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Module 1 - Introduction to Waves

Introduction to Waves
What is a wave? (2)

A wave is a travelling disturbance transporting energy but not matter

The matter can get displaced temporarily as the energy is transferred from one point to another
through the matter medium

Ex: Sounds waves, light/electromagnetic waves, seismic waves, ultrasound waves...

State and describe the 2 broad classification of waves

Mechanical Waves

These waves require material medium to be able to propagate

Ex: Sound waves and Seismic Waves

Electromagnetic Waves

These waves do not require medium to propagate (but they can propagate through medium)

Ex: Light waves, radio waves, microwaves

State and describe the 3 types of Mechanical Waves

Longitudinal Waves

The oscillations of the wave are parallel to the direction of wave propagation

The oscillations of the waves are compressions and rarefactions of the medium as it propagates

Ex: Sound Waves

A wave is said to oscillate, which means to move back and forth in a regular, repeating way

Transverse Waves

The oscillations of the wave are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 1

 The oscillation of the waves causes crest and trough of the waves

Ex: Electromagnetic Waves, plucking a guitar string

Surface Waves (Mixed Waves)

These waves are a combination of longitudinal and transverse waves

It is observed in water waves formed during a ripple

These waves causes the water molecules to be displaced parallelly to the wave motion
/propagation (longitudinal) as well perpendicular to the wave motion (transverse)

State the formula for wave velocity

v = νλ → ν is “nu” → frequency (number of oscillations per second)

State the simple definition of waves for mathematical calculations

A wave is a disturbance of a continuous medium that propagates with a fixed shape and constant
velocity

We are considering mechanical waves which are one-dimensional

State the limitations (qualifiers) of this definition (4)

In the presence of absorption, the wave will diminish in size as it moves

Some energy carried by the waves can get absorbed by the medium

We say that the waves were damped by the medium. So its amplitude will decrease
overtime

In two or three dimensions, as the wave spreads out its amplitude will decrease (due to damping
also)

If the medium is dispersive, different frequencies travel at different speeds

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 Longer wavelengths/smaller frequency waves travel faster than shorter wavelength/higher
frequency

Ex: For Sounds waves water is a dispersive medium while air is not a dispersive medium due
to difference in refractive index of the medium

Air RI = 1 and Water RI = 1.33

Standing waves do not propagate at all

Describe the function that represent a simple wave for mathematical calculations

f(z, t)
f → displacement of wave [dependent]

z → value / position along z-axis [independent]

t → time [independent]

the function f (displacement) is a function of position z and time and depends on z and t

Derive the mathematical statement which shows exactly how function f(z, t) depends on z and t

Let the initial displacement at time = 0 be g(z) = f(z, 0)

The displacement at the later time = t → f(z, t)will be the same as the displacement vt to the left
at time = 0

So we can say f(z, t) = f(z − vt, 0) = g(z − vt)

Therefore, the function f(z, t) depends on z and t in the combination z − vt
When this is true the function f(z, t) represents a wave of a fixed shape travelling in the z
direction and speed v

When is partial differentiation used?

Partial differentiation is used to differentiate mathematical functions which has more than one variable
in them

The mathematical function will be dependent on more than one variable

Ex: f(z, t)

While differentiating the mathematical function f with respect to z , t will be kept constant and vice
versa

Waves on a String

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 3

 Derive the equation for the net transverse force on a string that is displaced and state the conditions

Conditions

The string is very long with uniform tension

A segment of the string is displaced from equilibrium

The distortion of the string is very little, so the angles to the horizontal are very small

Derivation

Check Index 1

T sinθ and T sinθ′ are restoring the string back to equilibrium position vertically
They act in opposition directions

ΔF is the net force acting on the string to restore the string to equilibrium position

Use the above final equation to derive the classical wave equation

Check index 2

Explain the significance of the classical wave equation

It is a 2nd order partial differentiation equation

The classical wave equation will be admitting solution of all functions in the form of the function f(z,t) =
g(z-vt)

When you solve the classical wave equation, the solution should be in the form f(z,t) - g(z-vt)

We can use this relation to determine whether a function f(z,t) of a wave is propagating

Prove the above relationship

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 4

 Index 3

Sinusoidal Waves
State the equation of a sinusoidal wave form

f(z, t) = Acos[k(z − vt) + δ]

State what the different parts of the equation show (Part 1)

A - amplitude of wave → max displacement of the wave

δ - phase constant → It marks the starting point of the wave. It accounts for the lag or
advancement of wave due to many factors

