Relating to Quantum Objects

For an object in the Dynamic State, its position is changing with time

It is also said that the object’s potential energy of the system is varying with time

F = −dV /dr
Hence for this case, Schrodinger’s Time Dependent equation is applicable

How is the Stationary State achieved for classical objects?

When the net force acting on the object/system is zero, then the object will be in a Stationary State

Relating to Quantum Objects

For an object in the Stationary State, its position is not changing with time

It is also said that the object’s potential energy of the system is constant or zero

Hence for this case, Schrodinger’s Time Independent equation is applicable

State the Schrodinger’s Time Dependent Equation for 1-dimensions

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 or

Ψ = Aei(kx−ωt) → wave function

m → mass of quantum mechanical object
h → Planck’s Constant
V → Potential Energy
State the relationship between the Time Dependent equation of the matter wave function

The wave function Ψ = Aei(kx−ωt) is the solution to Schrodinger’s Time Dependent equation
The TD equation is a second order differential equation which can be solved to get Ψ

Prove the Schrodinger Time Dependent Equation for 1-Dimension

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Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 36
Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 37
 State the 3-dimensional Schrodinger Time Dependent Equation

Form the Schrodinger Time Independent Equation in 1-Dimension using the Time Dependent Equation

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Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 39
 Since the quantum mechanical particle is in a stationary state (its potential is constant or zero), it has
a different matter wave function with no time variable

Ψ0 = Aeikx
Compare the Time Dependent Equation with the Classical Wave Equation

If the Ψ was differentiated twice with respect to time twice and equate it

A similar equation to the classical wave equation will come

However, the classical wave equation represent mechanical sine waves while Schrodinger’s TD wave
equation represents matter waves that are wave groups

Describe the relationship between Newton’s II Law and Schrodinger’s Wave Equations

Newton’s second law and Schrödinger’s wave equation are both differential equations

But Newton’s second law can be derived from the Schrödinger wave equation

Schrodinger’s wave equations are more fundamental and are the most fundamental wave equations

Module 3 - Elements of Quantum Mechanics 40