+δ shifts the wave to the left (lag) while -δ shifts the equation to the right (advancement)

k(z − vt) → this part shows that the wave is a fixed shape wave travelling at a constant speed in
the positive z direction (due to relation z-vt)

[k(z − vt) + δ] - argument of cosine → it is called the phase

The phase is equal to zero when z = vt − (δ/k)
At this point z is where the central maximum is

So when δ = 0, z = vt only. So the central maximum passes the origin at time t = 0

δ/k is the distance by which the central maximum and the entire wave is delayed
If equation is f(z, t) = Acos[k(z − vt) − δ] then the wave will by advanced by the
distance δ/k

State what the different parts of the equation show (Part 2)

k is the wave number and relates to the wavelength by the equation: λ = 2π/k
Definition of wave number: Shows the number of waves per unit distance(m)

This shows that when z advances by 2π/k, the cosine wave executes once complete cycle

State the formula for the time period of the wave/string

At any fixed point z, the string/wave vibrates up and down, undergoing one full cycle in a
period

So each point is oscillating harmonically

This time period is given by: T = 2π/kv

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 5

 State the formula of the frequency of the wave

ν = (1/T ) = (kv/2π) = (v/λ)

using λ = 2π/k
State the equation of a sinusoidal wave form in terms of angular frequency

ω = 2πν = 2π/T = kv
using substitution of T = 2π/kv
f(z, t) = Acos[k(z − vt) + δ]
f(z, t) = Acos[kz − kvt + δ]
f(z, t) = Acos[kz − ωt + δ] → final equation
Angular frequency is more convenient because in the analogous case of uniform circular motion,
it represents the number of radians swept out per unit time

State the equation of a sinusoidal wave form travelling in the negative z direction

f(z, t) = Acos[kz + ωt − δ]
-ωt became +ωt to show change in direction

δ became -δ to show that the wave is still lagging as it travels in negative z direction

State Euler’s Formula

𝑒^(𝑖𝜃)=𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Why is complex notation used to write wave functions?

During calculations like linear combination of wave function (superposition) it can get complicated to
add multiple waves and simplify

Manipulating sines and cosines is complicated

But manipulating exponentials is easier

So complex notation is used to make the calculations more simple

Write the complex notation of a sinusoidal wave function

Refer to index 4

Boundary Conditions: Reflections and Transmission

State the formula for velocity of a wave on a string

v = √(T /μ)
State the assumptions made for calculations involving boundary conditions with strings (4)

There are 2 infinitely long strings which are tied to each other by a weightless knot

Tension is constant throughout both strings which are taught

Both strings have a different mass per unit length (μ)

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 So the wave velocity on both strings are also different

The second string does not do absorb the incident wave. (only transmission of wave or reflection)

Describe what happens when the incident wave on a string gets incident on a boundary

The wave can get reflected back onto the same string

The wave can transmit to the medium on the other side of the boundary

The wave can get absorbed (this situation, we are ignoring this)

What is continuity of a function?

There is a continuous change in slope with no abrupt changes in the slope

Write the equations for the incident, reflected and transmitted wave function at a boundary

Check index 5

Explain what are the similarities between these 3 waves

Their frequency are all the same

So ω will be constant in all 3 equations (using ω = 2πν )

Explain the differences between the incident and transmitted wave

Using v = √(T /μ) → since tension is constant in both strings and μ is different. Then v will also
be different

Using ω = kv → since v is different and ω is a constant, then k (wave number) will also be
different

Using λ = 2π/k → since k is different, then λ will also be different

Write the relationship between the different parameters of the incident and transmitted wave

Write the overall resultant wave equations

Check Index 5

Describe the continuity of this overall wave at the boundary

f(z, t) is continuous at z=0

This is because the displacement at z = 0− and z = 0+ is equal
Note: All are complex functions with wavy symbol on f

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 Using above explanation, state the First and Second Boundary Condition

These are called boundary condition, because it takes place at z=0 which we are calling the boundary

First BC → f(0−, t) = f(0+, t)

Second BC → Derivative of f must be continuous at z=0 (the boundary)

Since f(z, t) is continuous at z=0, the slope of will change very gradually

State the relationship formed when the FBC is applied to the overall resultant wave equations

working out on index 6

AI + AR = AT
State the relationship formed when the SBC is applied to the overall resultant wave equations

working out on index 6

k1 (AI − AR ) = k2 (AT )
Solve the above 2 equations to find AR and AT in terms of v and AI

Check index 7 for working out

What is the purpose of these equations

It will allow us to find how much of the incident wave has been transmitted and reflected at the
boundary

or how much energy has been reflected and transmitted

We will be able to find out the amplitude, speed, phase change (if any - by π) of the transmitted
and reflected waves

We can also further show that the energy was conserved at the boundary

Write the above equations with their phase constants

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 Describe the 3 cases that can happen at a boundary to the incident wave

Case 1: μ1 > μ2 or v1 < v2

When the wave of string 1 incidents on the boundary, transmission and reflection will happen

The transmitted wave to string 2 will have a higher speed than the incident wave of string 1

The transmitted wave will be in the same phase as the incident wave

The reflected wave will have a slower speed than the transmitted wave

The reflected wave will be in the same phase as the incident wave as the impedance of string 2
is less

Reflected wave will have a lower amplitude than the transmitted wave

Therefore, reflected energy is less than the transmitted energy

Case 2: μ1 < μ2 or v1 > v2

When the wave of string 1 incidents on the boundary, transmission and reflection will happen

The transmitted wave to string 2 will have a lower speed than the incident wave of string 1

The transmitted wave will be in the same phase as the incident wave

The reflected wave will have a higher speed than the transmitted wave

The reflected wave will be inverted compared to the incident wave as string 2 has a greater
impedance

There is a phase change of π

Reflected wave will have a higher amplitude than the transmitted wave

Therefore, reflected energy is greater than the transmitted energy

Case 3: AT =0
The second string or medium after the boundary has infinite impedance as it is infinitely massive

Hence, all the energy of the incident wave is passed to the reflected wave

So the reflected wave will be inverted with the same amplitude and speed as the incident wave

There is a phase change of π

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 9

 Explain what is shown when Case 1 is applied to the above 2 equations (Index 8)

In case 1 there is no phase change of the reflected wave compared to the incident wave and there is
a transmitted wave

Hence, the phase constant δR = δI = δT

Using this and then simplifying the 2 equations, we can find the Reflection Coefficient and
Transmission Coefficient

The relation between these 2 is 1 + R =T

It shows that energy is conserved at the boundary

Some of the energy from the incident wave is transferred to the transmitted wave and the
reflected wave

For other mediums the relation is R + T +A=1

A is the absorption coefficient, which is not used in these cases as we are assuming the second
string does not absorb any energy of incident wave

Explain what is shown when Case 2 is applied to the above 2 equations (Index 8)

In case 2 there is a phase change of the reflected wave compared to the incident wave by π and
there is a transmitted wave

Hence the phase constant δR + π = δI = δT

We can then find the Reflection Coefficient and Transmission Coefficient

The relation between these 2 is R + T =1

It shows that energy is conserved at the boundary

Some of the energy from the incident wave is transferred to the transmitted wave and the
reflected wave

For other mediums the relation is R + T +A=1

A is the absorption coefficient, which is not used in these cases as we are assuming the second
string does not absorb any energy of incident wave

Explain what is shown when Case 3 is applied to the above 2 equations

In case 2 there is a phase change of the reflected wave compared to the incident wave and there is
no transmitted wave

This is because AT =0
Using this and then simplifying the 2 equations, we get the relation AI = AR
This shows that the all the energy of the of the incident wave is transferred to the reflected wave

Their amplitude is the same also as well as their speed

Velocities in Wave Motion

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 10

 State and describe the 3 types of velocities in wave motion

Particle Velocity

This is the simple harmonic velocity of the oscillating medium about is equilibrium position when a
wave propagates through that medium

When a sinusoidal transverse wave passes through a medium, every particle will undergo the
cycles of displacement called harmonic oscillation

Wave Velocity

The velocity with which planes of equal phase, crest or troughs, progress through the medium

The velocity in which the wave is progressing through the medium is wave velocity

The velocity is given by v = √(T /μ)

This velocity depends on the elasticity of the medium and mass per unit length of the medium

Group Velocity

When waves of a range of wavelength/frequencies travel through a dispersive medium, all the
waves will be travelling at different velocities

Ex: When white light passes through a prism, dispersion happens causing the spatial
separation of the light into the components of different wavelength

The separation happens due to the different velocities of the wave of different wavelengths

Violet has shortest wavelength and will travel with the least velocity while red has the longest
wavelength and travel with the highest velocity

These waves may be superposed to form a resultant wave with regions of maximum amplitude
and minimum amplitude

So we can trace out a floating boundary of the resultant wave which will itself represent a sin or
cosine wave.

This floating boundary is called the envelope or wave group or wave packets which
houses the resultant wave

This wave group itself travels with a certain velocity called the group velocity → vg

What is the impedance of a wave?

Any medium through which waves propagates through, presents an impedance or resistance to those
waves

A string presents such an impedance to progressive waves and this is defined, as the transverse
impedance for transverse waves

State the formula for Transverse Impedance

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 11

 It is the ratio of transverse force to transverse velocity of the wave

Transverse force is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave

State the general formula for the transverse force

State the formula for transverse force in terms of the tension in the string

Using

Tension acts in the opposite direction to the transverse force but is equal to it. Hence the -ve sign
on T

For small angles, sinθ approximately equals to tanθ

tanθ is equal to ∂f/∂z where f is the displacement vertically and z is the horizontal distance
travelled by the wave

Derive the equation for transverse velocity and prove the characteristic impedance of the string

Standing Waves on a String of Fixed Length

Describe the motion of standing standing waves

They are stationary waves which are not propagating or travelling

They are still oscillating in time but whose peak amplitude profile does not move in space (no
progressive movement left or right)

So the oscillations at different points throughout the wave are in phase (not moving left or right)

So there is a constant phase difference between the different points on the wave

The peak amplitude of the wave oscillations at any point in space is constant with respect to time

What exactly are standing waves?

It is the superposition of 2 waves travelling in opposite directions

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 12

 Describe an example of standing waves being practically produced?

Clamp a string between 2 walls and pluck it anywhere

This forms an initial progressive wave (incident wave) which then gets completely reflected, due to the
walls of infinite impedance, with a phase change of π in amplitude

The reflected waves then interfere with the incident wave and superpose to form the resultant wave
which is standing

Derive the general complex equation for a standing wave and state its boundary conditions

1st Boundary Condition: f=0 at z=0 and all t

2nd Boundary Condition: f = 0 at z=l at all t

The equation can be written with ωt − kz or kz − ωt because the real part of the function is a cos()
function which is an even function. So this change does not affect anything

Prove that the initial progressive wave will get reflected with a phase change of π in amplitude

Index 10

Applying 1st boundary condition to stationary wave equation simplifies to A=-B

This shows that the reflected waves amplitude will have the same magnitude but -ve of the initial
wave

This is the same as a phase change of π in amplitude

This is true for all wave shapes and frequencies

State the standing wave equation after applying the 1st boundary condition

From this we can see that the maximum displacement of a standing wave is 2A

The condition z-vt is no longer present showing that the wave is not propagating

Derive the standing wave time independent form of the wave equation

Show that the standing wave function (with 1st BC) satisfies this time independent form of the wave
equation

Index 11

What is eigenfrequency?

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 13

 It is the certain discrete frequency which can be used to excite a string which is fixed on both ends to
create standing waves

Different allowed frequencies create the different harmonics/normal modes/modes of vibration

Using the 2nd Boundary Condition, find the equations for eigenfrequency

State the formula to determine the wavelength of the standing waves of different modes and length

λn = 2l/n
This formula is to find the allowed wavelengths of the standing wave of different modes and
corresponds to the allowed frequency to excite the string to that mode

So the wavelength of the first mode (1st/fundamental harmonic) = 2L

State the formula to find the number of nodes and antinodes on a standing wave

Number of Nodes = n-1 → n is the mode of vibration or the number of harmonic

Number of Antinodes = n

What is the distance between any 2 adjacent nodes/antinodes

D = λ/2

State the formula to find the nodes of a standing wave of different modes

The nodes (points of 0 amplitude) occur where:

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 14

 When r = 0, z=0 which is the end point of string

when r = n, z = l which is the other end point of the string

So for the values of r from 0 to__ it gives the position of the nodes in radians for the sin
function

There are (n–1) positions equally spaced along the string in the nth harmonic where the displacement
is always zero

State the formula to find the antinodes of a standing wave of different modes

Antinodes are found where the amplitude is maximum → displacement is 1

So for the values of r from 0 to__ it gives the position of the antinodes in radians for the sin
function

Final Slides

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 15

 Superposition of Waves
What does it mean when 2 waves are in phase?

Using the equation f(z, t) = Acos[kz − ωt + δ]

When kz − ωt + δ is the same for both wave equations then they are in phase
They have the same wavelength, frequency, phase constant

They don’t have to have the same amplitude

Describe the resultant wave when 2 waves that are in-phase superpose

The resultant wave’s amplitude will be the sum of the amplitude of both the individual waves

This means constructive interference is taking place at all point of the waves

The wavelength, frequency of the resultant wave will be the same as the 2 individual waves

What does it mean when 2 waves are completely out of phase

It means that the phase difference between the 2 waves is π

Using f(z, t) = Acos[kz − ωt + δ] for 2 waves, δ2 − δ1 = π

But their wavelength and frequency is the same

Their amplitudes can vary

Describe the resultant wave when 2 waves that are completely out of phase superpose

The resultant wave will have 0 amplitude at all points as the 2 individual waves will cancel out each
other

This means destructive interference is taking place at all points on the wave

How are wave groups generally formed?

When multiple individual waves of different wavelengths travel in dispersive medium, their velocities
will differ

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 16

 So when these waves superpose, constructive and destructive interference takes place to form a
resultant wave with minimum and maximum amplitude

This resultant wave is a wave group

The superposition of the multiple waves will not be constant so the group profile of the resultant
wave will change with time

Derive the wave equation of the resultant wave of 2 individual wave with same amplitude by slightly
different frequencies

Explain what this equation is showing about the resultant wave

The resultant wave’s maximum amplitude is 2A

The first cos expression represents the wave envelope of the resultant wave

Envelope wave number is (k1 −k2 )/2

Envelope frequency is (ω1 − ω2 )/2

So the envelope’s frequency is the maximum frequency minus the minimum frequency
of the individual waves divided by 2

The second cos expression represent the actual resultant wave

Resultant wave’s wave number is (k1 + k2 )/2

Resultant wave’s frequency is (ω1 + ω2 )/2
So resultant wave’s frequency is the mean frequency of the individual waves

What is group velocity and state its formula?

It is the wave velocity of the envelope of the resultant wave

Its formula is

This is like the formula ω = kv

Derive the relationship between the group and phase velocity

What is the condition required for group velocity to exist?

The individual waves must be travelling in dispersive medium in order to form group waves with a
group velocity

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 17

 State what happens when the individual waves are in non-dispersive medium

ω/k will be constant as the velocity of all the waves will be constant
Hence vg = vp for non-dispersive medium
Using relationship between group and phase velocity, in non-dispersive medium dv/dλ will
equal to 0 as velocity will not change for the different wavelengths

So vg = vp
State the 2 types of dispersion and its affect on the group and phase velocity

Normal dispersion

Longer wavelength travel with faster velocity while shorter wavelengths travel with slower velocity

Ex: in prisms

In normal dispersion dv/dλ is positive

So vg < vp
Anomalous dispersion

Longer wavelengths travel with slower velocity while shorter wavelength travel with faster velocity

Ex: in optical fibers

In anomalous dispersion dv/dλ is negative

So vg > vp
Anomalous dispersion is wavelength dependent → it does not happen for all wavelengths

Whether a material disperses waves anomalously or normally is dependent on its properties

Superposition of Waves: Fourier Method (Focused on Standing

Waves)
State the Principle of Superposition

When two or more waves are simultaneously present at a point in space, the displacement of the
medium at that point at that point is the vector sum of the displacements of individual waves

fn = f1 + f2 + f3 + … + fN
Derive the simple equation of the standing wave showing the separation of the time and position
dependent terms

y = 2a sinkz cosωt
Time dependent term: cosωt

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 18

 Position dependent term: 2a sinkz

Explain what these terms show us about a standing wave

The time dependent term cosωt is a harmonic function and represent any point on a standing
wave that is oscillating in the vertical direction in simple harmonic motion with a frequency νn =
ωn /2π
It oscillates from the equilibrium to the positive max amplitude, back to the equilibrium, the
negative max displacement and back to the equilibrium position and repeats

Position dependent term 2a sinkz represent how far the point on the standing wave gets
displaced from the equilibrium at any point z

The displacement will be maximum when sinkz = 1 where the max amplitude equals 2a
What is a normal mode ?

A normal mode of an oscillating system is the motion in which all parts of the system move
sinusoidally with the same frequency and with a fixed phase relation

Normal modes are completely independent of each other

What is the relation between a real life system oscillating and the normal modes?

General motion of the system seen in real life is a superposition of multiple normal modes

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 19

 The superposition of the first three normal modes gives a good reproduction of the initial triangular
shape of the string except for the sharp corner

By adding more normal modes, we would achieve even better agreement, especially with respect to
the sharp corner

What is the Fourier Series used for?

It is used to represent periodic waves in terms of sine and cosine

Ex: Standing waves seen in real life are a superposition of multiple normal modes

So by using this equation:

and by choosing appropriate values of amplitude of different normal modes, any shape y(z) of the
string with fixed end points [y(0) = y(l) = 0] can be written as a superposition of these sine functions

Fourier Series Slide

Module 1 - Introduction to Waves 20